HANDBOOK OF PSYCHOLOGY - PART 10 pdf

Other Common Healing Approaches system (Gunning, 1999), such as inducing cytokine production (Bruger, Torres, Warren, Caldwell, & Hughes, 1997) or enhancing cellular immune function of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (See, Broumand, Sahl, & Tilles, 1997) In their review, Barrett et al (1999) highlight the dif“culty in comparing the research studies because different species are studied and there are no universally accepted standardization procedures Garlic Although commonly considered a food substance, garlic (Allium sativum) is a commonly prescribed supplemental herb for the treatment of high cholesterol Allicin is considered the active compound found in the garlic bulb Many of the studies investigate Kwai garlic powder tablets because it is standardized for alliin content (1.3% by weight) While Kleijnen, Knipschild, and ter Riet (1989) suggest that early studies on the ef“cacy of garlic were methodologically ”awed, more recent studies suggest garlic is effective in treating hypercholesterolaemia Two meta-analyses (Silagy & Neil, 1994; Warshafsky, Kamer, & Sivak, 1993) suggest that garlic reduces the high serum cholesterol levels considered to be a risk factor for coronary artery disease Warshafsky et al (1993) found 13 studies to meet their methodological criteria, and meta-analytic results suggested that garlic signi“cantly lowered cholesterol levels by about 9% in the experimental groups as compared to placebo The results of Silagy and Neil•s (1994) meta-analysis of the 16 trials meeting their standards for methodological quality found that garlic lowered serum cholesterol over one to three months and did not produce signi“cantly more adverse effects While several authors (Isaacsohn et al., 1998; Jain, Vargas, Gotzkowsky, & McMahon, 1993) criticized these early meta-analytic “ndings, more recent, randomized, controlled trials have found garlic to reduce ratios of serum total cholesterol (Adler & Holub, 1997) and decrease low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in healthy men (Jain et al., 1993; Steiner, Khan, Holbert, & Lin, 1996) Ginger Zingiber officinale, commonly known as ginger, has been primarily investigated for its antiemetic effects This research has been particularly important for individuals who suffer from motion sickness and from postoperative nausea, or who experience nausea and vomiting due to chemotherapy but are unable to take synthetic drugs because of side effects such as sedation and visual disturbances Several early studies found ginger to be more effective than placebo in alleviat- 599 ing gastrointestinal symptoms of motion sickness (Mowrey & Clayson, 1982), reducing symptoms of seasickness (Grontved, Brask, Kambskard, & Hentzer, 1988), reducing nausea (Bone, Wilkinson, Young, McNeil, & Charlton, 1990) and reducing the request for antiemetics (Phillips, Ruggier, & Hutchinson, 1993) in postoperative patients In addition, ginger has been studied for its antitumor effects (Koshimizu, Ohigashi, Tokudo, Kondo, & Yamaguchi, 1988) Vimala, Norhanom, and Yadav (1999) demonstrated that some, but not all, types of ginger inhibit Epstein Barr virus (EBV) activation without the cytotoxicity effects The authors suggest that populations with a high risk of cancer are •encouragedŽ to take plants with ginger, yet they also acknowledge that such use will not completely eliminate the disease Ginkgo Biloba Ginkgo biloba extract is derived from the maidenhair tree and has been studied primarily for its effect on the brain, dementia, and Alzheimer•s disease Active ingredients include Egb 761 (tapenoids), which have platelet-activating factor antagonistic properties, and gingkolides and ”avanoids (Oken, Storzbach, & Kaye, 1998) Three of the most popular preparations used in controlled trials include Tebonin, Tanakan, and Rokan, all of which are different names for the extract Egb 761 Various products available to the public contain different amounts of ginkgo biloba extract In their review of the literature, Itil and Martorano (1995) suggest ginkgo has been •proven effectiveŽin the treatment of tinnitus, sudden hearing loss, retinal damage, arthritic symptoms, vertigo, water retention, circulatory dysfunction, and agerelated dementia Early studies demonstrated the ef“cacy of Egb 761 on reducing the negative effects of experimentally induced stress on rats (Hasenohrl et al., 1996; Porsolt, Martin, Lenegre, Fromage, & Drieu, 1990; Rapin, Lamproglou, Drieu, & Defeudis, 1994) over other depressive medications (Porsolt et al., 1990) and over placebo (Porsolt et al., 1990; Rapin et al., 1994; Rodriguez de Turco, Droy-Lefaix, & Bazan, 1993) For instance, Rapin et al (1994) found Egb 761 to decrease plasma hormone levels such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, and corticosterone Alternatively, in their critical review of 40 controlled trials on Ginkgo and cerebral insuf“ciency in humans, Kleijnen and Knipschild (1992) found that only eight trials met criteria of good methodology, with only one showing positive effects compared with placebo on symptoms such as dif“culty concentrating, memory problems, confusion, lack of energy, tiredness, depressive mood, anxiety, dizziness, tinnitus, and headaches Similarly, a more recent meta-analysis of more than 50 articles (Oken et al., 1998) found only four studies (Hofferberth, 600 Complementary and Alternative Therapies 1994; Kanowski, Hermann, Stephan, Wierich, & Horr, 1996; Le Bars et al., 1997; Wesnes et al., 1997) that met the authors• standards for strong research methodology These authors concluded there to be a •small but signi“cant effectŽ of ginkgo biloba extract on cognitive function, such as memory and attention, in patients with Alzheimer•s disease (Oken et al., 1998) Likewise, studies have found ginkgo biloba to improve mild to moderate memory impairment in elderly patients (Rai, Shovlin, & Wesnes, 1991), memory and psychopathology (Hofferberth, 1994), as well as daily living and social behavior (Le Bars et al., 1997) Moreover, consistent with previous reviews, ginkgo biloba was found to have no signi“cant adverse effects Ginseng Ginseng, a popular herb in traditional Chinese medicine, is primarily used for its effects on anxiety, concentration, and physical stress Yun (1996) found Panax ginseng C A Meyer (Korean ginseng) to prevent the development of cancer in mice by inhibiting the proliferation of tumors He has also demonstrated a decrease in the risk of certain types of cancer in 1,987 pairs of humans when ginseng was ingested as a fresh extract or powder, as well as a decrease in the relative risk of cancer in a prospective population-based study of 4,634 adults Ginseng has also demonstrated to improve quality of life among healthy volunteers (Wiklund, Karlberg, & Lund, 1994), as well as improve mood, vigor, well-being, and psychomotor performance in patients with noninsulindependent diabetes mellitus (Sotaniemi, Haapakoski, & Rautio, 1995) Several studies investigating the mechanism of action through which ginseng works demonstrate antinociceptive effects of ginseng on stress-induced mice (H.-S Kim, Oh, Rheu, & Kim, 1992; Takahashi, Tokuyama, & Kaneto, 1992) Other studies suggest ginseng may enhance nitric oxide synthesis (Gillis, 1997), promote cytokine induction (Sonoda et al., 1998), or enhance natural killer cell activity in healthy subjects and in patients with chronic fatigue and acquired immunologic syndromes (Gillis, 1997) Kava Kava, which means •bitterŽ in Polynesian, is derived from a black pepper plant in the South Paci“c called Piper methysticum, or •intoxicating pepper.Ž Kava has been traditionally ingested as a drink, but recently sold in capsule form in health food stores in the United States Explorers• journals have documented the effects of kava for centuries: Kava has a numbing effect on the tongue when drunk, is tranquilizing and relaxing, and has genitourinary antiseptic qualities (Anonymous, 1988) However, too much kava can cause adverse effects such as dermopathy (Norton & Ruze, 1994), a skin condition characterized by scaly skin, gastrointestinal distress, and sleepiness (Cerrato, 1998), or a semicomatose state when it interacts with alprozam (Almeida & Grimsley, 1996) There are few randomized trials investigating the ef“cacy of kava on anxiety The majority of trials that exist are published in German These studies have found kava extract to be superior to placebo and comparable to oxazepam and bromazepam (Volz & Keiser, 1997) A randomized, placebocontrolled study of 101 outpatients with various anxiety disorders according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 3rd Edition, Revised (DSM-III-R; American Psychiatric Association, 1987) criteria also found kava to be superior to placebo by reducing anxiety and causing fewer side effects (Volz & Keiser, 1997) The psychopharmacology of kava remains unclear Initial hypotheses suggested by investigators include: (a) Kava increases the number of binding sites of GABAA receptors (Jusso“e, Schmitz, & Hiemke, 1994); (b) it modulates the serotonin-1A receptor activity (Walden, Von Wegerer, Winter, & Berger, 1997; Walden, Von Wegerer, Winter, Berger, & Grunze, 1997); (c) it serves as reversible MAO-B inhibitors (Uebelhack, Franke, & Schewe, 1998); or (d) it inhibits NAϩ channels (Magura, Kopanitsa, Gleitz, Peters, & Krishtal, 1997) St Johns’ Wort St Johns• wort (SJW) is an herbal product resulting from the ”owering of the plant Hypericum perforatum L The plant•s oil has been used for centuries as a medicine to heal burns and improve mood Over the past two decades, the pharmaceutical industries have attempted to develop extracts of SJW for more popular and standardized use In Germany, SJW is the most widely prescribed treatment for depression, totaling more than 25% of prescribed antidepressants (Muller & Kasper, 1997) Overall, the research suggests SJW to be ef“cacious in reducing depressive symptoms and to produce signi“cantly fewer side effects as compared to popular antidepressants Studies comparing SJW to placebo have found antidepressive ef“cacy as well as high tolerability for SJW among patients with mild depression (Hansgen, Vesper, & Plouch, 1994; Hubner, Lande, & Podzuweit, 1994; Sommer & Harrer, 1994) SJW has also demonstrated to be as effective as imipramine (Vorbach, Hubner, & Arnold, 1994), maprotiline (Harrer, Hubner, & Podzuweit, 1994), and amitryptiline Other Common Healing Approaches (Wheatley, 1997), yielding a slightly better side effect pro“le Meta-analyses evaluating theses studies have found SJW to be between 1.5 to times more likely to produce an antidepressant response as compared to placebo, and to be equivalent in ef“cacy to tricyclic antidepressants, (see H L Kim, Streltzer, & Goebert, 1999; Linde et al., 1996) Research on the biological mechanisms through which SJW may exert its antidepressant effects suggests that similar to popular pharmaceutical antidepressants, SJW in”uences amine levels The main dif“culty in studying the biological mechanism of SJW pertains to the fact that several active constituents have been identi“ed from H perforatum (Nahrstedt & Butterweck, 1997) including hypericin (Muller, Rolli, Schafer, & Hafner, 1997), and hyperforin (Chatterjee, Bhattacharya, Wonnemann, Singer, & Muller, 1998; Laakmann, Schule, Baghai, & Kieser, 1998; Muller et al., 1997, 1998; Schellenberg, Sauer, & Dimpfel, 1998) Overall, research indicates that SJW may inhibit the synaptosomal reuptake of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine (Muller et al., 1997, 1998; Muller & Rossol, 1994; Neary & Bu, 1999); upregulate postsynaptic serotonin receptors (TeufelMayer & Gleitz, 1997); and interfere with the central dopaminergic system (Butterweck, Wall, Lie”ander-Wulf, Winterhoff, & Nahrstedt, 1997; Franklin et al., 1999) Studies demonstrate that the main advantage to SJW is its more preferable side effect pro“le and tolerability to synthetic antidepressants The most common adverse side effects included gastrointestinal symptoms (0.6%), allergic reactions (0.5%), tiredness (0.4%), and restlessness (0.3%) (Woelk, Burkard, & Grunwald, 1994) In addition, hypericum has been found to be safer with regard to cardiac function than tricyclic antidepressants (Czekalla, Gastpar, Hubner, & Jager, 1997) While SJW appears to be a safe herbal remedy for depression when taken alone, the major danger with SJW seems to lie in its potential for drug interactions Current limitations in the research include lack of •well characterized populationsŽ (Cott, 1997); translation bias (Gaster & Holroyd, 2000); limited research on long-term ef“cacy, safety, and tolerance at various doses (Volz & Kieser, 1997); ef“cacy for severe depression (Gaster & Holroyd, 2000); and ef“cacy as compared to serotonin reuptake inhibitors Summary of Herbal Treatment Research In addition to the herbal remedies highlighted, more than 20,000 herbs are available to the public over the counter For a good review of herbal remedies frequently used in psychiatric practice, refer to Wong, Smith, and Boon (1998) Currently, the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act 601 (DSHEA) does not require manufacturers to provide data on the safety, purity, and ef“cacy of their products (Wagner, Wagner, & Hening, 1998) Moreover, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not regulate their use or standardize their purity or content (Lantz, Buchalter, & Giambanco, 1999) Therefore, individuals are able to self-prescribe herbs without the guidance of a physician, which may lead to adverse side effects and drug interactions For instance, Lantz et al (1999) discussed several case studies of elderly patients who developed serotonin syndrome (e.g., central and peripheral serotonergic hyperstimulation) from taking SJW in conjunction with their prescribed antidepressant It is important that clinicians appreciate the strength of these herbs and ask their patients about herbal use and educate them on the dangers of herbal and drug interactions Lantz et al also recommends that herbal remedies provide warning labels and that ef“cacy studies be subjected to •the same vigorous standardsŽ as prescription medications as related to ef“cacy and safety While the research suggests ef“cacy of a variety of herbal remedies, further research in required There is a need for studies with (a) larger sample sizes, (b) data assessing participants• ability to distinguish placebo from the herb, (c) better characterization of the active constituents and mechanisms of action, and (d) results on the effects of chronic dosing, side effects, and standardization of preparation Dietary, Nutrition, and Lifestyle Modification Dietary modi“cation has recently become a way for individuals to take an active role in their well-being and a way to prevent the onset of illness or reduce the negative consequences of disease Medical practitioners commonly recommend dietary modi“cation and lifestyle changes as a complement to traditional treatment, rather than as a sole alternative cure Very Low Fat Diets In 1988, the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) published guidelines for the treatment of high cholesterol in adults The guidelines recommend dietary therapy for the lowering of LDL cholesterol (LDL-C) Speci“cally, they recommend an initial diet that includes an intake of total fat less than 30% of calories (National Cholesterol Education Program Expert Panel, 1998) Lichtenstein and Van Horn (1998) conducted a review of the literature on the ef“cacy of a very low fat diet, and reported that while there is •overwhelming evidenceŽ that reductions in saturated fat, dietary cholesterol, and weight are effective in reducing total 602 Complementary and Alternative Therapies cholesterol, LDL-C levels, and cardiovascular risk, the longterm effects remain unclear Macrobiotic Diets Macrobiotics stems from the Greek words macro, meaning large, and bios, meaning life A macrobiotic diet is composed of whole grains and cereals, vegetables (including sea vegetables), fruits, beans, nuts, and seeds A macrobiotic approach underscores social interactions, climate, geographic location, and diet as all-important lifestyle habits to promote well-being and longevity George Ohsawa is considered to be the founder of the macrobiotic diet, and it was popularized in the United States by Michio Kushi Two early studies support the theory that a vegetarian diet results in a signi“cant reduction in blood pressure among patients with hypertension (Margetts, Beilin, Vandongen, & Armstrong, 1986; Rouse, Beilin, Armstrong, & Vandongen, 1983) The use of macrobiotic in treatment of other medical conditions (e.g., cancer) remains controversial and has not been scienti“cally tested Atkins’ Diet In 1972, Robert Atkins published the book Dr Atkins’ Diet Revolution He proposed metabolic imbalance to be the cause of obesity and stated that many of today•s diseases, including diabetes, hypoglycemia, and cardiac disease, are a result of •carbohydrate intoleranceŽ (Atkins, 1972) Atkins proposed that carbohydrates prevent our bodies from ketogenesis, a process by which the body burns fat and turns it into fuel There are no scienti“c studies investigating ketogenic diets for the previously mentioned diseases, and therefore, these diets may be based more on theory than on scienti“c evidence However, ketogenic diets have been investigated for their ef“cacy in managing epilepsy and seizure disorder One study found that 54% of a group of children with intractable seizures who remained on a ketogenic diet reported a decrease in the frequency of their seizures by more than 50% three months after initiating the diet (Vining et al., 1998) Despite such “ndings, there is continued controversy regarding its use Roach (1998) argues that while there is •a clear biochemical rationale and a well-de“ned therapeutic objectiveŽ(p 1404), he urges for more rigorous investigations on safety and ef“cacy Gerson Method Nutrition has become increasingly used, though not necessarily empirically supported, by individuals diagnosed with cancer Max Gerson was a German-born physician who believed that •degenerativeŽ diseases such as cancer, arthritis, and multiple sclerosis are the result of extreme body toxicity Therefore, he advocated a special diet in the treatment of cancer, which included •detoxi“cationŽ of the body, a no-sodium, no-fat, high-potassium, and high-carbohydrate diet, as well as coffee enemas There are few studies investigating the ef“cacy of the Gerson Method; however, those that exist are methodologically ”awed One study (Hildenbrand, Hildenbrand, Bradford, & Calvin, 1995) investigated the ef“cacy of Gerson•s diet therapy with 153 patients diagnosed with melanoma and found the “ve-year survival rate to be 100% for individuals at Stage I and II, 72% for individuals at Stage IIIA, and 41% for individuals at Stage IVA While there was no placebo control group in this study, “ve-year survival rates were signi“cantly higher than the survival rates published in other studies It should be noted that the Gerson Method is highly controversial The American Cancer Society (ACS) reported a lack of evidence of the ef“cacy of the Gerson Method and urged people with cancer not to seek treatment with the Gerson Method (ACS, 1990) The ACS publicly acknowledges that while the dietary measures may have preventive utility, there is no scienti“c evidence than any nutritionally related regimen is appropriate as a primary treatment for cancer (ACS, 1993) Ornish Lifestyle Heart Trial Dean Ornish is well-known for his work with patients with coronary artery disease through vegetarian diet, exercise, and stress management on coronary atherosclerosis The Lifestyle Heart Trial (Ornish et al., 1990), a prospective, randomized, controlled trial of patients with coronary artery disease, demonstrated that this prescribed lifestyle modi“cation resulted in regression on coronary atherosclerosis as evidenced by a decrease in diameter stenosis The study, however, did not investigate the individual contributions of the various interventions (e.g., low-fat vegetarian diet, stopping smoking, stress management training, exercise) to the outcome measure Later studies (Gould et al., 1995; Ornish et al., 1998) investigated a similar lifestyle change program in patients with coronary artery disease over “ve years and found that the size and severity of perfusion abnormalities on dipyridamole positron emission tomography images decreased (improved) after risk factor modi“cation in the experimental group, compared with an increase (worsening) of size and severity in the control group Tactile Therapies Tactile therapies are de“ned as interventions that center on soft tissue or energy mobilization techniques performed by a Other Common Healing Approaches health care provider Such methods can be divided into soft tissue therapies, energy mobilization, and meridian point therapy Soft Tissue Therapies Encompassing a variety of treatment approaches, soft tissue therapies are geared toward decreasing dysfunction in muscles and fascia (i.e., the continuous subcutaneous layer of soft tissue throughout the body) Soft tissue therapies are purported to alleviate somatic organizational dysfunction, thus enhancing both psychological and physical health The goal of massage is to decrease muscular tension using strokes, kneading, and friction techniques Proposed bene“ts of massage include both psychological and physiological relaxation, facilitated ease with breathing, enhanced immune function, reduced anxiety, increased vigor, lessened pain, and improved sleep (Wanning, 1993) Positive effects from massage have been demonstrated in both adult and child populations (Field, Ironson, et al., 1996; Field, Morrow, et al., 1992) In one study, participants with depression and adjustment disorders were randomly assigned to receive a back massage or watch relaxing videos for 30 minutes over a “veday period (Field, Morrow, et al., 1992) Results demonstrated decreased depressive symptoms, anxiety, and salivary cortisol, as well as enhanced sleeping, for the massage group only Aromatherapy, the use of fragrances to augment mood and activity, is often used in conjunction with massage Aromatherapy uses speci“c essential oils from plants for therapeutic use For example, lavender is believed to have calming and analgesic effects, while ginger is deemed to incite stimulating, warming sensations (Jacobs, 1996) In one study, 122 patients in an intensive care unit were randomly assigned to massage, massage with lavender oil, or rest (Dunn, Sleep, & Collett, 1995) Only patients receiving massage with lavender oil demonstrated signi“cantly enhanced mood following intervention Aromatherapy can also be used via bathing, candles, and culinary manners Assessing the effects of aromatherapy ventilated throughout a room, one nonrandomized study demonstrated that depressed patients used less antidepressant medication after being exposed to citrus oils (Komori, Fujiwara, Tanida, Nomura, & Yokoyama, 1995) There are few empirical studies on aromatherapy, and the majority of those conducted use poor control and lack statistical analyses (Martin, 1996) In a review article, Evans (1995) suggests that the paucity of psychometrically sound studies makes it dif“cult to differentiate the bene“cial effects of aromatherapy from attention, social interaction, or the use of massage 603 Reflexology is a soft tissue mobilization centered on the foot This technique is based on the belief that distinct areas of the foot represent different parts of the body By applying pressure to speci“c regions of the foot, the corresponding body structure can be stimulated, promoting a health response For example, the head and sinus regions are mapped in the toes, and massage of the toes is believed to help alleviate headaches and sinus pressure A quasi-experimental study of persons with lung or breast cancer demonstrated positive effects on anxiety and pain following re”exology (Stephenson, Weinrich, & Tavakoli, 2000) Myofascial release and Rolfing are two additional types of soft tissue therapies, both of which are purported to decrease pain and enhance health The purpose of myofascial release is to free restrictions in the myofascial caused by physical or psychological stress using gentle pushing techniques against the client•s skin This technique is used to treat musculoskeletal dysfunction, headaches, chronic pain, and temporomandibular pain (Ramsey, 1997) Rol“ng also attempts to manipulate myofascial constraints, but, unlike myofascial release, it uses the forces of gravity and more vigorous pressure from the practitioner It has been suggested that Rol“ng permits increased muscular ef“ciency, decreases physiological stress on the body, and promotes neurological functioning (Jacobs, 1996); however, scienti“c studies to support these claims are not present in the literature Energy mobilization attempts to alleviate poor physical and psychological health that is said to result from disturbances in a person•s forces of energy For example, therapeutic touch (TT) involves techniques that are aimed at centering awareness and energy in the client Despite its name, this procedure does not necessarily involve direct contact with the client and may consist of the clinician•s hands being held over the areas of needed energy mobilization Some literature supports the ef“cacy of TT For example, the effects of TT in reducing anxiety were assessed in a sample of psychiatric in-patients (Gagne & Toye, 1994) Patients were randomly assigned to TT, mimic TT, or relaxation therapy Results demonstrated signi“cant decreases in anxiety for the TT and relaxation groups, with the former exhibiting greater bene“ts than the latter The group receiving mimic TT demonstrated no signi“cant changes An additional randomized study supports TT as being more effective than •calm touchŽ at decreasing the time necessary to soothe medically hospitalized children between the ages of two weeks to two years (Kramer, 1990) In a randomized study of elderly individuals with arthritis, both TT and progressive muscle relaxation interventions resulted in comparable and signi“cant improvements in pain, tension, and mood (Peck, 1998) However, not all studies support the bene“cial effects of 604 Complementary and Alternative Therapies TT (e.g., Olson, et al., 1997) A literature review and metaanalysis highlights the poor methodology implemented in TT studies but calculated an average effect size of 39 for TT (Winstead-Fry & Kijek, 1999) Reiki, another type of energy mobilization, means •universal life force energy.Ž Whereas TT involves the mobilization of energy in the client•s body, Reiki entails transferring or mobilizing energy from the clinician to the client It is based on the concept that all living creatures possess energy and that the human body is programmed to heal itself Practitioners of Reiki report positive effects of this technique on mood, psychological distress, pain, and functional abilities, but these results are based on patient case history reports A similar energy-based approach, polarity therapy, is based on the concept that the body holds an electromagnetic force, with a positive charge located cephalically and a negative charge situated toward the toes The clinician•s hands are believed to be conductors of energy When they are placed in certain areas of the client•s human energy “eld, the clinician attempts to facilitate energy movement in the client•s body This facilitation is believed to enhance energy ”ow and relaxation throughout the mind and body Scienti“c studies regarding its ef“cacy are absent Movement Therapies Movement therapies are complementary approaches to health that emphasize changes in the client•s bodily positions Leisure activity (e.g., casual walking) has been demonstrated to buffer anxiety in the face of stressors (Carmack, Boudreaux, Amaral-Melendez, Brantley, & de Moor, 1999) Active perimenopausal women reported less psychosomatic symptoms (e.g., irritability, headaches) and fewer sexual problems than those who were more sedentary (Li, Gulanick, Lanuza, & Penckofer, 1999) Some literature exists supporting the psychological bene“ts of aerobic exercise Correlational studies predominantly endorse positive psychological health in people who participate in aerobic exercise One study assessing more than 3,400 participants found that those who engaged in exercise two or more times each week reported less depressive symptoms, anger, cynical distrust, and stress compared to those exercising less or not at all (Hassmen, Koivula, & Uutela, 2000) This former group also reported a greater sense of social integration and perceived health Similarly, meta-analytic reviews revealed that those who exercise are signi“cantly less likely to be depressed (Craft & Landers, 1998) and to report distress (Crews & Landers, 1987) However, other meta-analyses demonstrate little (i.e., only one-half standard deviation; North, McCullagh, & Tran, 1990) or no (e.g., Schlicht, 1994) difference in psychological distress between exercisers and nonexercisers Intervention studies provide stronger evidence for the psychological bene“ts of aerobic exercise regarding psychological distress One study randomly assigned participants with dysphoric mood to cognitive therapy, aerobic exercise, or a combination of these two interventions over a 10-week period (Fremont & Craighead, 1987) Although no signi“cant differences were noted between the groups, all three demonstrated signi“cant decreases in depressive symptoms Similarly, older patients with major depressive disorder were randomly assigned to aerobic exercise (3 times per week), antidepressant medication (sertraline hydrochloride), or both for 16 weeks (Blumenthal et al., 1999) Results demonstrated all three groups signi“cantly improved on measures of depression, anxiety, self-esteem, life satisfaction, and dysfunctional attitudes from pre- to posttreatment, but no differences were noted between the groups following intervention Those receiving antidepressant medications did, however, demonstrate quicker enhancement of mood compared to those participating in aerobic exercise only A meta-analytic study demonstrated the effects of rehabilitative exercise programs on anxiety and depression in patients with coronary disease (Kugler, Seelbach, & Kruskemper, 1994) Speci“cally, exercise resulted in moderate decreases in both anxiety and depressive symptoms and did not differ signi“cantly from psychotherapy Similarly, breast cancer survivors randomly assigned to exercise or exercise plus behavior modi“cation demonstrated comparably signi“cant decreases in depressive symptoms and anxiety (Segar et al., 1998) The waitlist control (WLC) group in this study did not initially exhibit such declines in distress However, following the waiting period, those participants in the WLC who partook in the exercise program also exhibited signi“cantly diminished anxiety and depressive symptoms In addition to aerobic exercise, resistance exercise (e.g., weight lifting) has also demonstrated bene“cial effects on health (Tsutumi et al., 1998) Fox•s (1999) review of the literature on exercise and mental health supports the following conclusions: Exercise (a) is an effective treatment for clinical depression; (b) decreases state and trait anxiety; (c) enhances self-perceptions and, perhaps, self-ef“cacy; (d) improves mood; and (e) may improve cognitive functioning, especially in older adults Possible mechanisms of action may be in the physiological (e.g., release of endorphins), psychological (e.g., diversion, improved self-image), and/or social (e.g., social interactions, receiving attention) domains Other Common Healing Approaches Yoga incorporates exercise, static poses, breathing, relaxation, and meditation (Jacobs, 1996) The purpose of yoga is to •centerŽ the person•s mind, body, and spirit Speci“c hypothesized bene“ts include improving muscular and cardiovascular endurance, boosting the immune system, enhancing circulation, increasing muscular and cognitive ”exibility, and relaxation Yoga is often used as complementary therapy for medical disorders such as asthma, arthritis, HIV/AIDS, cancer, and coronary artery disease While there are several different types of yoga, Hatha yoga is most frequently practiced in the West Hatha yoga combines stretching, breathing, relaxation, and meditation (Wanning, 1993) Research supports positive bene“ts of practicing yoga Patients with epilepsy were randomly assigned to true yoga, sham yoga (i.e., similar but distinct postures), and a nontreatment control group (Panjwani, Gupta, Singh, Selvamurthy, & Rai, 1995) Decreases in galvanic skin response, as an indicator of sympathetic nervous system activity, were noted in the true yoga group only Another study compared yoga, relaxation (i.e., progressive muscle relaxation), and visualization in a group of healthy adults (Wood, 1993) Participants practiced for six, 25- to 30-minute sessions over a two-week period Following intervention, the yoga group reported increased mental and physical energy, alertness, and positive mood These bene“ts were signi“cantly greater than the other two groups The relaxation group was more tired and sluggish compared with yoga, and the visualization group reported more sluggishness and less contentment compared to those performing yoga Additionally, yoga has been integrated into cardiac rehabilitation programs (Ornish et al., 1998) Additional movement therapies conjectured to enhance mind and body health include the Alexander technique and Feldenkrais The Alexander technique is based on the concept that poor posture produces functional problems in the mind and body Those practicing this technique strive to work with unconscious thoughts and to correct poor postures, especially centered on the head, neck, and back One uncontrolled study investigated the effects of the Alexander technique on patients with Parkinson•s disease (Stallibrass, 1997) Following a series of lessons (mean number ϭ 12), participants demonstrated decreased depressive symptoms and increased functional abilities Similarly, Feldenkrais’ functional integration is based on the premise that pain and decreased movement are caused by poor usage patterns The goal of this movement therapy is to develop •freedom through awarenessŽ via •re-educatingŽ motor components by using slow, purposeful movements As a result, the body and mind are hypothesized to relax, 605 permitting ease with movement, thinking, and feeling One randomized controlled study investigating Feldenkrais movement was identi“ed (Johnson, Frederick, Kaufman, & Mountjoy, 1999) In this study, patients with multiple sclerosis participated in true or sham Feldenkrais sessions Only those participants in the true Feldenkrais intervention reported less perceived stress and anxiety Expressive Therapies Expressive therapies include techniques designed to increase the person•s awareness and expression of emotions Written emotional disclosure refers to writing about thoughts and feelings regarding a stressful or traumatic event This type of expressive therapy has consistently demonstrated positive effects on psychological well-being, mood, and physiological and general functioning (Smyth, 1998) Specifically, written emotional disclosure has resulted in greater positive mood, less negative mood, decreased anxiety, fewer somatic complaints, and less frequent physician visits for both students and unemployed adults (Greenberg & Stone, 1992; Pennebaker, 1993; Pennebaker, Colder, & Sharp, 1990) With regard to medical populations, patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and asthma were randomly assigned to write about either stressful experiences or a neutral topic (Smyth, Stone, Hurewitz, & Kaell, 1999) Four months following intervention, those in the former group demonstrated signi“cant health bene“ts not gleaned from the group writing about neutral events Speci“cally, patients with RA demonstrated improvements in overall disease activity, while those with asthma demonstrated improved lung function Furthermore, 47% of those writing about stressful events, compared to 9% in the other group, demonstrated clinically signi“cant improvements Positive mood and enhanced physical function were also noted in another study in a group of patients with RA (Kelley, Lumley, & Leisen, 1997) Similar to the previous study, only participants randomly assigned to disclose stressful events (this time via verbal means) gained psychological and physical bene“ts, while those randomly assigned to discuss a neutral topic showed no psychological or physical health bene“ts Dance movement therapy (DMT) attempts to promote expression and reduce tension through movement It has been prescribed in the clinical literature to help treat children and adults with behavior problems or expressive dif“culties DMT is believed to help decrease negative effects of stress (e.g., tension, fatigue) by gaining a sense of control through (a) the spiritual aspect of dance, (b) moving (e.g., increased 606 Complementary and Alternative Therapies circulation), (c) distraction from stress, and (d) confronting stressors by projecting them in dance (Hana, 1995) While there are intervention studies investigating the bene“ts of DMT for patients with a range of psychological symptoms (Brooks & Stark, 1989; Stewart, McMullen, & Rubin, 1994), most were conducted with poor methodological control Music therapy (MT) involves the active or passive use of music to enhance health and express emotions (Achterberg et al., 1994) It has been used with adults and children who exhibit cognitive and affective de“cits In addition, patients with physical disabilities and chronic mental illness were reported to bene“t from MT (Achterberg et al., 1994) A review of the literature provides support for the use of MT to decrease anxiety associated with speci“c events (i.e., surgery and medical procedures) in some populations (i.e., cardiac patients and premature neonates; Snyder & Chlan, 1999; and patients with asthma; Lehrer et al., 1994) With regard to depression, one study observed the impact of elderly patients who were randomly assigned to either home-based MT, self-administered MT, or waitlist control (WLC) over an eight-week period (Hanser & Thompson, 1994) Results demonstrated both MT groups achieved a greater decrease in depression than those on the waitlist, and these bene“ts were maintained at a nine-month follow-up assessment Art therapy entails using drawing, painting, or sculpting to express oneself and increase self-awareness (Achterberg et al., 1994) Art therapy has been connected with mental health since the 1800s Few empirical studies have been conducted investigating the ef“cacy of art therapy as a treatment for speci“c medical or psychological disorders However, Anand and Anand (1997) discussed the bene“ts gleaned from art therapy in patients following laryngectomy Speci“cally, art therapy reportedly served as an adjunct assessment and treatment tool for patients who experience depression, anxiety, grief, and concern regarding physical appearance Mind/Body Therapies Complementary and alternative therapies categorized as mind/body interventions have often been derived from decades of psychological and behavioral science They are discussed in other chapters of this volume with regard to their ef“cacy in treatment of psychological and physical syndromes, such as pain, that are associated with various medical disorders These include many cognitive and behavioral interventions such as relaxation training, guided visualization, cognitive restructuring, behavior modi“cation, self-instructional training, stress inoculation training, prob- lem solving, anger management, and psychoeducation, as well as other psychological interventions such as hypnosis and supportive group counseling When employed to reduce psychological distress (e.g., anxiety and depression), to manage stress, or to treat a range of other behavioral disorders, many of these therapies are well-tested and thus considered standard approaches to treatment For example, many clinical interventions falling under the rubric of cognitive-behavioral treatment have been documented through numerous studies, reviews, and texts as effective for a wide range of psychological and behavioral problems (Beutler, Harwood, & Caldwell, 2001) Many are listed as empirically validated techniques Cognitive-behavioral therapies are markedly present among the list of empirically supported psychotherapies (Chambless & Hollon, 1998) When the focus of such therapies is on the reduction of medical symptoms and disease, their use may be viewed as alternative or complementary, because they have not been traditionally prescribed or employed in a medical context However, as many of the chapters in this volume indicate, mind/body strategies have shown promise as potentially effective strategies that can alter the occurrence, course, or management of medical syndromes Additionally, their potential effectiveness regarding many medically unexplained symptoms has been suggested (A M Nezu, Nezu, & Lombardo, 2001) This is particularly relevant with regard to the large percentage of individuals who seek medical care each year from their primary care physicians, in which there exists no identi“able underlying medical disease that can explain the persistent experience of certain physical symptoms (A M Nezu et al., 2001) Recent reviews concerning other interventions such as hypnosis have also shown promise as both alternative and complementary interventions for medical disorders such as obesity, insomnia, hypertension, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, and dermatological disorders (Nash, 2001) Are all complementary and alternative therapies mind/ body? As traditional psychological interventions are more frequently applied to both medical and psychological parameters of disease, and as other complementary and alternative treatments described earlier in this chapter gain wider public attention and acceptance, the dichotomous line between medical and nonmedical symptoms, disorders and treatments can be rapidly blurred As such, the concept of mind/body therapies to maintain health and heal disease can be expanded to include almost all interventions based on the understanding that such conditions represent an interaction of physical, psychological, emotional, and spiritual factors Most of the interventions described in this chapter are •mind/bodyŽ therapies References COMMON THEMES From a health psychology perspective, several important themes emerge that concern the shared characteristics of alternative and complementary treatments in the context of an expanded mind/body rubric These include: A biopsychosocial model, which incorporates biological, immunological, psychological, spiritual, interpersonal, and environmental variables, characterizes an underlying mind/ body philosophy of most complementary and alternative approaches Psychological wellness is viewed as a critical component of health regarding most of these therapeutic systems Many psychological interventions, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, group therapy, and hypnosis, may provide strategies that increase psychological well-being and decrease distress A holistic, individualized case assessment approach is a common method of diagnosis and treatment Although each healing approach may vary in the methodology, such as use of the interview, physical exam techniques, or tests that are administered, there is a marked tendency to design treatment speci“c to the individual case formulation rather than rely on a standard prescription or dosage strategy The underlying philosophy on which many complementary and alternative interventions are based view health as a state of harmony and energy balance, wherein the physical, emotional, mental, and spiritual aspects of energy are all given signi“cant weight and seen as interrelated Treatment ef“cacy is most often associated with stressrelated disorders and those diseases that have been etiologically linked to cognition, behavior, and lifestyle This covers a wide range of what have been historically considered medical disorders, such as cardiac problems, diabetes, immune functioning disorders, asthma, pain syndromes, and gastrointestinal disorders FUTURE DIRECTIONS Integration of Psychological Interventions and Complementary and Alternative Therapies Because psychological health is considered such an integral part of most complementary and alternative approaches, there is wide applicability for psychological interventions to be delivered in conjunction with these approaches as part of an overall health maintenance strategy Particularly helpful in this regard would be the widespread provision of psychoeducation and promotion of a biopsychosocial model, so that 607 patients can learn to view psychological interventions as part of a comprehensive treatment, rather than an indication that health providers have labeled them as •crazyŽ or diagnosed their problem as •all in their head.Ž Additionally, psychological interventions speci“cally shown to be ef“cacious with comorbid symptoms of anxiety and depression, which occur with high prevalence in patients with diagnosed dif“culties such as cancer or heart disease, can be integrated with ongoing treatment aimed at the cancer itself A Decision-Making Problem Because of the wide choice of treatments available, individuals who are interested in pursuing a more holistic approach to their health and incorporating complementary and alternative approaches are faced with the daunting task of sorting through myriad information Media and technology have made available to the general public both the access and marketing of information concerning a wide range of health choices possible Thus, when faced with a disease diagnosis, people are in the position of choosing from competing philosophies, therapies, and providers Such decisions are dif“cult enough„when compounded by the emotional impact of an illness, a person•s decision making can be further impaired (A M Nezu, Nezu, Friedman, Faddis, & Houts, 1998) Training patients in decisionmaking strategies, such as social problem-solving skills, as a way of coping with the many decisions they must confront may serve as a particularly useful intervention in this regard Problem solving, de“ned by D•Zurilla and Nezu (2001), is a •self-directed cognitive-behavioral process by which a person attempts to identify and discover effective and adaptive solutions for speci“c problems encountered in everyday livingŽ (p 212) Findings from a variety of studies have provided support for problem-solving therapy as a potent intervention to reduce stress, increase quality of life, and perhaps most germane to this discussion, increase sense of self-ef“cacy and con“dence in making decisions (A M Nezu et al., 1998) Training patients in such skills can increase the likelihood that patients will become active partners with their various health care providers, deriving maximum bene“t from the range and combination of treatment alternatives available REFERENCES Abenhaim, L., & Bergeron, A M (1992) Twenty years of randomized clinical trials of manipulative therapy for back pain: A review Clinical and Investigative Medicine, 15(6), 527…535 608 Complementary and Alternative Therapies Achterberg, J., Dossey, L., Gordon, J S., Hegedus, C., Herrmann, M W., & Nelson, R (1994) Mind-body interventions In B M Berman & D B Larson (Co-Chairs), Alternative medicine: Expanding medical horizons A report to the National Institutes of Health on alternative medical systems and practices in the United States prepared under the auspices of the Workshop on Alternative Medicine (1992, 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therapies (2nd ed., pp 138…172) New York: Guilford Press Blumenthal, J A., Babyak, M A., Moore, K A., Craighead, W E., Herman, S., Khatri, P., et al (1999) Effects of exercise training on older patients with major depression Archives of Internal Medicine, 159, 2349…2356 Cooper, M J., & Aygen, M M (1978) Effect of transcendental meditation on serum cholesterol and blood pressure Harefuah, 95(1), 1…2 Cott, J M (1997) In vitro receptor binding and enzyme inhibition by hypericum perforatum extract Pharmacopsychiatry, 30(Suppl 2), 108…12 Craft, L L., & Landers, D M (1998) The effect of exercise on clinical depression and depression resulting from mental illness: A meta-analysis Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20, 339…357 Author Index Straus, R., 362 Straus, S., 366, 386, 389, 390 Strauss, J F., 536, 539 Strauss, K F., 559 Strauss, K I., 378, 390 Strauss, S S., 386 Strawbridge, W J., 498, 506, 509 Strayer, D., 378, 386, 390 Street, N E., 94 Streeten, D H., 372, 390, 492, 493, 504 Streisand, R., 457, 458, 463 Strelakov, S A., 113, 118 Streltzer, J., 601, 610 Strickland, P., 388 Striegel-Moore, R., 131, 143, 521, 542 Striepe, M I., 527, 539 Stroebe, M., 39, 48 Stroebe, W., 39, 48 Strogatz, D S., 547, 557, 562, 565 Strom, G., 357 Ström, L., 261, 266 Strong, W B., 547, 562 Stronks, K., 556, 566 Stroud, M W., 302, 313 Strycker, L A., 202, 212 Stuart, A., 240 Stuber, M L., 449, 457, 458, 461, 463, 474, 485 Stuenkel, C., 552, 560 Stueve, A., 33, 46 Stukenberg, K W., 78, 89 Stunkard, A., 125, 126, 141, 143, 144, 213 Stygall, J., 493, 507 Subedar, N., 389 Sucuoglu, H., 42, 47 Sugarman, J L., 321, 337 Suhadolnik, R J., 372, 378, 390 Suinn, R M., 349, 363 Suissa, S., 330, 335 Sullivan, G., 409 Sullivan, M., 190, 302, 314, 537 Sullivan, P., 158, 160, 165, 168 Sulman, J., 520, 543 Suls, J., 53, 72, 397, 399, 409, 412 Summer, W., 433 Summers, J D., 300, 315, 425, 435 Summerson, J H., 565 Sun, M., 267, 270, 271, 283, 285 Sundin, O., 357 Sundquist, J., 548, 557, 566, 567 Sung, H., 488, 505 Suprasert, S., 243 Surawy, C., 390 Surwit, R., 195, 196, 212, 214, 216 Susman, E J., 469, 483, 484, 485 Susser, E., 517, 538 Susser, M., 540 Sussman, S., 564 Sutherland, S E., 495, 506 Sutton, K J., 44, 45 Sutton-Tyrrell, K., 343, 363 Suurmeijer, T., 69 Suzuki, M., 213 Svedlund, J., 403, 404, 412 Svetkey, L P., 358 Swain, A M., 526, 542 Swan, G E., 147, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 165, 168, 490, 509 Swan, S C., 450, 462 Swanberg, J E., 529, 530, 537 Swanda, R., 431 Swanink, C M., 390 Swann, P., 412 Swanson, G M., 541, 556, 564 Swanson, J E., 215 Swanson, J W., 539 Swanson, M S., 142 Swartz, M S., 520, 540 Sweetwood, H., 322, 337 Swenson, C., 564 Swinburn, B A., 131, 143 Swindells, S., 66, 73, 243 Switzer, P K., 333, 336 Sy, F S., 548, 561, 566 Sykes, C M., 5, 19, 22 Syme, S L., 82, 88, 343, 354, 361, 363, 498, 503, 528, 536, 547, 560 Symons, J A., 180, 190 Syndulko, K., 166 Synott, R., 289 Syrjala, K L., 280, 291 Sytkowski, P A., 494, 506 Szapocznik, J., 68 Szedmak, S., 563 Székely, A., 554 Szekely, B C., 259, 265 Szekeres, S F., 455, 464 Szilagyi, P G., 463 Szklo, M., 83, 88 Szydlo, W., 66, 72 Taban, C., 87 Taber, H., 159, 162, 163 Taghavi, M., 395, 409 Tahka, B., 201, 216 Tait, R., 85, 95, 249, 263 Taitel, M A., 111, 119 Takahashi, M., 600, 613 Takamiya, S., 213 Takeda, T., 613 Takenaka, K., 613 Tal, M., 42, 45, 243 Talabot-Ayer, D., 167 Talajec, M., 63, 70 Talajic, M., 70 Talbot, F., 197, 216 Talbott, E., 341, 358 Talcott, G W., 264 Talley, N J., 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 399, 400, 409, 412 Tamura, G., 117 Tanida, M., 603, 611 Tanner, J M., 465, 485 Tanzy, K., 78, 88 Targa, C., 537 Targett, P., 428, 435 Tarnowski, K J., 476, 485 Tarr, K., 90, 92 Tarran, M J., 410 Tashkin, D P., 517, 538 Tate, D., 426, 429, 431, 434, 435 653 Taub, E., 394, 395, 398, 412, 413 Taussig, H N., 457, 463 Tavakoli, A S., 603, 613 Taverna, A., 103, 115 Taylor, A., 212 Taylor, A E., 248, 263, 397, 406, 408, 412 Taylor, A J., 344, 363 Taylor, C M., 32, 48 Taylor, D., 196, 214, 421, 435 Taylor, G., 144 Taylor, H., 122, 141 Taylor, H G., 456, 463 Taylor, H L., 361 Taylor, J O., 129, 139 Taylor, K., 56, 65, 66, 71 Taylor, M., 110, 116, 592, 612 Taylor, R R., 365, 366, 368, 369, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 386, 387, 389, 390 Taylor, S E., 1, 2, 5, 7, 22, 52, 55, 56, 63, 64, 68, 69, 72, 73, 79, 80, 81, 82, 88, 89, 91, 94, 232, 240, 242, 244, 534, 538, 557, 566 Taylor, W., 164, 385 Taywaditep, K J., 235, 244 Teders, S J., 249, 252, 262, 263 Teegen, F., 41, 49 Teichman, A., 196, 213 Telch, C F., 271, 280, 281, 291 Telch, M J., 271, 280, 281, 291 Telford, L., 119 Temkin, A J., 430, 435 Temoshok, L., 53, 71, 95 Tempelaar, R., 65, 69 Templ, E., 177, 190 Temple, R., 409, 426, 435 Ten Have, T R., 546, 559 Tennant, C C., 35, 46, 68 Tenne-Brown, J., 139 Tennen, H., 52, 57, 59, 66, 68, 73, 115, 173, 174, 176, 185, 187 Tennstedt, S., 558, 566 Tenover, J L., 489, 500, 509 Teoh, K W., 151, 164 Tepper, S J., 251, 266 Terborg, J R., 573, 589 ter Braak, E., 206, 216 ter Horst, G J., 76, 92 ter Kuile, M M., 252, 254, 263, 266 Terman, S W., 181, 188 Terry, D J., 66, 72, 355, 362 Terry, R B., 497, 509 Tessari, M., 149, 166, 167 Tetrick, L., 569, 572, 580, 588 Teufel-Mayer, R., 601, 613 Tevelde, A., 358 Tfelt-Hansen, P., 251, 265, 266 Thackway, M., 68 Thapar, A., 524, 543 Thayer, J F., 189 Theisen, A., 241 Theofanous, A G., 264 Theoharidies, T C., 262, 265 Theorell, T., 62, 73, 82, 83, 95 Theriault, G., 126, 139 654 Author Index Thibault, G E., 344, 362 Thijs, J., 156, 166 Thoits, P., 66, 73 Thom, T., 343, 360 Thomas, C., 323, 335 Thomas, E., 188 Thomas, F., 139 Thomas, J., 546, 565 Thomas, M G., 86, 94 Thomas, P., 204, 216 Thomas, P D., 62, 73, 82, 83, 95 Thomas, P R., 123, 126, 131, 144 Thomas, S E., 284, 291 Thomas, W., 215 Thompson, B., 363 Thompson, D., 409 Thompson, D J., 141 Thompson, D R., 353, 363 Thompson, J., 250, 263, 401, 410 Thompson, K M., 179, 188 Thompson, L., 359, 530, 544, 606, 610 Thompson, P D., 546, 565 Thompson, R., 441, 452, 460, 464, 471, 483 Thompson, S., 174, 190, 428, 431 Thompson, V L S., 557, 566 Thompson, W G., 393, 394, 395, 398, 407, 409, 410, 411, 412 Thomsen, A H., 401, 409 Thomson, G E., 344, 363 Thorese, C., 359 Thoresen, C., 334, 359 Thorn, B., 261, 265, 301, 302, 313, 314, 315 Thorndike, A N., 157, 168 Thorne, B., 154, 168 Thornton, S., 63, 73 Thorpy, M J., 331, 334, 337 Thorslund, M., 294, 313 Thorson, C., 134, 141 Thorson, J., 541 Thorton, J C., 80, 94 Thridandam, M., 548, 566 Tian, H., 241 Tibbetts, V., 113, 118 Tierney, C., 357 Tierney, J G., 520, 543 Tierney, W M., 172, 190 Tiersky, L A., 375, 386, 388 Tildesley, E., 153, 163 Tiller, J W., 110, 119 Tilles, J G., 375, 390, 599, 612 Tilquin, C., 515, 538 Timpone, J., 240 Tindale, R S., 125, 143 Tirch, D., 433, 434 Titus, S., 241 Tobey, L A., 66, 70 Tobin, D L., 264 Toczydlowski, J., 92 Todak, G., 243 Todaro, J F., 445, 457, 463 To”er, G., 362 Tohidast-Akrad, G A., 189 Tokudo, H., 599, 611 Tokuyama, S., 600, 613 Tollefson, G D., 397, 412 Tollefson, S L., 397, 412 Tomenson, B., 403, 410 Tomoda, M., 613 Tonascia, J., 83, 88 Toner, B B., 396, 397, 405, 406, 409, 413, 533, 544 Toobert, D., 193, 199, 202, 203, 212, 213, 216, 217 Toombs, J., 431 Toomey, T C., 399, 409, 411 Toovy, D., 199, 215 Topo, P., 499, 505 Topping, M., 239 Torfs, C P., 354, 363 Toro, P., 517, 538 Torpy, D J., 80, 88, 180, 190 Torres, A R., 599, 608 Torres, I., 552, 566 Torres, S., 44, 49, 387 Torres-Harding, S R., 366, 368, 387 Torsvall, L., 369, 384 Tortolero, S R., 552, 566 Toseland, R W., 285, 291 Tosi, D J., 112, 119 Tota-Faucette, M E., 310, 315 Toubro, S., 129, 140 Toukmanian, S G., 44, 49 Townsend, A L., 67, 69 Toye, R C., 603, 609 Toyry, J., 204, 216 Tran, T V., 41, 49 Tran, Z V., 604, 612 Trask, O J., 78, 91 Travis, T., 202, 216 Treiber, F A., 547, 562 Tremblay, A., 126, 139, 143 Trestman, R L., 80, 95 Trevisan, M., 37, 49 Triana-Alexander, M., 185, 188 Trichopoulos, D., 100, 119 Trief, P., 199, 216 Trieschmann, R., 420, 426, 435 Trijsburg, R W., 276, 278, 291, 500, 509 Trill, K., 112, 118, 456, 459 Troiano, R P., 123, 125, 142, 144 Troisi, R J., 100, 119 Troop, M., 73 Tross, S., 272, 287 Trotter, R., 216 Troup, J P G., 295, 314 Troyan, S L., 501, 508 True, W R., 159, 160, 168 Trunzo, J., 534, 538 Tryon, W W., 452, 459 Tsoh, J Y., 270, 287 Tsourmas, N., 294, 315 Tsutsumi, A., 363 Tsutumi, T., 604, 613 Tucker, J S., 498, 506, 509 Tugwell, P., 489, 508 Tulsky, J P., 234, 239 Tunstall-Pedoe, H., 339, 364 Tuomilehto, J., 359, 505 Tuominen, J., 171, 185 Tupler, L A., 46 Turk, D C., 257, 262, 265, 266, 293, 294, 295, 299, 300, 301, 302, 304, 306, 307, 309, 310, 311, 312, 314, 315 Turk-Charles, S., 173, 190 Turner, C W., 345, 362, 553, 564 Turner, D., 537 Turner, H., 66, 70 Turner, J A., 119, 174, 189, 310, 314 Turner, J R., 547, 562 Turner, R J., 33, 49 Turner, S., 269, 265, 397, 400, 408, 409 Turtle, J., 194, 212 Turton, P., 524, 539 Twemlow, S W., 381, 390 Twentyman, C T., 133, 143 Twomey, C K., 412 Tye, J B., 155, 163 Tyndale, R F., 159, 167 Tyroler, H A., 364, 557, 560 Tyrrell, D A., 35, 46, 79, 89, 108, 115 Tzourio, C., 492, 509 Uchino, B N., 60, 61, 73, 83, 88, 95, 553, 566 Uebelhack, R., 600, 613 Uehara, K., 76, 93 Uemoto, M., 213 Uhlenhuth, E H., 321, 336 Ulmer, D., 359 Umali, J., 385 Umali, P., 385 Umberson, D., 82, 91, 498, 509, 547, 562 Umlauf, R., 416, 426, 428, 430, 432, 433, 435 Unden, A., 63, 72, 500, 507 Underwood, U., 529, 538 Unger, J M., 501, 506 Upchurch, S., 207, 211 Upper, D., 154, 166 Urey, J R., 427, 435 Urjanheimo, E L., 167 Urrows, S., 59, 73, 173, 174, 185, 187 Ursin, G., 72, 516, 544 Ury, G M., 295, 314 Usai, S., 264 Uswatte, G., 424, 427, 432 Uusitupa, M., 204, 216 Uutela, A., 604, 610 Uveges, K M., 174, 190 Uziely, B., 280, 287 Vaccarino, A L., 294, 313 Vaccarino, V., 59, 68, 500, 509 Vague, P., 139, 310, 450 Vaillant, G E., 346, 364 Vaisse, C., 126, 144 Valdeon, C., 609 Valdimarsdottir, H., 79, 95, 282, 287 Valecha, A., 116 Valencia, M E., 127, 143, 550, 565 Valente, S., 273, 291 Valentine, A., 274, 289 Valentine, R., 397, 412 Valkenburg, H A., 186 Vallance, P., 360 Vallières, A., 327, 334 Valois, R F., 547, 564 Author Index Valtysdóttir, H., 202, 216 Vanable, P A., 219, 235, 236, 238, 240, 244, 517 van Ameijden, E J., 229, 244 van Arsdel, P P., 110, 115 van Beest, I., 101, 104, 118, 119 Van Bockstaele, D R., 93 van de Loo, E 580, 589 van de Mheen, H., 556, 566 VandenBos, G R., 500, 507 Van Den Bos, J., 556, 566 Vandenbosche, G., 537 van den Brink, H R., 177, 190 van Denderen, J C., 178, 190 van den Hoek, J A., 229, 244 van den Hout, M A., 524, 538 van De Putte, L., 56, 73 Vander, M R., 551, 566 van der Dijs, B., 188 van der Does, A J W., 107, 119 van der Kolk, B A., 81, 95 van der Laak, M., 216 Van Der Linden, G., 374, 390 van der Meer, J W M., 380, 384, 390 van der Ploeg, H M., 42, 47 Vanderschuerem, D., 69 Vanderschueren, D., 203, 212 van Der Staak, C., 56, 73 Van Der Wende, J., 56, 72 Van Devanter, N., 240 van de Vijver, F A., 93 van de Wiel, H., 261, 263 Vandongen, R., 602, 611, 612 Van Dorsten, B., 196, 213 Van Duijn, H., 46 van Dulmen, A M., 405, 406, 413 VanDyke, C., 395, 412 van Eek, H., 295, 315 van Eijk, C., 72, 94 Van Gastel, A., 93 van Griensven, G J., 55, 72 van Haastrecht, H J., 229, 244 van Haeften, T., 216 Van Horn, E., 429, 431 Van Horn, L., 601, 611 Van Houdenhove, B., 372, 390 van Houwelingen, H C., 254, 266 Van Hunsel, F., 188 Van Itallie, T B., 125, 138, 144 van Knippenberg, F C E., 278, 291 Van Lankveld, W., 56, 73 van Leeuwen, M., 69 Vannatta, K., 456, 463 van Neerbos, B R., 178, 190 Van Oot, P H., 321, 334 van Peski-Oosterbaan, A S., 107, 119 van Rijswijk, R., 69 van Staveren, W A., 550, 561 van Tilburg, T., 72, 94 van•t Pad Bosch, P., 56, 73 van•t Spijker, A., 276, 291, 500, 502, 509 VanUitert, B., 241 van Veldhoven, M., 21 van Vollen Hoven, R., 73 van Willigen, L H M., 42, 47 Varady, A N., 546, 567 Varela, C., 195, 211 Vargas, L., 195, 211 Vargas, R., 599, 610 Varghese, A., 288 Varghese, G., 315, 425, 435 Vargot, S., 341, 362 Varner, M W., 526, 542 Varni, J W., 448, 449, 454, 456, 460, 463 Vartiainen, E., 167 Vaschillo, B., 113, 117 Vaschillo, E G., 113, 115, 117, 119 Vash, C L., 427, 433 Vaslamatzis, G., 68 Vassilaros, S., 68 Vaughan, K B., 297, 315 Vaughan, R D., 224, 244 Vaughn, W., 189 Vazquez, M I., 112, 120 Vedanthan, P K., 114, 120 Vedhara, K., 66, 72, 77, 78, 88, 95, 242 Veille, J C., 542 Velez, R., 363 Vella, S., 243 Veloski, J., 201, 215 Veltum, L G., 196, 213 Ventura, S J., 527, 544 Verbrugge, L M., 83, 95, 500, 507 Vercoulen, J H., 373, 377, 390 Verdecias, R N., 225, 244 Verduyn, W., 455, 460 Vergis, E N., 243 Verhage, F., 358 Verhoeven, A C., 171, 185 Vermund, S H., 239, 241 Verrier, P., 359, 364 Verrier, R L., 341, 364 Verrillo, E F., 379, 390 Vervaeke, M., 69 Vesper, J., 600, 610 Veugelers, P J., 93 Vianen, M E., 187 Vickers, A J., 598, 613 Viegener, B J., 137, 143 Viera, C T., 452, 460 Vietorisz, D., 204, 215 Viinamaki, H., 201, 216 Viitanen, M., 490, 504, 505 Vimala, S., 599, 613 Vincent, C A., 597, 613 Vingerhoets, A., 61, 70 Vinicor, F., 194, 213, 216 Vining, E P G., 602, 613 Vinken, A G., 142 Vinokur, A D., 65, 68 Vipraio, G A., 189 Virella, G., 612 Virjee, J., 395, 411 Visintainer, P., 532, 543 Visot, L., 422, 432 Visscher, B., 55, 63, 72, 73, 81, 82, 89, 91, 94, 232, 242, 244 Vita, A J., 497, 509 Vitaliano, P P., 284, 291, 499, 509 Viteri, F E., 547, 561 Vizi, E S., 373, 385 655 Vlaeyen, J W., 295, 296, 301, 315 Vlahov, D., 229, 244 Vogel, M E., 399, 411 Vogelman, J H., 609 Vogl, D., 449, 463 Vogt, R A., 135, 140, 144 Vogt, T., 347, 364, 498, 509 Vohmann, M., 598, 608 Vokonas, P., III, 346, 360 Volberding, P A., 241, 244 Vollestad, N K., 178, 188 Vollmer, A., 406, 413 Vollmer, W M., 109, 120 Vollrath, M., 322, 323, 337 Volz, H P., 600, 601, 613 von der Lieth, L., 553, 559 Von Dusch, T., 571, 589 von Eschenbach, A C., 274, 292 Von Korff, M., 251, 252, 266, 323, 324, 337 Von Rad, M., 524, 537 Von Wegerer, J., 600, 613, 614 von Wichert, P., 178, 185 Vora, J., 388 Vorbach, E U., 600, 613 Voss, S., 184, 187 Vostanis, P., 537 Voytko, M L., 541 Vu, N., 42, 47 Vural, E., 56, 73 Waaland, P K., 455, 464 Wack, J T., 307, 315 Wadden, T., 125, 128, 130, 131, 134, 135, 136, 137, 139, 140, 143, 144, 476, 485 Wade, S., 463 Wadland, W C., 522, 543 Wadsworth, M E J., 2, 503, 509 Wadworth, A N., 330, 337 Wagener, D K., 545, 566 Wagener, G., 231, 244 Wagener, M M., 73 Waggoner, C D., 253, 266 Wagner, A W., 38, 49 Wagner, C., 113, 119 Wagner, E., 191, 213, 489, 505 Wagner, J., 601, 613 Wagner, L., 369, 370, 387 Wagner, M M., 601, 613 Wagner, O., 190 Waidmann, T., 556, 565 Wainberg, M L., 235, 244 Wais, R., 113, 118, 491, 492 Waites, K., 422, 430, 431, 435 Wake“eld, D., 80, 91, 368, 386, 388 Wakimoto, P., 143 Walco, G., 443, 452, 463, 464 Walczak, S., 434 Walden, J., 600, 613, 614 Walder, K., 139 Waldron, I., 532, 544, 552, 553, 554, 566 Waldron, S A., 448, 463 Waldstein, S R., 490, 491, 492, 504, 507, 508, 509 Walerzky, L R., 90, 289 Wales, J., 195, 216, 539 656 Author Index Waligora-Sera“n, B., 291 Walker, A., 448, 461, 530, 532, 544 Walker, E A., 173, 174, 190, 396, 397, 399, 402, 413 Walker, I M., 279, 289 Walker, J M., 185 Walker, L S., 399, 401, 402, 410, 413 Walker, S E., 190 Wall, A., 601, 608 Wall, E M., 253, 263 Wall, P D., 180, 181, 188, 190, 298, 302, 314 Wallace, L M., 23 Wallace, P., 369, 370, 389, 391 Wallace, R B., 488, 506, 572, 589 Wallace, R K., 609 Wallander, J L., 196, 210, 441, 464 Wallin, B., 5, 12, 13, 22, 23 Wallis, B J., 295, 315 Wallston, K A., 57, 66, 68, 71, 72, 174, 189, 190 Wallston, K E., 5, 23 Wallstrom, M., 156, 168 Walsh, J K., 321, 324, 337 Walsleben, J A., 323, 337 Walstedt, J., 566 Walter, H J., 224, 244 Walter, J., 447, 460 Walters, E D., 254, 266 Walther, E., 598, 611 Walton, D., 611 Walton, E., 577, 578, 586 Walton, K G., 596, 609 Wamala, S P., 61, 70, 507 Wamboldt, F., 103, 119, 120, 453, 460 Wamboldt, M Z., 103, 107, 120, 453, 460 Wan, C K., 399, 412 Wang, H.-X., 498, 505 Wang, H Y., 55, 73, 82, 94 Wang, J., 215 Wang, N., 359 Wang, S., 372, 388 Wang, X., 556, 563 Wangaard, C., 110, 119 Wanning, T., 603, 605, 614 Wara, D W., 541 Warburton, D., 153, 168, 540 Ward, C E., 328, 334 Ward, C H., 197, 211, 396, 408 Ward, H W., 362 Ward, J W., 549, 564 Ward, K D., 496, 507, 508 Ward, M M., 62, 73, 157, 168 Ward, R., 353, 364 Ward, S E., 284, 291 Warda, U S., 547, 564 Ware, C., 322, 336 Ware, J., 115, 200, 213, 398, 413 Ware, R E., 460 Wareham, N J., 142 Warf, C., 475, 484 Warner, D., 85, 94 Warner, K E., 154, 166, 168 Warren, R P., 599, 608 Warschausky, S., 424, 435 Warshafsky, S., 599, 614 Warwick-Evans, L A., 598, 614 Warzak, W J., 471, 482 Washington, C D., 242 Wasserman, A L., 401, 413 Wasserman, G A., 48 Wasserman, J., 68, 154, 155, 165, 166, 168 Wasserman, R C., 483 Wassertheil-Smoller, S., 346, 347, 364 Watanabe, R., 217 Waterbor, J W., 556, 563 Waterfall, W., 411 Waterman, B., 168 Waters, D., 425, 431 Waters, R L., 435 Watkins, A D., 593, 614 Watkins, J A., 385 Watkins, L R., 76, 93, 372, 388 Watkins, P., 204, 216 Watkins, S S., 149, 168 Watson, D., 79, 95 Watson, J., 558, 560 Watson, M., 53, 55, 74, 271, 276, 278, 288, 290, 292, 500, 509 Watson, S J., 185 Watt, S., 402, 410 Watts, F., 194, 216 Watts, M., 21, 22 Waugh, R A., 359 Wauters, A., 93 Waylonis, G W., 173, 189 Wayne, S J., 78, 95 Wear, M L., 561 Wearden, A J., 388 Weaver, A L., 412 Webb, M D., 334 Webb, P M., 447, 464 Webb, W B., 318, 319, 337 Weber, B., 178, 186 Weber-Burdin, E., 30, 48 Webster, R A., 44, 49 Wechsler, H., 154, 155, 157, 163, 168, 491, 492, 493, 504 Wedel, H., 130, 144 Weder, A B., 354, 364 Weeb, H G., 337 Weeks, C., 424, 435 Wehman, P., 428, 435 Wei, J., 349, 357, 489, 509 Weidenhammer, W., 611 Weidle, P J., 234, 244 Weidner, G., 34, 39, 47, 48, 49, 545, 553, 554, 565, 566 Weinberger, M., 172, 176, 190, 344, 355, 359, 364 Weinblatt, E., 63, 73, 343, 363 Weiner, H., 80, 81, 89, 91, 242, 354, 364, 524, 537 Weiner, J., 324, 337 Weiner, P., 78, 90, 93 Weinerman, B F., 282, 289 Weinert, C., 199, 216 Weinhardt, L S., 222, 225, 236, 240, 244 Weininger, O., 402, 411 Weinman, J., 14, 21, 22, 73 Weinrich, S P., 603, 613 Weinstein, R., 40, 46 Weinstock, R., 199, 216 Weir, W R C., 375, 377, 389 Weisaeth, L., 30, 49 Weisman, A D., 56, 74, 271, 274, 276, 280, 292 Weisman, M H., 174, 189 Weismann, M., 543 Weisnagel, S J., 139 Weiss, H., 575, 586 Weiss, H L., 556, 563 Weiss, H M., 576, 589 Weiss, J M., 76, 91 Weiss, R., 40, 46, 59, 60, 74 Weiss, S., 65, 68 Weiss, S C., 346, 360 Weiss, S M., 5, 12, 22, 23, 355, 363 Weiss, S T., 99, 100, 115, 120, 543, 556, 563 Weisse, C S., 78, 80, 93, 95 Weissman, A., 272, 273, 277, 287 Weissman, M M., 411 Weissman, R., 419, 431 Weist, M D., 481, 485 Weitberg, A B., 501, 508 Weitzman, B C., 344, 357 Weitzman, O B., 77, 89 Weizman, R., 81, 95 Welch, G., 193, 211 Welch, K M A., 251, 266 Weldon, M., 548, 561 Welin, C., 61, 63, 74 Welk, G J., 552, 565 Weller, S., 210, 216 Wellisch, D., 81, 90, 548, 566 Wellisch, M., 566 Wells, C L., 546, 547, 565 Wells, G., 171, 185 Wells, J A., 342, 364 Wells, K., 107, 116, 201, 214 Wells, M., 115 Wells, N E J., 395, 413 Wells, V E., 346, 364 Welsh, K A., 508 Welty, T K., 567 Weltzin, T E., 521, 540 Wenneker, M B., 344, 364 Wenting, M L G., 187 Wenzel, L B., 290 Werden, D L., 163, 165 Werder, D S., 259, 266 Werner, P., 433 Werner, S., 91 Wesch, J., 93 Wesley, M N., 70, 482, 510, 539, 587, 588 Wesnes, K., 153, 168, 600, 612, 614 Wessel, M., 118 Wessely, S., 365, 366, 369, 370, 371, 373, 378, 379, 385, 387, 389, 390, 391 West, D., 541, 567 West, M S., 401, 411 West, P., 555 West, R R., 360 Westbrook, T., 257, 264 Westerdahl, J., 271, 292 Westin, A., 156, 162, 167 Wethington, E., 33, 49 Weyerer, S., 335 Wheatley, D., 600, 614 Author Index Wheaton, B., 33, 49 Wheeler, M., 216 Wheelis, A Y., 155, 162 Whelton, P., 348, 355, 357, 358, 361, 364 Whipple, B., 419, 435 Whisnant, J P., 495, 509 White, J., 77, 91 White, L L., 559 White, L R., 490, 505 White, L S., 451, 461 White, M M., 155, 163 White, N., 459, 483 White, P D., 379, 386 White, S M., 37, 48 Whiteford, L M., 525, 544 Whitehead, B., 457, 463 Whitehead, E D., 203, 216 Whitehead, J P., 142 Whitehead, M., 7, 23 Whitehead, W E., 393, 394, 395, 397, 398, 407, 409, 412, 413 Whitehorse, L., 163, 165 Whitehouse, A., 398, 409 Whitehouse, W G., 459 Whiteneck, G., 418, 419, 421, 431, 432, 433, 435 Whiteside, T., 71, 92 Whit“eld, K E., 545, 558, 566 Whit“eld, M J., 102, 117 Whiting, S J., 550, 566 Whitington, P F., 401, 413 Whitlock, F A., 273, 292 Whitman, J., 386 Whitney, C., 175, 190 Whittington, J L., 572, 589 Whittle, J., 344, 364 Whorwell, P J., 395, 404, 410, 413 Wichstrom, L., 173, 187 Wicke, C., 241 Wicker, P., 203, 215 Wicki, W., 322, 337 Widiger, T., 497, 504 Widmer, W., 431 Wiebe, D J., 196, 213 Wiebel, W W., 228, 244 Wiebers, D O., 495, 509 Wiegand, S J., 76, 90 Wiener, Z., 81, 95 Wierich, W., 600, 610 Wiesel, S W., 294, 315 Wigal, J K., 117 Wigers, S H., 173, 179, 189, 190 Wiist, W H., 557, 567 Wijnberg, L., 562 Wiklund, I., 600, 614 Wikman, A., 294, 313 Wilcock, G K., 88, 95 Wilcox, B., 441, 461 Wilder, L B., 546, 567 Wilder, R L., 190, 373, 385 Wil”ey, D E., 125, 140 Wilhelm, M C., 69, 589 Wilhelmsen, L., 61, 63, 72, 74 Wilkie, A., 399, 413 Wilkie, F L., 491, 492, 509 Wilkie, F W., 487, 504 Wilkins, J., 120 Wilkins, S., 78, 88 Wilkinson, D J., 599, 608 Wilkinson, M., 248, 263, 455, 459 Wilkinson, R G., 19, 23 Wilkinson, S., 405, 408 Willard, A., 115 Willard, J., 434 Willems, L., 73, 107, 119 Willet, W C., 139, 546 Willett, J B., 492, 496 Willett, W C., 100, 115, 119, 124, 125, 139, 143, 144, 340, 360, 363, 497, 508, 564, 567 Willey, K., 208, 216 Willey-Lessne, C., 164 Williams, A., 215, 308 Williams, C B., 347, 358 Williams, D., 555, 556, 557, 562, 564 Williams, D A., 57, 70, 301, 310, 315, 452, 460 Williams, D M., 116, 356, 360 Williams, D R., 547, 555, 556, 560, 563, 567 Williams, G., 200, 217, 388 Williams, H., 91 Williams, J., 346, 552, 560 Williams, J B., 243, 244, 328, 337, 366, 390 Williams, J E., 364 Williams, J G W., 94 Williams, K E., 527, 544 Williams, M., 193, 217 Williams, P., 195, 196, 216, 557, 561 Williams, R., 342, 551, 567 Williams, R B., Jr., 346, 357, 360, 364, 493, 494, 496, 497, 498, 500, 503, 508, 509, 510, 557, 559, 560 Williams, R L., 482 Williams, R M., 92 Williams, S., 207, 214, 574, 586 Williams, V., 333, 336 Williamson, D., 124, 130, 140, 144, 145, 357 Williamson, G., 272, 277, 291, 292, 532, 543 Williford, H N., 561 Willig, C., 5, 22 Williger, D., 71, 92 Willner, P., 149, 168 Wills, T., 52, 58, 74, 199, 211, 342, 358 Wilmut, T., 20, 23 Wilner, N., 32, 47 Wilson, A., 201, 217, 377, 386, 391 Wilson, C., 130, 140 Wilson, G T., 137, 141, 145, 213 Wilson, I B., 235, 243 Wilson, K., 211, 273, 287, 332, 334, 428, 435 Wilson, L., 175, 190 Wilson, P G., 264 Wilson, P W., 340, 364 Wilson, R S., 495, 510 Wilson, R W., 546, 561 Wilson, S N., 81, 95 Wilson, S R., 111, 120 Wilson, T S., 242 Wilson, W., 199, 202, 213, 217 Wilson-Evered, E., 576, 587 Wiltgen, C., 395, 412 Winblad, B., 490, 498, 505 Wincze, J., 204, 217, 249, 262 657 Windmill, K., 139 Wine“eld, H R., 65, 72 Wineman, M., 56, 74 Winett, R., 6, 23, 244 Win“eld, A J., 167 Wing, R., 133, 134, 135, 141, 142, 144, 145, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 213, 217, 500, 506 Wing, S B., 557, 562 Wingard, D L., 323, 337, 498, 506, 509 Wingo, P A., 268, 288 Winkel, D., 594, 614 Winkielman, P., 33, 49 Winkleby, M A., 343, 364, 528, 544, 546, 548, 557, 566, 567 Winkler, J D., 154, 168 Winn, R J., 549, 561 Winner, C., 408, 536, 538 Winnubst, J A M., 65, 71, 587, 589 Winogron, H W., 455, 464 Winokur, A., 197, 217 Winokur, G., 385 Winstead-Fry, P., 604, 614 Winston, R., 20, 23 Winter, J B., 319, 336 Winter, M., 207, 211 Winter, P D., 359 Winter, U., 600, 613, 614 Winterhoff, H., 601, 608 Winters, B L., 270, 292 Winters, C., 135, 141 Winters, E E., 570, 589 Wirick, B E., 608 Wise, C M., 184, 185 Wise, P S., 112, 119 Wise, R A., 110, 118, 373, 391, 517, 544 Wiser, A., 154, 162 Wishner, W., 199, 217 Wisocki, P A., 519, 544 Witty, T., 426, 427, 428, 432 Wochna, V., 275, 292 Woelk, H., 601, 614 Woerdenbag, H J., 613 Wohlfahrt, J., 524, 542 Wolde-Tasadik, G., 395, 411 Wolf, A M., 126, 145, 516, 544 Wolf, C., 68 Wolf, H., 62, 73 Wolf, P A., 90, 491, 504, 505, 516, 544 Wolf, S., 343, 358 Wolfe, D A., 447, 464 Wolfe, F., 172, 175, 190, 519, 539 Wolfe, J., 36, 38, 47, 49 Wolff, H G., 349, 364 Wolff, S C., 574, 587 Wolfsdorf, J I., 461 Wolfson, M., 155, 164 Wolman, C., 476, 485 Wolmer, L., 81, 95 Womble, L G., 125, 144 Wonderlich, S A., 422, 425, 432 Wong, A., 125, 141, 601, 614 Wong, F Y., 548, 566 Wonnacott, S., 154, 168 Wonnemann, M., 601, 608, 611 Woo, C C., 594, 614 658 Author Index Wood, B., 373, 391, 442, 459 Wood, C., 605, 614 Wood, D., 377, 388, 588 Wood, E., 243 Wood, J M., 331, 334 Wood, N C., 180, 190 Wood, P K., 442, 459 Wood, R W., 239, 569 Woodbury, S., 532, 542 Woodruff, C., 402, 410 Woodruff, R A., 385 Woodruff, R E., 196, 214 Woods, G., 451, 462 Woods, S N., 556, 564 Woods, W J., 239 Woods, X A., 274, 287 Woodward, K M., 482 Woody, G E., 223, 243 Woody, P., 451, 461 Woolf, C J., 181, 190 Woolfolk, R L., 333, 337 Woolford, H., 403, 412 Wooten, V., 333, 336 Worden, J W., 56, 74, 271, 272, 274, 276, 277, 280, 292 Workman, E W., 92 Worley, B., 426, 433 Wormley, B., 168 Wortley, P M., 517, 540 Wortman, C., 39, 40, 48, 64, 74, 91, 278, 292, 428, 431, 554 Worz, R., 248, 266 Woteki, C., 127, 143 Wright, A L., 551, 567 Wright, B A., 423, 428, 435 Wright, D., 369, 370, 389, 391 Wright, E M., 240 Wright, G E., 171, 174, 189, 190 Wright, J., 30, 48, 433 Wright, K., 68, 284, 292 Wright, L., 440, 464, 571, 589 Wright, M P., 534, 538 Wright, R J., 99, 100, 103, 108, 120 Wright, S., 22, 344, 362 Wright, T A., 569, 589 Wrzesniewski, K., 14, 22 Wu, A H., 548, 567 Wu, F C., 203, 214 Wu, S C., 598, 608 Wu, X., 598, 611 Wulsin, L R., 346, 364, 553 Wuori, D., 459 Wurm, M., 362 Wyatt, G E., 273, 288, 482 Wyatt, H R., 127, 141 Wyatt, R., 109, 117 Wyllie, R., 399, 400, 413 Wynne, E., 114, 117 Yadav, M., 599, 613 Yager, J., 322, 337 Yalom, I D., 281, 291 Yamaguchi, K., 599, 611 Yamamura, M., 189 Yancey, A K., 470, 485 Yancey, D Z., 135, 143 Yancik, R., 501, 502, 510 Yandrick, R M., 576, 589 Yanek, L R., 546, 567 Yang, F., 167 Yang, I., 361 Yang, W., 215 Yano, E., 200, 213 Yano, K., 560, 562 Yanovski, S., 144, 521, 544 Yarkony, G M., 421, 422, 435 Yarnold, J R., 291 Yarzebski, J., 500, 509, 539 Yasko, J., 59, 70, 271, 281, 287, 289 Yates, B C., 62, 74 Yates, J W., 510 Yeates, K., 463 Yee, J L., 532, 544 Yee, V., 41, 49 Yelin, E., 107, 115 Yellowlees, P M., 107, 120 Yen, C.-J., 489, 507 Yeo, G S H., 140 Yep, G A., 548, 560 Yezierski, R P., 421, 430, 435 Yip, B., 243 Yirmiya, R., 79, 93 Ylvisaker, M., 454, 455, 460, 463, 464 Yocum, D., 175, 190 Yoder, B., 428, 432 Yokoyama, M M., 603, 611 Yonenaga, C., 213 Yook, R M., 567 Yoshiuchi, K., 362 Yost, L M., 283, 289 Yost, T J., 207, 212 Youm, Y., 547, 563 Young, C., 499 Young, D R., 546, 567 Young, E., 185, 187 Young, G A., 117 Young, J., 427, 434 Young, J L., Jr., 541 Young, J R., 599, 608 Young, L D., 184, 185 Young, M., 426, 435, 538 Young, W S., 190 Young-Hyman, D., 211 Youniss, J., 468, 485 Yu, Y., 557, 567 Yudkin, P., 524, 544 Yue, D., 208, 216 Yun, T.-K., 600, 614 Yunginger, J W., 116 Yunus, M B., 175, 178, 185, 190 Yurgalevitch, S M., 550, 567 Zabin, L S., 480, 485 Zabriskie, J B., 384 Zachariae, R., 85, 95 Zachman, M., 471, 485 Zafonte, R D., 425, 435 Zaichkowsky, L D., 613 Zakarian, J M., 546, 565 Zakharevich, A S., 113, 118 Zaki, H S., 311, 315 Zalcman, S., 373, 391 Zamberlan, K E W., 458, 464 Zamble, E., 405, 411 Zammit, G K., 324, 337 Zamorani, M., 66, 70 Zarcone, V., 328, 335 Zaugg, L., 87, 323, 334 Zautra, A., 59, 66, 71, 74, 169, 173, 175, 176, 179, 182, 183, 186, 187, 188, 190, 518 Zegans, L S., 89 Zeidler, A., 204, 214 Zeidner, M., 38, 42, 44, 45, 47, 48, 49 Zeinstra, P., 178, 190 Zeltzer, L., 449, 450, 451, 452, 458, 459, 464, 477, 484 Zeman, J., 402, 410 Zenz, P., 189, 266 Zerbe, K J., 522, 544 Zevon, M A., 54, 72 Zhan, L., 598, 611 Zhang, D., 549, 561 Zhang, H., 241 Zhang, J., 509 Zhang, Q., 165 Zhang, S., 100, 115 Zhang, Y., 126, 145, 186 Zhao, S., 117, 540 Zhiming, L., 411 Ziegler, O., 139 Ziegler, R G., 567 Ziemer, D., 212 Zighelboim, J., 81, 90 Zigo, M A., 454, 463 Zimet, G D., 447, 460, 464 Zimmet, P Z., 124, 141 Zingerman, A M., 113, 119 Zinman, J., 155, 164 Zinsmeister, A R., 395, 400, 412 Zitzelberger, T., 536, 538 Zoellner, L A., 40, 46, 49 Zoli, M., 167 Zolopa, A R., 239 Zonderman, A., 81, 95, 397, 413 Zorick, F., 337 Zorrilla, E P., 80, 95 Zrebiec, J F., 199, 217 Zuberbier, O A., 314 Zucker, K J., 399, 408 Zuckerman, E., 288 Zuker, R., 476, 485 ZuWallack, R L., 109, 115 Zwaving, J H., 613 Zwei”er, A., 359 Zwickl, B., 240 Subject Index Abdominal fat, measurement of, 123 Abdominal pain/discomfort, 395, 400… 403 Abortion, teenage, 479…480 Abuse See Physical/sexual abuse; Substance abuse Academic examination stress, 77 Accident/injury, 447… 448, 454 … 456, 472… 473 See also Spinal cord injury (SCI) Acupressure/acupuncture, 597, 598 Adaptive copers (AC) patients (pain management), 311 ADHD and tobacco dependence, 153…154 Adherence: adolescents, 474… 475 AIDS, 233…235 asthma, 108…109 children, 453… 454 chronic disease, 499…500 coronary heart disease, 356 diabetes, 192…193, 199, 202 Adolescent health psychology, 465… 482 abnormal maturational delay, 470 accidents/injury, 472… 473 amenorrhea, 470… 471 body image, 470 compliance with medical regimens, 474… 475 delayed menstruation, 470… 471 developmental tasks of, 467 focus of development at different stages of adolescence, 467 future directions, 481… 482 gynecomastia, 470 health care providers and, 473… 474 health promotion, 477 illness, effects of on development, 476… 477 interaction of developmental issues and health care, 472… 477 interaction of physical and psychosocial development, 468… 471 legal consultation, 480 maturation rates, and gender, 469 menarche, 466 morbidity and mortality, 472… 473 obesity, 476 patient (adolescent as), 473 peers (rising importance of), 472 physical appearance, 476 physical development, 465… 467 pregnancy, 479… 480 psychosocial development, 467… 468 rating scale for sexual maturity (Tanner), 465… 466 risk taking (increased), 472 school-based health services, 480… 481 sexual activity and health consequences, 477… 480 special services for adolescents, 480… 481 spermarche, 466 stature, short/tall, 471 Tanner staging, 465… 466 timing of puberty, 468… 470 vulnerability to abuse, 475… 476 Adult development and aging See Aging/elderly Aerobic exercise, 604 African Americans, 363, 546…547 Age: compliance with medical regimens and, 474 … 475 elderly (see Aging/elderly) headaches and, 258 insomnia and, 318…319 spinal cord injury and, 418 stressful life events and, 44 youth (see Adolescent health psychology; Child health psychology) Aging/elderly, 487…503 adherence and chronic disease, 499…500 behavioral risk factors, 497… 498 cancer and aging, 500 …503 cardiovascular health, 487 cognition and neuropsychology, 489… 494 coping with disease, 500 decision making, 499 de“ning normal aging, 488… 489 disease prevalence in aging, 488 epidemiology and preventive medicine, 489 ethical/policy issues, 20 functioning, age-related changes in, 488 future directions, 502…503 gender and health and, 500 geriatric medicine, 489 geropsychology, 500 hypertension and age (main effects), 490… 494 (see also Hypertension) methodological considerations when studying, 494… 496 new developments in genetics and, 498… 499 personality and social factors, 496… 498 personality change and disease, 497 physiologic changes and spinal cord injury, 420 primary/secondary aging (de“nitions), 490 research opportunities in health psychology and aging, 499…502 self-rated health, 498 social support, 498 stress and aging, 499 transcendental meditation (TM), 596 659 what health psychologists need to know about aging, 488…489 what we know from a person•s age, 488 women living alone, 536 AIDS/HIV, 219…239 adherence, 233…235 adolescents and risk behaviors, 479 alcohol use and, 522 basic information about, 219…221 clinic-based programs, 225…226 community-based programs, 226…229 community collaboration, 237 coping and, 54, 232…233 drug abuse treatment settings, 223…224 epidemiology, 219…220 future directions, 237…239 historical and psychosocial context of medical care, 230…231 immune function and, 80 …82, 83, 86 87 … impact (psychosocial and economic), 220…221 international involvement, 239 osteopathy, 593 prevention programs: downstream approaches, 222…224 midstream approaches, 224…229 primary, 221…230 secondary, 230…237 upstream approaches, 229…230, 239 psychological intervention needs among people living with HIV, 231…233 risk-reduction among persons living with HIV, 235…237 school-based programs, 224…225, 238 social support and, 62… 66 63, stigma, 382 stressors related to, 232 technology use, increased, 238 transmission and natural course, 220 women•s health, 517, 522 Alcohol use/abuse: African Americans, 547 aging and, 492, 497 Asian Americans, 548 cancer and, 270 Latino(a) Americans, 549 Native Americans, 551 women, 521…522 Alexander technique (movement therapy), 605 Alexithymia (asthma), 102…103 Alternative therapies See Therapies, complementary/alternative Alzheimer•s disease (AD), 61… 78, 496, 499 62, Amenorrhea, 470… 471 Anger, 300, 341…342, 345…346 660 Subject Index Animal models of nicotine addiction, 149…153 Anxiety: cancer and, 272…273 coronary heart disease and, 604 immune function and, 80… 81 movement therapies for, 604 recurrent abdominal pain and, 402 spinal cord injury and, 423 women•s health and, 520 Aromatherapy, 603 Arthritis and musculoskeletal conditions, 169…185 chronic pain studies, 57…58 coping, 57, 58 diathesis, 170…176 biological factors, 170…173 depression, 174…175 “bromyalgia (FM), 172 …173 neuroticism, 173 osteoarthritis (OA), 171 positive affect, 175 psychological factors, 173 …175 rheumatoid arthritis, 170 …171 self-ef“cacy and control, 173 …174 social diathesis factors, 175…176 social support, 175…176 somatization, 175 stigma, 176 future directions, 184…185 osteopathy, 593 social support and, 64, 66 stress, 176…183 appraisal, 182 biological stress systems, 176 …182 coping, 182…183 HPA axis, 177…178 immune system, 179…180 pain system, 180…182 psychological stress factors, 182…183 reproductive system, 178…179 SAM axis, 178 social stress factors, 183 treatment: biological/pharmacological, 183 …184 implications, 183…184 psychosocial, 184 written emotional disclosure therapy, 605 women and, 518 Art therapy, 606 Asian Americans/Paci“c Islanders, 547…548 Asthma, 99…14 adherence, 108…109, 453 alexithymia, 102…103 autonomic nervous system and in”ammatory processes in stress and, 108 children and, 453 classical and operant conditioning, 100…101 cognitive and perceptual processes, 101…102 comorbid psychiatric disorders: functional status, 107…108 mood disorders, 107 panic disorder, 106…107 effects of suggestion on pulmonary function, 101…102 epidemiology, 100 family systems theory, 103…104 future directions, 114 health care costs related to, 100 panic-fear, 110 perceived vs objective pulmonary function, 102 psychiatric disorders and, 106…10 psychoanalytic theory and, 102…103 psychological factors associated with, 104…108 psychological theories applied to mechanisms involved in (evidence basis), 100…104 psychosocial factors, 109…10 repressive-defensive coping style, 103 social relationships, 110…11 stress/emotions and, 104…106, 108 treatment/psychological interventions: acupuncture, 597 education about, 111 EMG biofeedback, 113 homeopathy, 592 hypnosis, 114 medical treatments for, 108 psychotherapy, 111…12 relaxation training, 112…13 respiratory resistance biofeedback, 113 respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) feedback, 113 written emotional expression exercises, 112, 605 yoga, 113…14 Atkins• diet, 602 Attention-rejection (coping style), 53 Autogenic training/feedback, 254…255 Autonomic nervous system and in”ammatory processes in stress and asthma, 108 Ayurveda, 595…598 Bariatric surgery, 130…131 Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), 198, 396 Behavioral assessment devices, 327…328 Behavioral conceptualizations, chronic pain, 295…297 Behavioral risk/protective factors: African Americans, 363, 546…547 aging, 497…498 Asian Americans, 547…548 cancer, 270…271 gender, 553 Latino(a) Americans, 549 Native Americans, 550…551 socioeconomic status and, 557 Behavioral treatment/prevention approaches See Cognitive and behavioral therapy/interventions Beliefs about pain, 300…301 Bereavement, 38…40, 80 Biobehavioral factors (gender), 554 Biobehavioral model of headache, 253…254 Biofeedback, 113, 255…256, 355…356 Biological factors (gender), 552…553 Biomedical model of chronic pain, 294 Biopsychosocial model, 1, 7, 10, 169, 318…319 Blood Glucose Awareness Training (BGAT), 205…206 Body image, 273, 470 Body Mass Index (BMI), 122 Bone marrow transplantation, 270, 275 Breast cancer (women•s health), 516 Breast self-examination (BSE), 54 Brief therapy, 402, 403… 404, 469 Cancer, 267…286 in adolescents, 476…477 aging and, 500…503 anxiety and, 272…273 basic primer, 267…270 behavioral risk factors, 270…271 body image problems and, 273 breast, 516 carcinoma, 268 caregiver/family issues, 283…285 in children, 445, 449…451 classi“cation into “ve major groups, 268 coping and, 56, 64…66, 276 277 … delirium in, 273 depression and, 272 future directions, 285…286 gender, 268 immune function and, 86 interventions (psychosocial), 278…283 CBT for anticipatory nausea, 279 CBT for emotional distress, 280 CBT for pain, 280 educational, 278…279 group-therapy approaches, 281 health outcomes and, 281…282 immune functioning and, 282…283 for pain related to procedures, interventions for (with children), 449… 451 problem-solving therapy (PST), 280…281 telephone counseling, 281 leukemia, 268 lung, 515…516 lymphoma, 268 myeloma, 268 pediatric brain tumors, 456…457 prevention issues, 283 psychiatric disorders and, 271…272 psychosocial effects of, 271…276 psychosocial factors in”uencing impact of, 276…278 race and, 268 sarcoma, 268 sexual functioning dif“culties, 273 …274 social support, 56, 64 … 277…278 66, staging, 269 statistics, 268…269 suicide, 273 survivorship, 501…502 terminal patients (psychological issues), 274 treatment, 269…270, 501, 598 alternative therapies, 598 bone marrow transplantation (BMT), 270, 275 chemotherapy, 269, 275 of the elderly, 501 immunotherapy, 269…270 psychological responses to speci“c, 274 …275 radiation therapy, 269, 275 surgery, 269, 274 …275 in women, 515…516, 536 Subject Index Carcinoma, 268 Cardiovascular See Coronary heart disease (CHD) Caregivers, 78, 283…285, 532 cancer patients, 283…285 health, 284 immune dysregulation and, 78 problem-solving approaches, 284 …285 psychoeducational interventions, 284 psychological distresss, 284 psychosocial interventions for, 284 …285 unmet needs, 284 women•s role as, 532 Catastrophic thinking, 302 Cattell 16-PF, 497 Chaplains, 582 Chemotherapy, 269, 275 Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL), 402, 475 Child Depression Inventory (CDI), 402 Child health psychology, 439… 458 basic assumptions (four), 439… 444 competence and stress-and-coping paradigms (vs de“cits/psychopathology), 441… 442 family as central organizing framework, 439… 440 indicated interventions, 445, 446, 454 … 458 pediatric brain tumors, 456… 457 transplantation, 457… 458 traumatic brain injury (TBI) in children, 454 … 456 outcome studies (importance of), 442… 443 pediatric psychology as umbrella, 440… 441 risk levels, and related psychological interventions, 444 … 446 selective interventions, 445… 446, 448… 454 disease-related pain, 451… 453 pain/distress management, 448… 449 procedure-related pain, 449… 451 social ecology theory, 440 treatment adherence, 453…454 universal interventions, 445, 446…448 immunizations, 446…447 prevention of unintentional injuries, 447…448 in primary care settings, 446 Child Posttraumatic Stress Reaction Index, 32 Chinese medicine, traditional (TCM), 596…598 Chiropractic, 594…595 Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), 365…384 case de“nition, 365…369 epidemiology, 369…371 etiology, 371…374 future directions, 383…384 medical utilization, 380…381 prognosis, 377…378 sociodemographics, 369 stigma, 381…383 subtypes, 374…376 treatment, 378…381 attributions, 381 cognitive behavior therapy, 379…380 coping skills therapy, 379 envelope therapy, 379 exercise, 379 nonpharmacological interventions, 379…380 pharmacological and alternative, 378…379 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), 55…56, 11, 517 See also Pulmonary disease Chronic pain See Pain Cigarettes See Tobacco use/dependence Circadian rhythms, 318, 369 Clinic-based programs (AIDS prevention), 225…226 Clinical approach to health psychology, 8…9 Cognition and neuropsychology (and aging), 489… 494 Cognitive and behavioral therapy/interventions: anticipatory nausea (cancer), 279 asthma, 111 cancer, 279, 280 children, 402…403, 450, 453 chronic fatigue syndrome, 379…380 coronary heart disease, 355…356 depression in diabetes, 198 emotional distress (cancer), 280 ethnic minorities, 551…552 headache, 253…261, 453 insomnia, 331 irritable bowel syndrome, 404 … 406 pain, 280, 308…310, 402… 450 403, procedure-related pain (children), 450 recurrent abdominal pain (RAP), 402… 403 recurrent headache in children, 453 spinal cord injury, 429 Cognitive appraisals (demand/resource) and stressful life events, 29 Cognitive effects of smoking (tobacco dependence), 153 Cognitive factors, psychology of pain, 300…303 Cognitive/perceptual processes (asthma), 101…102 Cognitive processing theories (coping), 52 Cognitive-transactional process perspective (stressful life events), 28…30 Community approach to health psychology, 8…9 Community-based programs (AIDS prevention), 226…229, 237 also School-based See programs Competence and stress-and-coping paradigms, 441… 442 Competency, professional See Training/education Computer/technology use, 238, 261 Conditioning, classical/operant, 85, 100…101, 295…297 asthma, 100…101 immune function and, 85 pain management, 295…297 Conjugal loss/bereavement, 38…40 Conservation of resources (COR) theory, 29…30, 38…39, 41 Coping, 51…59 aging, and disease, 500 cancer, 56, 276…277 chronic fatigue syndrome, 373, 377, 379 chronic illness, 55…56, 58…59 diabetes, 202 disease progression/risk and, 54 …55 future directions, 59 661 health behaviors and, 54 health outcomes and, 54 …55 HIV/AIDS, 232…233 immune function and, 81 pain, 57…58, 302…303, 307 psychological adaptation to disease and, 55…57 social comparison process, 57 theories of, 51…54 cognitive processing theories, 52 coping style theories, 52…53 stress and coping paradigm, 51…52 theories of coping with health risk, 53…54 women•s expression of illness, 533…534 Coronary heart disease (CHD), 339, 340…352 aging and, 487, 490, 493, 494 … 496, 499 anger/hostility and, 341…342, 345…346 depression and, 346…347 gender and, 343…345, 529, 553, 555 high blood pressure (see Hypertension) individual characteristics and, 345…348 obesity and, 124 occupational stress and, 342 psychosocial risk factors, 340…345 race and, 343…345 social support and, 60…61, 63…64, 342…343, 349…350 socioeconomic status (SES) and, 342…343, 344, 529 stress and, 341…343, 348, 349…350 treatment, 348…352 exercise and behavioral components of cardiac rehabilitation, 348…349 interventions to increase social support and reduce life stress, 349…350 lifestyle changes, 349…352 medical/surgical, 348 modifying hostility and Type A behavior, 349 osteopathy, 593 psychosocial approaches, 349…352 Type A behavior, 345, 349 women, 514…515, 529, 536 Criminal victimization, 40… 475… 41, 476 Cultural aspects of health psychology, 545 considerations in study of ethnicity/SES/ gender, and health, 558…559 ethnicity (see Race/ethnicity) future directions, 558…559 gender (see Gender) occupational health psychology (case study), 581 race (see Race/ethnicity) socioeconomic status (see Socioeconomic status (SES)) stressful life events, 43… 44 Cultural Deviance Model, 558 Cultural Equivalence Model, 558 Cultural Variant Model, 558 Daily Coping Inventory, 57 Daily Hassles Scale, 33 Daily Uplift Scale, 33 Dance movement therapy (DMT), 605… 606 Data imputation, 496 Daytime sleepiness, 328 662 Subject Index Decision making (research opportunities), 499 Delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH), 77 Delirium (cancer), 273 Demand appraisal, 29 Depression/depressive disorders: cancer and, 272 in children, 442 coping, 56 coronary heart disease and, 346…347 diabetes and, 197…198 electroacupuncture, 598 fatigue and, 366 …367, 370 gender and, 554 headaches and, 259 homeopathy, 593 irritable bowel syndrome and, 396 immune function, 80, 81…82 pain and, 300 recurrent abdominal pain and, 401… 402 spinal cord injury and, 422… 423 stressful life events and, 34 …35 tobacco dependence and, 154 in women, 519…520 Desensitization, 450 Developmental perspective See Adolescent health psychology; Aging/elderly; Child health psychology Diabetes mellitus, 191…210 adherence, 192…193, 199, 202 aging and, 492, 493, 494 barriers to care, 202…203 in children, 441, 442, 453, 454 classi“cation system, 191 Clinic Satisfaction Questionnaire, 201 coping and problem solving, 202 depression and, 197…198 education programs, 193…194 future directions, 209…210 health psychology and, 208…209 hypoglycemia (consequences/detection/ severity), 205…206 obesity and, 124 patient-practitioner interactions, 200…202 prevalence, 191 psychosocial factors in management of, 193…203 sexual dysfunction, 203…205 social support, 199…200 stress and, 195…197 weight management, 206…208 Diagnostic Interview Schedule (DIS), 366 Diathesis-stress model See Arthritis and musculoskeletal conditions Dietary interventions: alternative healing approaches, 601… 602 Atkins• diet, 602 ethnic minorities, 552 Gerson method, 602 macrobiotic diets, 602 Ornish Lifestyle Heart Trial, 602 very low-caloric diets (VLCDs), 131, 207 very low-fat diets, 601… 602 Diet/nutrition: African Americans, 546 Asian Americans, 548 cancer and, 270 Latino(a) Americans, 549 Native Americans, 550 Disability: arthritis and, 169 (see also Arthritis and musculoskeletal conditions) related characteristics of spinal cord injury, 425 (see also Spinal cord injury (SCI)) Disasters See Stressful life events Disease/illness See also Specific disease/disorder: adolescent development and, 476 … 477 aging and, 488, 497 coping, 54…55 immune function and, 81…82 pain related to (interventions for children), 451… 453 personality change and, 497 social support, 62…64 stressful life events and, 34…36 Domestic violence, 40, 517…518 Drug abuse See Substance abuse Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes about Sleep Scale (DBAS), 327 Dyslipidemia and obesity, 124 Eastern systems of healing, 595…598 Ayurveda, 595…598 traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), 596…598 Eating disorders, 520…521 Echinacea, 598…599 Ecological context/dimensions, 7, 570 …572 Economics, 20, 125…126 Education in psychology See Training/education Educational interventions, 111, 193…194, 278…279, 284, 331…332 Elderly See Aging/elderly Electroacupuncture, 597, 598 Emotional control, and coping, 53 Emotional disclosure (immune function), 85…86 Emotional distress of cancer, 280 Employment role (women•s health), 530 …532 Endocrine function, 61 Energy mobilization, 603 Enhancement or expansion hypothesis, 530 Envelope therapy, 379 Environmental factors/contributors: headaches, 259…260 obesity, 126…128 tobacco dependence, 154…155 Ethical/policy issues, 19…20 aging of the population, 20 economics, 20 new technologies, 20 poverty and inequality, 19…20 tobacco dependence, 154…155, 161 Ethnicity See Race/ethnicity Exercise See also Physical activity: aerobic, 604 chronic fatigue syndrome, 379 coronary heart disease, 348…349, 355 obesity and, 134…135 physical activity interventions (ethnic minorities), 552 resistance, 604 Exercise-stimulation therapy (Qigong), 596…597 Expressive therapies, 605… 606 art therapy, 606 dance movement therapy (DMT), 605… 606 music therapy (MT), 606 written emotional disclosure, 112, 605 Family: asthma and family systems theory, 103…104 as central organizing framework (children), 439… 440 inclusion of (spinal cord injury), 429 work-family interface (occupational health psychology), 572 Fatigue See Chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS) Feldenkrais• functional integration (movement therapy), 605 Fennell Phase Inventory, 376 Fibromyalgia (FM), 172…173, 373, 374, 376, 519 Field-theory, 423 Functional integration (movement therapy), 605 Functional somatic syndromes, 373…374 Functioning/functional status: age-related changes in, 488 asthma, 107…108 goals for levels of injury (in spinal cord injury), 416… 417 pain and, 306…307, 31 Gallstones and obesity, 125 Garlic, 599 Gate control theory (GCT), 298…299 Gender See also Women•s health psychology: aging, 500 cancer, 268 caregiving, 532 conjugal loss, 39 coronary heart disease, 343…345 health/life expectancy, 533, 552…555 behavioral factors, 553 biobehavioral factors, 554 biological factors, 552…553 prevention approaches, 554…555 psychosocial factors, 553…554 male/female physicians, 523 obesity, 123…124 physical maturation rate, 469 psychological distress of irritable bowel syndrome, 397 reactions to fertility status, 525 spinal cord injury, 418 stressful life events, 39, 42… 43 tobacco dependence, 153 workplace support and health, 531 General adaptation syndrome (GAS), 28 Genetics/genetic factors: aging (new developments), 498… 499 coronary heart disease, 352…353 obesity, 126 tobacco dependence, 152, 157…160 Genocide, 38 Genome, human, 559 Geriatric medicine, 489 See also Aging/elderly Geropsychology, 500 Gerson method, 602 Subject Index Ginger, 599 Ginkgo biloba, 599… 600 Ginseng, 600 Global Symptom Index (GSI), 398 Goodness-of-“t (occupational health psychology), 572 Group-therapy approaches, 261, 281 Guidelines for Adolescent Preventive Services (GAPS), 473… 474, 477 Gynecomastia, 470 Hamilton Scales, 396 Headaches, 245…262 abortive medications, 251 behavioral treatment, 253…261 age/gender and, 258 autogenic feedback/training, 254 …255 biofeedback, 255…256 cognitive-behavioral interventions, 256…257 comorbid psychological distress/disorder, 259 computers and Web- and CD-Romadministered treatments, 261 depression and, 259 environmental factors, 259…260 future directions, 261…262 group treatment, 261 headache type/frequency/chronicity and, 258 implementation, 254 minimal therapist contact interventions, 260…261 patient preference and cost effectiveness, 260 planning, 257…261 relaxation training, 252, 254 …255 treatment algorithms, 260 treatment format/delivery, 260…261 treatment history, 258…259 biobehavioral model of headache, 253…254 in children, 448, 452…453 classi“cation and diagnosis, 245…249 danger signs suggesting immediate medical referral, 246 migraine, 247, 293…294, 396 nonpharmacological treatment, 252…253 osteopathy, 593 pain measurement, 249…250 headache diary, 249…250 supplementary approaches, 250 prophylactic medications, 251…252 substance abuse/withdrawal and, 248 symptomatic medications, 251 tension type, 248…249 Health: behaviors compromising to, 34, 35 belief model, 453…454 conditions promoting and maintaining, 9…10 inalienable right to, 10 insurance, 523 promotion, 477, 497… 498 sleep and, 323 socioeconomic status and status of, 556 Health psychology, 1…2, 5…21 across the life span (see Adolescent health psychology; Aging/elderly; Child health psychology) approaches to (two: clinical/community), 8…9 centrality of scientist-practitioner model, 10 critique of professionalization, 18…19 de“nition and scope of, 6…10 economics of, 1…2 education and training (see Training/education) ethical and policy issues, 19…20 aging population, 20 economics, 20 new technologies, 20 poverty/inequality, 19…20 history, 1…2, 5…6 relationship with other professions, Health risk, theories of coping with, 53…54 Herbal remedies See Therapies, complementary/alternative, herbal remedies High blood pressure See Hypertension Homeopathy, 592…593 Horowitz Impact of Event Scale, 32 HPA axis, 75…76, 104, 177…178 Hypertension, 339, 352…356 aging and, 490…494 behavior and, 353…354 conclusions, 356…357 genetic and environmental interactions, 352…353 obesity and, 124 personality and, 354 stress and, 353…354 treatment, 354 …356 adherence, 356 exercise training, 355 stress management, biofeedback, and cognitive interventions, 355…356 transcendental meditation (TM), 596 weight loss and dietary changes, 355 Hypnosis/hypnotherapy, 85, 114, 404 Hypoglycemia, 205…206 also Diabetes See mellitus •IdealŽ weight, 122 Illness See Disease/illness Imagery, 450 Immune function, 75…87 acute vs chronic stress, 76…78 anxiety, 80…81 bereavement, 80 cancer and, 86, 282…283 chronic fatigue syndrome and, 371…374 coping, 81 depression, 80, 81…82 disease progression, 81…82 HIV and, 80…81, 83, 86 87 … HPA axis, 75…76 immune dysregulation vs immune suppression (terminology), 76 individual psychological differences, 78…82 insomnia and, 323…324 mood/affect and, 79…81 psychological interventions, 84…87 cancer, 86 classical conditioning, 85 emotional disclosure, 85…86 663 HIV, 86…87 hypnosis, 85 relaxation, 85, 86 social relationships/support and, 61… 62, 82…84 stress-immune pathways, 75…76 sympathetic nervous system (SNS), 76 Immunizations, 446… 447, 473 Immunotherapy (cancer), 269…270 Individual characteristics/differences See Personality variables Infertility, 525…526 Injury See Spinal cord injury (SCI) Insomnia, 317…334 also Sleep disturbances See basics of sleep, 317…320 age and maturation, 318…319 biopsychosocial determinants of, 318…319 circadian and homeostatic factors, 318 deprivation, 319…320 medical conditions and drugs, 319 psychosocial stressors, 319 classi“cation/diagnosis, 320…321 correlates and risk factors, 322 evaluation of sleep complaints/disorders, 324 …328 behavioral assessment devices, 327…328 clinical interview, 325 Dysfunctional Beliefs and Attitudes about Sleep Scale (DBAS), 327 evaluation of daytime sleepiness, 328 Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), 327 polysomnography, 326…327 role of psychological evaluation, 328 self-report measures, 327 sleep diary monitoring, 326 Sleep Impairment Index (SII), 327 future directions, 333…334 health and sleep, 323 immunity and, 323…324 impact of, 324 longevity and, 323 outcome evidence, 332…333 prevalence, 321…322 psychopathology and sleep, 322…323 scope of problem, 320…324 subtypes (primary/secondary), 320 treatments, 328…333 barriers to, 329 cognitive-behavioral, 331 combined psychological and pharmacological, 333 help-seeking determinants, 329 medications (bene“ts/limitations/risks), 329…330 psychological therapies, 330…332 relaxation-based interventions, 330…331 sleep hygiene education, 331…332 sleep restriction, 331 stimulus control therapy, 331 Integrated Delivery System (IDS) team, 582 Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (ISEL), 63 Interview measures vs checklists (stressful life events), 33 In vitro fertilization (IVF), 54, 525 664 Subject Index Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), 393… 408 abuse (sexual/physical) and, 399…400 categorical measures of psychopathology, 397 chronic fatigue syndrome and, 373 clinical criteria, 393…395 Manning criteria, 394 Rome criteria, 394…395 de“nition, epidemiological, and assessment issues, 393…400 dimensional measures of distress, 396…397 epidemiology, 395…396 future directions, 407…408 gender differences in psychological distress, 397 life events/stressors and GI distress, 398…399 patient vs nonpatient, 397…398 psychological distress, 396…397 psychological treatment, 403…407 brief psychodynamic psychotherapy, 403… 404 cognitive and behavioral treatments, 404…406 hypnotherapy, 404 relaxation training, 404…406 Kava, 600 Kelly Air Force base See Occupational health psychology case study Laboratory stress, 77 Laparoscopy, and acupressure, 598 Latino(a) Americans, 548…550 Leukemia, 268 Life-change score, 34 Life Events and Dif“culties Schedule (LEDS), 33 Life events/stress See Stress; Stressful life events Life Experiences Survey (LES), 398 Lifespan development See Adolescent health psychology; Aging/elderly; Child health psychology Lifestyle interventions: coronary heart disease, 349…352 obesity, 128…129 Longevity, insomnia and, 323 Lung cancer, 515…516 also Pulmonary See disease Lymphoma, 268 Macrobiotic diets, 602 Magnetic therapy, 597 Manning criteria, 398 Marriage: aging and, 536 conjugal loss and bereavement, 38… 40 immune function and marital disruption/interaction, 83…84 spinal cord injury and, 419 women•s role as spouse/caregiver, 532 Massage, 603 McGill Pain Questionnaire (MPQ), 398 Mediating processes (stressful life events), 29, 35 Medical treatment See Pharmaceutical aids/therapy Menarche, 466 Mental/psychiatric disorders: asthma and psychiatric comorbidity, 106…108, 109…10 sleep and psychopathology, 322…323 tobacco dependence and psychiatric comorbidity, 153…154 women, 519…522 Mentorship (women•s health), 535 Meridians, 596 Migraine See Headaches Migration (refugees), 41… 42 Mind/body therapies, 606 Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), 346, 396, 398 Miscarriage, 524 …525 Modeling/behavioral rehearsal, 450 Modulation (physiological process in pain), 303 Mood, 79…81, 107 Morbidity/mortality: adolescents, 472… 473 African Americans, 546 Asian Americans, 547 ethnic/racial differences, Latino(a) Americans, 548…549 Native Americans, 550 •the new morbidity,Ž 473 obesity and, 124, 125 spinal cord injury (mortality), 420… 421 Motivational enhancement therapy (MET), and asthma, 109 Movement therapies, 604 … 605 aerobic exercise, 604 Alexander technique (movement therapy), 605 dance movement therapy (DMT), 605… 606 Feldenkrais• functional integration (movement therapy), 605 leisure activity, 604 resistance exercise, 604 yoga, 605 Moxibustion, 597 Multidisciplinary pain rehabilitation programs (MPRP), 312…313 Multiple roles (risk/protective factor, women), 529…533 Multiple sclerosis (MS), 56, 382 Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT), 328 Musculoskeletal conditions See Arthritis and musculoskeletal conditions Music therapy (MT), 606 Myeloma, 268 Myofascial release/Rol“ng, 603 Native Americans, 550…551 Natural disasters, 30…31, 36…37 Natural environment studies (asthma), 105…106 Nausea, anticipatory (cancer), CBT for, 279 NEO Personality Inventory, 398 Neurasthenia, 365 Neurological categories and classi“cation, spinal cord injury, 415… 417 Nociception, 293 Nutrition See Diet/nutrition Obesity, 121…138 in adolescence, 476 bariatric surgery, 130…131 Body Mass Index (BMI), 122 in childhood, 476 classi“cation of, 121…123 consequences of, 124 …126 coronary heart disease and weight management, 355 diabetes and weight management, 206…208 economic costs of, 125…126 environmental contributors to, 126…128 epidemiology, 123…124 exercise/physical activity, 134 …135 •fatŽ tax, 138 food provision/monetary incentives, 133 future directions, 135…136 genetic contributors to, 126 •idealŽ weight, 122 lifelong perspective, 137 lifestyle interventions, 128…129 measurement of abdominal fat, 123 morbidity/mortality impact, 124, 125 multicomponent posttreatment programs, 135 national plan for prevention of, 137 peer support, 133…134 pharmacotherapy, 129…130 prevention, 136…138 psychosocial consequences, 125 regulating advertising of junk foods, 138 relapse prevention training (RPT), 133 school interventions, 137…138 strategies to improve long-term outcome, 131…135 telephone prompts, 133 treatment of, 128…131 very low-caloric diets (VLCDs), 131, 207 Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), miscarriage and, 524 Occupational health psychology, 569…586 ecological dimensions of, 570…572 future directions, 585…586 goodness-of-“t, 572 history, 570 individual characteristics, 571…572 organizational health, 573…579 preventive health management, 572…573 training in, 579…580 violence in workplace, 584 workaholism, 571 work environment, 570…571 work-family interface, 572 Occupational health psychology case study, 580…585 barriers and goals, 583 cost savings, 585 course of transition, 581…582 cultural issues and dilemmas, 581 high-risk work environment, good results, 584 history and role of OHP at Kelly Air Force base, 580 service-oriented networks: chaplains, 582 Civilian Transition Of“ce (CTO), 582…583 Integrated Delivery System (IDS) team, 582 Kelly Action Information Board (KAIB), 582 United Way, 583 suicides, 584 Transition Life Advisor (TLA) Program, 583…584 Subject Index workforce composition, 580 …581 workplace violence, 584 Occupational stress, 342, 369, 555 Oncology See Cancer Operant conditioning See Conditioning, classical/operant Organizational health, 573…579 also See Occupational health psychology assessment, surveillance, and evaluation, 574 …575 critical functions, 577…578 mission statement, 575 practice model, 576 …577 scientist practitioner model, 574 Orgasm, 419 Ornish Lifestyle Heart Trial, 602 Osteopathy, 593…594 Osteoporosis, 519 Pain, 293…313 abdominal, 395, 400 … 403 alternative therapies: chiropractic, 594 osteopathy, 593 traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), 597…598 assessment, 303…308 coping and psychosocial adaptation, 307 functional activities, 306…307 interview, 305…306 overt expressions of pain, 307…308 physical and laboratory factors, 304 psychosocial contributions, 304 …306 quantifying pain severity, 303…304 self-report measurement of pain, 306 behavioral conceptualizations: classical (respondent) conditioning, 295…296 operant conditioning (contingencies of reinforcement), 296 …297 social learning processes, 297 cancer, 280 children, 448… 449 interventions for disease-related pain, 451… 453 interventions for procedure-related pain, 449… 451 chronic pain models/conceptualizations: behavioral, 295…297 biomedical model, 294 cognitive-behavioral model, 308…310 coping studies, 57…58 integrative, multidimensional model, 298…299, 303 psychogenic model, 294 …295 secondary-gain model, 295 unidimensional conceptualizations, 294 …297 cognitive-behavioral interventions, 280, 308…310, 402… 450 403, coping and, 57…58, 302…303, 307 de“nitions (acute/chronic/recurrent), 293…294 gate control theory (GCT), 298…299 headaches (see Headaches) multidisciplinary pain rehabilitation programs (MPRP), 312…313 nociception, 293 patient pro“les: adaptive copers (AC) patients, 311 dysfunctional (DYS) patients, 311 interpersonally distressed (ID) patients, 311 patient-uniformity myth, 310…312 physiological processes of pain (four), 303 psychology of: affective factors, 299…300 anger, 300 beliefs about pain, 300 …301 catastrophic thinking, 302 cognitive factors, 300…303 coping, 302…303 depression, 300 self-ef“cacy, 301…302 recurrent acute, 293…294 in spinal cord injury, 421 syndromes, 293, 294 Panic (in asthma), 106 …107, 10 Paraplegia, 416 See also Spinal cord injury (SCI) Partner Responses to Cancer Inventory (PRCI), 65 Patient-practitioner interactions, 200…202, 523…524 Patient-uniformity myth (pain), 310 …312 Pediatric brain tumors, 456… 457, Pediatric psychology, 440… 441 See also Child health psychology Peers, 133…134, 472 Perceived stress scales, 32 Perception (physiological process in pain), 303 Period effect, 488 Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM), 527 Personality variables: aging, 493… 494, 496… 498 cancer, 271 cardiovascular health, 493… 494 hypertension and, 354 immune function, 78…82 occupational health psychology, 571…572 spinal cord injury, 424 … 427 Personal relationships (immune function), 83…84 See also Social support/relationships Personal trainers/“nancial incentives (obesity), 134 …135 Pharmaceutical aids/therapy: arthritis/musculoskeletal conditions, 183…184 chronic fatigue syndrome, 378…379 headaches (symptomatic/abortive/prophylactic medications), 250…252 insomnia: combined psychological/pharmacological treatments, 333 sleep medications (bene“ts/limitations/risks), 329…330 obesity, 129…130 tobacco dependence cessation, 155…156 Phenomenological and appraisal processes (SCI), 428 Phenotypes, 158…159 Physical activity See also Exercise: African Americans, 546 …547 Asian Americans, 548 Latino(a) Americans, 549 Native Americans, 550 Physical appearance (adolescents), 476 665 Physical development See Adolescent health psychology Physical/sexual abuse: adolescent vulnerability to, 475… 476 battering/domestic violence, 40, 517…518 irritable bowel syndrome and, 399… 400 Physiological changes as mediator, 34, 35 Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), 327 Place-conditioning (PC) (tobacco dependence), 150, 151…152 Planned critical multiplism perspective, Polarity therapy, 604 Policy See Public policy issues Polysomnography, 326…327 Population aging, 20 See also Aging/elderly Positive self-statements, 450 Postpartum reactions, 526…527 Posttraumatic headache, chronic (diagnostic criteria), 247 Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): aging and, 502 cancer and, 272…273, 502 criminal victimization and, 40…41 disasters and, 31…32, 36 37, 38 … gender/culture and, 43 miscarriage and, 524 war/genocide and, 38 Pregnancy: stressful conditions associated with (see Women•s health psychology, reproductive health) teenage, 479… 480 Problem-focused and emotion-focused coping efforts, 58 Problem-solving therapy/training, 280…281, 607 Professionalization, critique of, 18…19 Progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) training, 254, 255, 406 Psychiatric disorders See Mental/psychiatric disorders Psychoanalytic theory (asthma), 102…103 Psychogenic model of chronic pain, 294 …295 Psychological oncology See Cancer Psychology, women entering “eld of, 534 …535 Psychoneuroimmunology See Immune function Psychosocial development (adolescence), 467… 468 Psychosocial factors See also Social support/relationships: asthma, and medical treatments/outcomes, 109…10 gender, 553…554 obesity, 125 socioeconomic status and risk factors, 557 Psychotherapy (asthma), 111…12 Puberty timing, 468… 470 Public policy issues, 19…20 aging of the population, 20 AIDS/HIV prevention (upstream approaches), 229…230 economics, 20 •fatŽ tax, 138 health care, 2, 19…20 new technologies, 20 obesity, 137…138 poverty and inequality, 19…20 666 Subject Index Public policy issues (Continued) regulating advertising of junk foods (obesity), 138 tobacco dependence, 154…157, 160 161 … Pulmonary disease: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), 55…56, 11, 517 coping and, 55…56 lung cancer, 515…516 perceived vs objective pulmonary function (in asthma), 102 (see also Asthma) social support/relationships and, 64, 111 women•s health, 517 Qigong, 596…597, 598 Quetelet•s Index, 122 Race/ethnicity, 546…552 African Americans, 546…547 alcohol abuse, 547, 548, 549, 551 Asian Americans/Paci“c Islanders, 547…548 behavioral treatment/prevention approaches for ethnic minorities, 551…552 dietary interventions, 552 physical activity interventions, 552 smoking interventions, 551…552 cancer and, 268 diet, 546, 548, 549, 550, 552 Latino(a) Americans, 548…550 major behavioral risk and protective factors, 546…551 morbidity and mortality, 546, 547, 548…549, 50 Native Americans, 550…551 physical activity, 546…547, 548, 549, 550, 552 sexual behavior, 547, 548, 549, 550 social support, 547, 548, 549, 551 socioeconomic status and, and health, 556…557 spinal cord injury and, 418 stressful life events, 43… 44 tobacco use, 153, 546, 547…548, 549, 550, 551…552 Radiation therapy, 269, 275 Rape victims, adolescent, 475…476 Recurrent abdominal pain (RAP), 400 … 403 Recurrent acute pain, 293…294 Re”exology, 603 Reframing beliefs, 450 Refugees, 41… 42 Regulation See Public policy issues Rehabilitation psychology, 423 See also Spinal cord injury (SCI) Reiki, 604 Relapse prevention training (RPT) (obesity), 133 Relaxation-based interventions: asthma, 112…13 children, 450 headaches, 252, 254 …255 immune function, 85, 86 insomnia, 330…331 irritable bowel syndrome, 404 … 406 progressive muscle relaxation training, 254, 255 Repression-sensitization (coping style), 53 Repressive-defensive coping styles, 53, 103 Reproductive health See Women•s health psychology, reproductive health Reproductive system, 178…179 Resilience to stress, 169 Resistance exercise, 604 Resistance stage, 28 Resource(s): appraisals, 29 objective/subjective, 30 Respiratory problems See Asthma; Pulmonary disease Respiratory resistance biofeedback, 113 Respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) feedback, 113 Response-based perspective (stressful life events), 28 Risk, health (role/theories of coping), 53…55 Risk levels (children), and related psychological interventions, 444…446 Risk-reduction among persons living with HIV, 235…237 Risk taking, increased (adolescents), 472 Rol“ng, 603 Sarcoma, 268 Scarcity hypothesis, 530 Schedule of Recent Experiences (SRE), 32 School-based programs: AIDS prevention, 224…225, 238 health services for adolescents, 480…481 obesity, 137…138 Scientist-practitioner model, 10, 574 Secondary-gain model of chronic pain, 295 Self-administration, 149…151 Self-ef“cacy and pain, 301…302 Self-rated health, aging and, 498 Self-regulatory model of illness behavior, 53 Self-report measurement of pain, 306 SERATE (Standardized Event Rating System), 33 Sex roles, socialization, and women•s health, 533…534 Sexual abuse See Physical/sexual abuse Sexual dysfunction: cancer and, 273…274 diabetes and, 203…205 in men, 203…204 in women, 204 Sexual harassment in workplace, 531 Sexual health settings, AIDS preventions, 222…223 Sexuality/sexual behavior See also Women•s health psychology, reproductive health: adolescents, 477… 480 African Americans, 547 Asian Americans, 548 Latino(a) Americans, 549 Native Americans, 550 spinal cord injury, 419… 420 Sexually transmitted disease (STD), 478…479, 522, 525 See also AIDS/HIV Sickle cell disease, 57, 451… 452 Sleep disturbances See also Insomnia: depression and, 366 sleep apnea, and obesity, 125 Smoking See Tobacco use/dependence Social comparison coping process, 52, 57 Social ecology theory (children), 440 Social integration, 59… 60 Social learning processes (pain), 297 Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS), 32, 39, 398, 399 Social risk factors for initiation/maintenance of tobacco use, 153…154 Social skills training, pediatric brain tumors, 456 Social Support Questionnaire, 65 Social support/relationships, 51, 59… See also 68 Psychosocial factors African Americans, 547 aging, 498 AIDS/HIV, 62…63, 66 arthritis, 64, 66 Asian Americans, 548 asthma, 110…11 cancer, 64 … 277…278 66, cardiovascular function, 60…61 coronary disease, 63… 342…343, 349…350 64, de“nitions, 59… 60 diabetes, 199…200 disease progression/mortality, 62… 64 disease recovery, 62 endocrine function, 61 future research, 67… 68 health outcomes and, 60 … 62 immune function, 61… 82…84 62, Latino(a) Americans, 549 mechanisms for effects on well-being, 66 … 67 Native Americans, 551 perceived/received support, 59 psychological outcomes and, 64 pulmonary disease, 64 spinal cord injury, 427… 428 stressful life events and, 43 weight loss, 208 women, 527…534 Sociodemographics of chronic fatigue syndrome, 369 Socioeconomic status (SES): assessment of, 555…556 behavioral risk factors and, 557 cancer and, 271 coronary heart disease and, 342…343, 344 ethnicity and health and, 556…557 health status and, 556 poverty and inequality, 7, 19…20 prevention and intervention approaches, 557…558 psychosocial risk factors and, 557 women•s mental/physical health and, 528…529 Soft tissue therapies, 603 Somatization, 175, 402 Spermarche, 466 Spinal cord injury (SCI), 415… 430 adjustment following, 423… 429 demographic characteristics, 424 … 425 disability-related characteristics, 425 dynamic/developmental continuum/ processes, 423, 428… 429 individual differences, 424 … 427 personality characteristics, 426… 427 phenomenological and appraisal processes, 428 predisability behavioral patterns, 425… 426 Subject Index preinjury psychopathology, 426 social and interpersonal environment, 427…428 aging and physiologic changes, 420 chiropractic, 594…595 classi“cation of, 415…417 complications: anxiety, 423 depression, 422…423 pain, 421 pressure sores, 421…422 spasticity and contractures, 422 urinary tract infections, 422 epidemiology, 417…421 family and, 429 functional goals for levels of injury, 416…417 future directions/advancements, 430 mortality, 420…421 psychological interventions, 429…430 sexuality and reproductive health, 419…420 vocational rehabilitation intervention programs, 429 Spinal Manual Therapy (SMT), 594 St Johns• wort (SJW), 600…601 Standardized Event Rating System (SERATE), 33 Stanford Sleepiness Scale, 328 State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), 396, 398 Stature, short/tall (adolescence), 471 Stigma, 176, 381…383 Stimulus-based perspective (stressful life events), 28 Stimulus control therapy (insomnia), 331 Stress: academic examination, 77 acute vs chronic, 76…78 aging and, 499 arthritis and (see Arthritis and musculoskeletal conditions, stress) asthma and, 104…106 chronic fatigue syndrome and, 369, 375 coronary heart disease and, 341…343, 348…350, 353…356 diabetes and, 195…197 HIV-related, 232 immune function and, 75…78 insomnia and, 319 irritable bowel syndrome and, 398…399 laboratory, 77 occupational, 342, 369 postpartum reactions and, 526 transactional stress theory, 29 Stress-and-coping paradigm, 51…52, 441…442 Stressful life events, 27…45 age, 44 assessment of, 32…34 controllability, 31 culture/ethnicity, 43…44 disasters (natural and technological), 30…31, 36…38 future directions, 44…45 gender and, 39, 42…43 health outcomes of, 34…36 individual differences and, 42…44 nature of, 30…32 PTSD and, 31…32 research examples: conjugal loss and bereavement, 38… 40 criminal victimization, 40… 41 migration (refugees), 41… 42 natural disasters, 36…37 technological disasters, 37…38 war and genocide, 38 theoretical perspectives: cognitive-transactional process perspective, 28…30 response-based perspective, 28 stimulus-based perspective, 28 Stroke, 124…125, 492, 493, 516…517, 536 Structured Clinical Interview for the DSM-IV (SCID), 366 Substance abuse: alcohol (see Alcohol use/abuse) headaches and, 248 nicotine (see Tobacco use/dependence) treatment settings, AIDS prevention, 223…224 women•s health, 521…522 Suicide, 273, 584 Sun exposure, 270…271 Surgery: bariatric, 130…131 cancer, 269, 274…275 transplantation (children), 457… 458 Sympathetic nervous system (SNS), 76 Sympathoadrenomedullary (SAM) axis, 76 Tactile therapies, 602…605 Tai chi, 596…597, 598 Technological disasters, 30…31, 37…38 Technology, 20, 238, 261 Telephone prompts/counseling, 133, 281 Tetraplegia, 416 See also Spinal cord injury (SCI) Therapeutic touch (TT), 603…604 Therapies, complementary/alternative, 591… 607 common themes, 607 decision-making problem, 607 dietary/nutrition/lifestyle modi“cation, 601…602 Atkins• diet, 602 Gerson method, 602 macrobiotic diets, 602 Ornish Lifestyle Heart Trial, 602 very low fat diets, 601… 602 Eastern systems of healing (therapeutic approaches/clinical applications), 595…598 Ayurveda, 595…598 traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), 596…598 expressive therapies, 605… 606 art therapy, 606 dance movement therapy (DMT), 605… 606 music therapy (MT), 606 written emotional disclosure, 605 future directions, 607 herbal remedies: echinacea, 598…599 garlic, 599 ginger, 599 ginkgo biloba, 599… 600 ginseng, 600 667 kava, 600 research summary, 601 St Johns• wort (SJW), 600 … 601 integrating psychological interventions with, 607 mind/body therapies, 606 movement therapies, 604 … 605 aerobic exercise, 604 Alexander technique (movement therapy), 605 Feldenkrais• functional integration (movement therapy), 605 leisure activity, 604 resistance exercise, 604 yoga, 605 tactile therapies, 602… 605 aromatherapy, 603 energy mobilization, 603 massage, 603 myofascial release and Rol“ng, 603 polarity therapy, 604 re”exology, 603 reiki, 604 soft tissue therapies, 603 therapeutic touch (TT), 603…604 Western systems of healing (therapeutic approaches/clinical applications), 592…595 chiropractic, 594…595 homeopathy, 592…593 osteopathy, 593…594 Tobacco use/dependence, 147…162 advertising/promotions and, 154 aging and, 492, 494, 497 animal models of nicotine addiction, 149…153 place-conditioning (PC), 150, 151…152 preclinical genetic models: insights into individual differences, 152 relevance of preclinical studies to understanding tobacco dependence, 152…153 self-administration, 149…151 validity of, 150 basic mechanisms of nicotine addiction, 148…149 cancer and, 270 cessation methods (pharmaceutical/ nonpharmaceutical), 155…156, 596 cognitive effects, 153 ethnic minorities: African Americans, 546 Asian Americans, 547…548 differences, 153 interventions for, 551…552 Latino(a) Americans, 549 Native Americans, 550 gender differences, 153 genetic in”uence evidence, 157…160 instruments for measuring, 159…160 phenotypes, 158…159 prevention/treatment, 155…157 pricing/control policy effects, 154…155 psychiatric comorbidity, 153…154 public health imperative, 160 …161 risk factors for initiation/maintenance, 153…155 tobacco dependence •construct in need of re“nement,Ž 159…160 ... 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