ENCYCLOPEDIA OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING - INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT pdf

526 INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT INTRODUCTION Industries produce large volumes of wastes that may include a wide variety of chemicals containing most toxic pollutants. It has been estimated that there are over 300,000 water-using factories in the United States. 1 As the population grows, the need for manufactured goods will also increase. As a result, the volume of industrial wastes is expected to grow faster than that of municipal wastes. Some of the industrial wastes can be treated jointly in municipal wastewater treatment plants, but others must be pretreated at the source. In recent years, industrial wastewater management has undergone vast changes. Under legislative mandates and technological advancement, industries are recognizing the need and benefits of using water for several different pur- poses in descending order of required cleanliness before final treatment and release to the environment. This multi- ple, cascade, or sequential reuse of water minimizes the need for new water supplies, and reduces and concentrates wastes. A benefit of water and residual reuse may be an economical closed-loop, a zero discharge system that requires minimum make-up water to function. Presented here is an overview of industrial pollu- tion control legislation and standards, Standard Industrial Classification, industrial waste survey and monitoring, and wastewater treatment systems for selected industries. INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION CONTROL LEGISLATION AND STANDARDS Water Pollution Control Legislation Although water pollution legislative history in the United States had its beginning with the Refuse Act of 1899, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL 92-500) marked the greatest commitment to eliminating pol- lutants in the nation’s lakes, rivers, and streams. 2 The following is a summary of the last 40 years of water pollution control legislation enacted by the Congress of the Unites States. • Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1948 • Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1956 • Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1961 • Water Quality Act of 1965 • Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966 • Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970 • Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 • Clean Water Act of 1977 • Clean Water Act Amendments of 1980 • Clean Water Act Amendments of 1981 • Water Quality Act of 1987 The 1972 and 1977 laws are collectively known as the Clean Water Acts. 3,4 They clearly express a serious national inter- est in water quality and reflect a strong public commitment to end water pollution. This legislation establishes deadlines for terminating pollution, enforcement provisions by federal, state, and local governments, and a greater federal degree of control over the quality of the nation’s waters. The discharge of pollutants into the nation’s waters is prohibited unless a permit is obtained under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System ( NPDES ). There are about 50,000 indus- trial and 16,000 municipal NPDES permits at the present time. 5 These permits are issued by the states and must be renewed every 5 years. The NPDES permit records effluent limits and spells out requirements for monitoring and record- ing. Restrictions on amounts of specific pollutants that a given facility may discharge into surface waters are, in general, based on national effluent guidelines. Industry has responded positively to the mandates of the law in meeting the discharge limits based on the best available treatment technologies as defined by EPA. Under the NPDES permitting program efflu- ent limitations are established for toxic pollutants for various industrial categories. In a similar manner, industrial pretreat- ment standards are being developed for all pollutants that are discharged into the publicly owned treatment works (POTW). Under the pretreatment regulations, two types of federal pre- treatment standards are established: (1) prohibited discharges and (2) categorical standards. Prohibited discharges to sewers or POTWs are those that cause a fire or explosion hazard, corrosion, obstruction, and slug discharges and heat discharges. Categorical standards are developed for those pollutants that are incompatible, that is, those that interfere with the operation of or pass through POTWs, or contaminate the sludge and other residues from POTWs. Substances considered for categorical standards are those for which there is substantial evidence of carcinogenicity, © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 527 mutagenicity, and/or teratogenicity; substances structurally similar to aforementioned compounds; and substances known to have toxic effects on human beings or aquatic organisms at sufficiently high concentrations and which are present in the industrial effluents. There are many specific elements or compounds that have been identified as priority pollutants. These include metals, organics, cyanides, and asbestos. To provide incentives, the Clean Water Act offered federal cost sharing to cover 75 percent of treatment plant construction. In the 1987 amendments, Congress set up a mechanism for states to develop revolving loan funds to pay for future pollution control facilities. 6 Toxic Substance Control Act The Toxic Substance Control Act of 1976 (TSCA), was enacted to regulate the introduction and use of new hazard- ous chemicals. 7 Under TSCA regulations, industry must furnish data on the anticipated production, usage, and health effects of all new chemical substances and mixtures before they are manufactured for commercial distribution. TSCA also regulates the manufacture, processing, use, and final disposal of all chemical substances. The Resources Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 (RCRA) restricts the disposal of hazardous waste into the atmosphere, bodies of water, or on land. 8 Thus RCRA was enacted to protect the quality of groundwater, surface water, the land, and the air from contamination by solid wastes. The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 (HSWA) emphasized the protection of groundwater through the use of leachate collection (double liners), and monitor- ing of underground tanks; upgraded criteria for disposing of municipal solid wastes in landfills; and established new requirements for the management and treatment of small quantities of hazardous wastes. 9 The Comprehensive Environmental Response Compen- sation and Liabilities Act of 1980 (CERLA), the so-called Superfund legislation, was designed primarily to address the problem or the financial cleaning of abandoned or illegal hazardous waste sites. 10 The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (SARA) provided funds and a timetable and guidance for cleanup standards. 11 The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 restates the waste reduction mandate in the 1984 HSWA amendments to RCRA. A pollution prevention office within the EPA was also created by this law along with the expansion of the reporting require- ments of the SARA, emergency planning, and community right-to-know provisions. Organizations subject to these pro- vision are required to report the steps taken to achieve waste reduction. 12 STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION The U.S. Government Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) lists 20 broad industry types bearing two-digit identi- fication numbers. More specific classification of industry is achieved through three and four digit systems. As an example, Standard Industrial Classification 20 is for Food and Kindred Products; 202 for Dairy Products; and 2021, 2022 and 2023 for Creamery Butter, Cheese, and Condensed and Evaporated Milk. 13 MAJOR CONTAMINANTS—INDUSTRIAL SOURCES AND EFFECTS The initial step in the rational development of industrial pol- lution control is to identify and characterize the major indus- trial contaminants. Generally pollutants can be classified in three basic categories. These categories and parameters are listed below: (A) Physical Properties Temperature Insoluble components Floating, settleable and suspended matters Color Odor Foamability Corrosiveness Radioactivity (B) Chemical Composition Organic matter Inorganic matter Total dissolved solids Acid-Base pH Acidity Alkalinity Nutrients Nitrogen Phosphorus Extractables Oil Grease Reaction Oxidizing Reducing Chlorine demand (C) Biological Effects Decomposition Biodegradable Nonbiodegradable Toxic Organic—phenols, pesticides, polychlorinated biphe- nyls (PCB), benzidine, etc. Inorganic—heavy metals and cyanide Pathogens Industrial sources as well as major water quality effects of some of these materials are summarized in Table 1. 14 © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 528 INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT INDUSTRIAL WASTE SURVEY Industrial waste surveys are conducted to develop knowledge of the waste streams from a specific industry. A survey pro- vides information on sewer lines, waste routing, and material balance. Since an industrial waste survey provides an under- standing of the waste flow through the plant, and the potential for water and residual reuse, a majority of the industries find that the survey expenditures yield an excellent return. 15,16 Sewer Map Of prime importance for any industry in operation at a site is the development of an up-to-date sewer map showing water, wastewater, and sanitary and storm drains. Locating sewer lines and establishing the manufacturing sources responsi- ble for different waste streams becomes a time-consuming and complex problem in older facilities. Piping diagrams are seldom updated as changes are made over the years. The sewer map should include details such as pipe size; location and type of water supply and drain connections to each processing unit; direction of flow; location of roof and floor drains; manholes; catch basins and control points. To develop a realistic sewer map tracer, studies may be needed. Commonly used tracers are dyes, floats (wood chips, cork floats, and stoppered bottles), and smoke. Flow Sheet A flow sheet is prepared for each operation in the entire plant. It should show all raw materials, additives and products, by-products, and liquid and solid wastes. All primary dis- charges from each process, and the type, period, and duration of each operation should also be indicated on the flow sheet. Mass Balance After developing the flow sheet the next step is to obtain the amounts of raw materials, additives, products, and wastes for each operation. From the material balance, the extent of solid and liquid waste characteristics may be determined. This mass balance acts as a check on the waste quantities determined in the preliminary sampling and analysis. It also provides pre- liminary estimates of flows and parameters to be measured. Location of Sampling Stations Sufficient sampling stations should be established to deter- mine the waste load at all of the major processes which con- tribute wastes. A desirable feature of the sampling station is that the flow be known. If flow is not known, it may be established by use of a flow measurement device. The sam- pling stations should be easily accessible with adequate safe- guards, and wastewater should be well mixed. Coordination with Production Staff It is necessary that the efforts of the production staff be fully coordinated during the industrial waste survey. The input and information supplied by the production staff is valuable in identifying the frequency of batch dumps, spills, overflows, and continuous discharges. SAMPLING AND MONITORING The basis for industrial pollution abatement programs rests upon information obtained by sampling and monitoring of various waste streams. Serious problems or inaccurate TABLE 1 Major contaminants—industrial source and effect Type of contaminant Industrial source (some examples) Some major effects Inorganic salts Oil refinery, desalination plants, munitions manufacturing and pickle curing Interferes with industrial usage municipal (drinking water), and agriculture (irrigation water) Acids and/or alkalies Chemical manufacturing, tanneries Corrosion of pipelines and equipment, kills fish Organic matter Tanneries, canneries, textile mills etc. Food for bacteria and thus depletes oxygen Suspended matter Paper mills, canneries, etc. Suffocates fish eggs, degrades stream appearance Floating solids and liquids Slaughterhouse, oil refinery Unsightly, odorous, interferes with oxygen transfer Heated water Cooling waters from most industries and power plants Accelerates bacterial action, lowers total oxygen saturation level Color Textile, tanneries, metal finishing, and chemical plants Objectionable appearance Toxic chemicals Munitions manufacturing, metal plating, steel mills, petrochemicals, etc. Alters stream biota and animal diversity Microorganism Pharmaceutical, combined municipal—industrial plants Unsafe for drinking and swimming Radioactivity Nuclear power plants, chemical laboratories Concentrates in fish, harmful for drinking Foam-producing matter Glue manufacturing, slaughterhouse, detergent manufacturing Aesthetically objectionable Source: Adapted from Ref (14). © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 529 information may result if sampling procedures and test parameters are selected in a careless or naive manner. Flow Measurement An essential part of the wastewater sampling and monitor- ing program is the collection of flow data. A knowledge of flow rate, flow variability, and total flow is essential. A vari- ety of flow measuring devices are available. the selection of the proper measuring method or device will depend on fac- tors such as cost, accessibility, type of flow, and character of waste. A list of many different types of methods and devices commonly used for wastewater flow measurement are given in Table 2. 2 Sampling It is essential that waste stream samples be truly representa- tive of the waste discharge. Waste conditions may vary both in magnitude and composition over a 24-hour period. Therefore, care should be taken in selecting the method of sampling, fre- quency and duration, sample handling, and parameters to be measured. All these items are briefly discussed below. Method of Sampling Two most common methods of sampling are known as grab samples and composite samples. Either may be obtained manually or automatically. Grab samples are single batch samples taken at a given time. Composite or integrated samples are taken at constant time intervals usually over a 24-hour period, then mixed in proportion to flow at the time of sampling to obtain one representative sample of the total flow for the day. Grab samples provide valuable information at low cost. They are recommended where: (1) condition or quality remains relatively uniform over long periods; (2) the effect of slug loads are desired; (3) concentration of certain constit- uents are needed for adjustment of chemical feed; (4) flow is intermittent; and (5) the sample requires immediate analysis due to instability of the constituents. Composite sampling is done to obtain the average qual- ity data for the day. Continuous samplers that take a sample volume in proportion to the flow are desirable. Another type of composite sampler removes samples on the hour and deposits it into different bottles. A volume of sample from each bottle is mixed manually in proportion to flow to obtain the composite TABLE 2 Types of flow measurement devices commonly used for measuring wastewater discharges Flow Measurement Devices Principle of Flow Measurement 1. For pressure pipes a. Venturi meter Differential pressure is measured b. Flow nozzle meter Differential pressure is measured c. Orifice meter Differential pressure is measured d. Electromagnetic meter Magnetic field is induced and voltage is measured e. Turbine meter Uses a velocity driven rotational element (turbine, vane, wheel) f. Acoustic meter Sound waves are used to measure the velocity 2. For open channels a. Flumes (Parshall, Palmer-Bowlus) Critical depth is measured at the flume b. Weirs Head is measured over a barrier (weir) c. Depth measurement Float is used to obtain the depth of flow in the sewer, and velocity is calculated from slope d. Acoustic meter Uses sound waves to measure velocity and depth 3. Computing flow from freely discharging pipes 1. Pipes flowing full a. Nozzles and orifices Water jet data is recorded b. Vertical open-end flow Vertical height of water jet is recorded 2. Pipe partly flowing full a. Horizontal open-end pipe Dimensions of free falling water jet are obtained b. Open flow nozzle (Kennison nozzle or California pipe method) Depth of flow at free falling end is determined 4. Miscellaneous methods a. Dilution method A Constant flow of a dye tracer is used b. Bucket and stopwatch A calibrated bucket is used and time to fill is recorded c. Pumping rate Constant pumping rate and pumping duration are recorded © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 530 INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT average sample for the day. Individual hourly samples are the grab samples representing the condition at that instant. Frequency and Duration of Sampling The frequency of sampling depends on the flow rate, waste- water characteristics, and variability in quality and volume. The expected range in flow rate and waste concentration should be determined by a preliminary survey. Although most of the time the frequency is one sample per hour, the frequency for highly variable waste streams could be as high as one sample every three minutes. An intensive plant survey will generally last between five to ten days of normal plant operation. Since the treat- ment facilities must be designed to treat the highest pollution load expected, it is important to consider seasonal variations (if applicable). Sample Handling In order to obtain a representative sample it is necessary for the sampling point to have sufficient hydraulic turbulence. Sufficient volume of the sample must be obtained to perform all analyses planned. The minimum volume of grab sample should be between one to two liters. Sample containers and sampling device should be clean and uncontaminated. Before the sample is taken, the container should be rinsed several times with the wastewater. Each sample should be labeled with an identification card containing the following infor- mation: date and time, sample location, method of sampling (grab or composite), and notation of information obtained from field analyses of parameters that may change before laboratory analyses are made (temperature, pH, appearance). The sample should be analyzed as quickly as possible. Storage should be in a manner that insures that the charac- teristics to be analyzed are not altered. Refrigeration in most instances is necessary. In some cases a special chemical may have to be added to prevent changes in chemical or biological characteristics. Parameters Measured A major item in any industrial monitoring program is the cost of analytical measurement. It is important that the parameters be properly selected to represent inplant waste streams; and waste characterization, treatment and reuse requirements. In some cases the necessary analyses will be time-consuming and relatively expensive. In many cases, an alternative ana- lytical technique may be used that are less expensive. Major constituents of interest in industrial pollution monitoring are listed in Table 1. Analytical Considerations Good analytical procedures are of the utmost importance in a monitoring program. The basic references for wastewater analytical procedures and techniques are EPA publications, Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater, and ASTM Standards. 17 – 20 The analysis may fall into several major categories including routine wet chemistry, selective ion electrodes, automated wet chemistry, and bioassary tests. Data Analysis Data obtained through a well-planned and executed moni- toring program will provide valuable information for waste process selection, plant design and operation, and assist the industry in evaluating the manufacturing process. The mon- itoring program may result from changes in chemical use and/or industrial process, inplant spills or dumping of baths. Variability of the parameters may be random or cyclic. The data should be analyzed to establish the fluctuations with time, location, work shifts, and type of operation. Statistical techniques should be used to develop rela- tionships such as average or mean, standard deviation and extreme conditions, and regression coefficients. With a knowledge of basic probability theory and the use of statis- tical techniques, such as least squares, curve fitting, analysis of variance, regression and correlation analysis, chi-squared goodness of fit, and others, it is possible to construct math- ematical models and curves for almost any level of preci- sion desired. Such techniques help to evaluate information having wide variations, so that an estimate of the best value of the parameter being measured can be developed. For more information the reader should consult several excellent references on statistical methods. 21 – 24 TREATMENT PROCESSES Industrial wastewater treatment utilizes a number of unit operations and processes to achieve the desired degree of treatment. The collective treatment schematic is called a flow scheme, flow diagram, flow sheet, process train, or flow sche- matic. Basic considerations for developing a flow scheme include: (1) the manufacturing process and its flow scheme; (2) characteristics of wastewater streams and degree of treat- ment; (3) requirements of the regulatory agency; (4) construc- tion cost; (5) level of expertise of treatment plant operation personnel; and (6) operation and maintenance costs. 2 The wastewater treatment facilities are designed to process liquids and solids or sludges. It is essential that in-plant waste management and control techniques be utilized if cost-effec- tive methods of liquid and solids treatment are to be attained. Some application of in-plant controls include waste reduc- tion, waste segregation, water conservation and recycle, and process modifications. Generally, controlling wastes within the plant is much more cost-effective than implementation of treatment. Certain innovative processes that reduce waste production have resulted in improved process yield or by- product recovery and utilization. Waste Reduction A basic materials balance procedure should be developed that accounts for all materials that enter and leave an individual department or processing area. Some specific waste reduction © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 531 measures include: (1) materials balance accounting; (2) improved process control; (3) more effective cleanup proce- dures; (4) regular preventive maintenance; and (5) by-product recovery. Poor maintenance and cleanup procedures in many industrial plants are a major source of wasteload generation. Product spills should be avoided, and when they occur, the waste should be handled in a manner that will minimize the contribution of wasteload to the plant. Proper housekeep- ing procedures should be developed and implemented. Waste Segregation It is important to segregate all wastes in accordance with the physical and chemical properties of the contaminants, potential to react, and their treatability. Important properties are suspended solids, acidity, basicity, organic matter and biodegradability, volatility, and toxic organics and inorgan- ics. Efforts should be made to minimize dilution of waste streams prior to treatment and/or recovery of residuals. Diluted streams should be handled separately. Water Conservation and Recycle Water conservation and recycle consist of minimizing the raw water supply and maximizing the amount or wastewater reuse within the plant. The net effect of water conservation and recycle is the reduction of wastewater volume and to concentration of wasteloads. Each process should be investigated to minimize water supply requirements and the potential for substituting recy- cled or reclaimed wastewater for fresh water. Water qual- ity requirements for most industrial processes will govern the feasibility or extent of water reuse. However, in every industry using water for washing, rinsing, or cooling, some form of countercurrent flow or recycling can probably be implemented for maximum reuse. Some specific recom- mendations for water conservation and recycle include: (1) dry (nonwater) cleaning method, (2) water meters at each department to make operators conscious of usage, (3) automatic valves that close when water is no longer required, (4) regular preventive maintenance programs that include leak surveys, and (5) cleanup with high-pressure, low-volume rinse sprays. 16 Process Modification In-plant process modifications, though more costly to imple- ment than simple operational changes, may be very effective in controlling wasteload generation. Process modifications may consist of individual unit process changes, or changes to a complete process line. The cost-effectiveness of such modi- fications will depend on the relative reduction in wasteloads. In older industrial plants, required process modifications may be accomplished during the installation of newer and more efficient equipment. In the design of new plants, each pro- cess should be evaluated with respect to use of more efficient equipment for maximum water conservation and minimum wasteload generation. Liquid Treatment Systems The removal of various contaminants from the liquid depends on the nature of the impurities and their concentrations. Coarse and settleable inorganic and organic solids are gener- ally removed in sedimentation facilities. Oil and grease is removed by skimmers. The removal of dissolved organics is readily achieved in biological or chemical or physicochemi- cal treatment processes. For example, chemical oxidation- reduction reactions and precipitation are used for removal of heavy metals. Carbon adsorption can be used to remove refractory organics. Ion exchange and membrane processes are suitable for demineralization and byproduct recovery. Major physical, chemical, and biological treatment pro- cesses used for liquid treatment are summarized in Table 3. For extensive presentations on these processes the readers should refer to several excellent publications that provide detailed discussions on the theory and design of wastewater treatment processes. 2, 25 – 31 Sludge and Brine Processing and Disposal Safe handling and disposal of residues and brines pro- duced in various treatment units are of equal importance. Solids portions include screenings, grit, scum, organic and inorganic sludges. Brines (high mineral concentrates) are produced from ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and electro- dialysis units. In general, the sludge processing and disposal methods include thickening, stabilization, and dewatering or evaporation of liquid. Several of the unit operations and pro- cesses used for sludge and brine handling and disposal are illustrated in Figure 1. MAJOR INDUSTRIAL WASTES AND TREATMENT It should be recognized that to truly understand the waste problem of any industry, a lifetime serious effort on the part of a qualified waste engineer may be required. Production methods of each industry are normally different. As a result, the treatment process train needed for the waste streams should be individually designed. The purpose of this section is to review the origin and characteristics of wastewater and methods of wastewater treatment for six major industries. In the following discussion, the reader will find a brief sum- mary of the major liquid wastes, their origin, characteristics and current methods of treatment for food, paper and allied products, chemical, petroleum, metals, and power generation industries. For a detailed study on these topics the readers should refer to several references on the subject included in the list of references. 32 – 35 Food Industry There are approximately 50,000 food processing plants in the total food processing industry in the United States. Food processing is a low-profit margin, highly com- petitive industry. Water is required for washing, blanching, © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 532 INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT TABLE 3 Major physical, chemical, and biological treatment unit operations and processes used for liquid treatment Unit Operations and Processes Principal Applications Screening Racks or bar screens are the first step in wastewater treatment. They are used to remove large objects. Flow equilization Used to dampen the flow rate and mass loading. Skimming Used for oil separation where free oil is floated to the surface of a tank and then skimmed off. The oil separator specified by American Petroleum Institute is commonly used. Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF) Process used to remove suspended solids, and oil and grease from the waste stream. Uses dissolved air to produce line bubble that float the solids. Foam separation Process used to remove minute concentrations or refractory organics and heavy metal ions. Contaminants are carried up by rising bubbles to the pool surface where they are deposited as the bubbles exit. Sedimentation Use to remove settleable solids. Neutralization Process used to neutralize acidic or alkaline waste streams prior to chemical and/or biological treatment. Precipitation Dissolved solids in solution are chemically transformed into insoluble form. Process is extensively used to precipitate phosphorous and heavy metals. Heavy metals are generally precipitated as hydroxide through the addition of time or caustic to a pH of minimum solubility. Chemical Oxidation Used to oxidize pollutants to terminal end products. Common oxidants are Cl 2 , O 3 , H 2 O 2 , and KMnO 4 . Oxidation of iron and manganese is used for precipitation. Cyanides, sulfides and many organics arc destroyed by oxidation. Chemical Reduction Used to precipitate certain ions from solutions, e.g., hexavalent chromium. Also many oxidizing agents are destroyed by reduction. Common reducing agents are ferrous sulfate, sodium metabisulfite, and sulfur dioxide. Coagulation Used to agglomerate suspended materials so that efficient settling can take place. Commonly used chemicals are alum, iron salts, and polymers. The process consists of chemical feed, flash mix and flocculation basins. Suspended growth biological reactor Biological process using suspended biomass to remove dissolved organics. Principal variation is an activated sludge process. Attached growth biological reactor Biological process using attached biomass to remove dissolved organics. Principal variations are a trickling filter and a rotating biological contactor (RBC). Anaerobic Processes Attached or suspended microbial process operated in the absence of oxygen. Normally used to treat high strength organic wastes. Methane is produced as an energy source. Sludge (biomass) production is small. Oxidation Pond Large basins (normally earthern) used for waste storage and treatment. Treatment is achieved by natural processes of settling and biological decomposition. Aerated Lagoon Basins (normally earthern and frequently with plastic liners) with aeration equipment where waste are aerated over long periods of time. The waste characteristics are altered by biological oxidation. Land Treatment Organic waste is applied over land for treatment. Common application methods are slowrate irrigation, rapid infiltration, and overland flow. Nitrification Process is used to convert ammonia nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen. It can be achieved in suspended or attached growth biological reactors. Denitrification Nitrite nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen are reduced to nitrogen gas by microorganisms. Denitrification is achieved under anaerobic condition in suspended or attached growth reactors. An organic source such as methanol is needed. Disinfection Process used to reduce the number of water borne pathogens in water. Normally applied to effluents of wastewater treatment plants containing microbes. Chlorination and ozonation are the most common methods. Ammonia stripping Ammonia gas is air stripped from the wastewater, normally by using stripping tower. High pH values are required. Breakpoint Chlorination Ammonia nitrogen is oxidized to nitrogen gas by breakpoint chlorination in a mixing basin. Filtration Used to polish the effluent by removing total suspended solids and turbidity. Biological activity in the filter bed may reduce some of the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Carbon adsorption Used to remove soluble refractory organics from wastewater effluent. Ion Exchange A demineralization process in which the cations and anions in wastewater are selectively exchanged for the ions in an insoluble resin bed. When the resin capacity is used up it is regenerated by using high concentrations of the original ions that are exchanged for the polluted ions attached to the resin. Flow from regeneration is composed of highly concentrated brine. Reverse osmosis or ultrafiltration A demineralization process applicable to production of high-quality water from effluent. The water permeates through semipermeable membrane at high pressure, producing high-quality water in one stream and a high concentration of mineral ions in another. Electrodialysis A demineralization process where electrical potential is used to transfer the ions through ion-selective membranes. Produces two streams; one high in mineral content and the other free of minerals. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 533 pasteurization, cleaning process, equipment, and cooling of final product. The waste is generally characterized by high BOD and suspended solids. The estimated total wastes from food industry for the United States in 1968 was: 320 million cubic meters of wastewater discharged 360 million kg of BOD generated 180 million kg of suspended solids generated 8 billion kg of solids residuals Table 4 is a brief summary of major liquid wastes, their origin, characteristics and applicable methods of treatment for sev- eral major industries in the food industrial category. Paper and Allied Products Industry Pulp is produced by mechanically or chemically processing wood or other vegetative materials to extract usable cellu- losic fibers as an aqueous slurry. The pulp slurry may be used directly in paper making or it may be shipped elsewhere for processing into paper products. The pulp and paper industry is the ninth largest industry in the United States. The major group of the industries in the pulp and paper industry are pulp mills, paper mills, paperboard mills, miscellaneous converted paper products, paperboard containers and boxes, and building paper and board mills. The fundamental industrial operations are divided into two major categories: pulp mill and paper mill. The pulp mill operation includes wood preparation, pulping, deinking, pulp washing, screening and thickening, and bleaching. Paper mill operations include stock preparation, paper machine opera- tion, and finishing. Table 5 provides a summary of these operations, origin of major wastes, major characteristics, and treatment methods. Chemical Industry The chemical industry is highly diversified and supplies products for virtually every other industry. The number of synthetic compounds manufactured is estimated to range between 500,000 and 600,000, and a host of new products is introduced every year. The chemical products may be used as primary, intermediate, or finished products. The chemical processing industry has a variety of spe- cial pollution problems due to the vast number of products manufactured. The treatment processes combine process- ing, concentration, separation, extraction, by-product recov- ery, destruction, and reduction in concentration. The wastes mayoriginate from solvent extraction, acid and caustic wastes, overflows, spills, mechanical losses, etc. Origin of major wastes, characteristics, and treatment and disposal of wastes in several major chemical industries are summarized in Table 6. Petroleum Industry The petroleum industry is one of the most important manu- facturing industries in the country. It is a complex industry utilizing complex combination of interdependent operations engaged in the storage and transportation, separation of crude molecular constituents molecular cracking, molecu- lar rebuilding, and solvent finishing to produce petrochemi- cal products. Each process is responsible for production of many waste streams containing oil, chemical oxygen demand (COD), phenol, sulfide, chloride, and others. Treatment may involve oil separation, precipitation, adsorption, and biologi- cal treatment. The refining operations may be divided into many major categories. Wastewater characteristics, origin of major wastes, characteristics, and treatment and disposal methods from several major processes are summarized in Table 7. Metals Industry Primary metal processing and fabricated metal products man- ufacturing comprise the metals industries. The most important end uses of the products of the metals industries are automo- biles, machinery, appliances, electrical equipment, structures, THICKENING STABILIZATION CONDITIONING DEWATERING DISPOSAL Concentrates solids Reduces pathogens, and eliminate offensive odors Enhances water removal Removes moisture and produces sludge cake Used for ultimate disposal of residues 1. Gravity 1. Chlorine oxidation 1. Chemical 1. Vacuum filter 1. Evaporation of brine 2. Flotation 2. Line stabilization 2. Elutriation 2. Filter press 2. Incineration 3. Centrifugation 3. Heat treatment 3. Heat treatment 3. Horizontal belt filter 3. Wet Oxidation 4. Aerobic digestion 4. Centrifugation 4. Pyrolysis 5. Anaerobic digestion 5. Drying beds 5. Composting 6. Land filling 7. Deep well injection FIGURE 1 Alternative unit operations and processes for sludge and brine processing and disposal. © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 534 INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT TABLE 5 Summary of industrial wastes from several major operations in pulp and paper industry Major Industrial Operations Origin of Major Wastes Major Characteristics Major Treatment and Disposal Methods Pulp mill Wood preparation Log transportation and storage, debarking and chipping Solid wastes, hydraulic debanking uses water Incineration, water is recycled through lagoons Pulping Mechanical pulping, kraft pulping, sulfide pulping Suspended solid, BOD, liquors containing high BOD, sulfide, mercaptans, high pH Sedimentation, recovery if sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide, aeration Deinking Removal of ink Contains dirt and clay fillers, chemicals and usually alkaline Sedimentation and coagulation Pulp washing, screening, and thickening Washing action, centrifugal cleaning, gravity and vacuum thickening Liquor contains pulp fibres Pulp fibres are recorded and recycled Bleaching Bleaching of pulp fibers by chlorine solution Contains chlorine, low pH, high TDS Dechlorination, neutralization Paper mill Stock preparation Addition of filter, colors, chemicals, and screening Color, clay fillers, chemicals, high TDS Coagulation and reuse Paper machine Removal of free water Contains fibres and fillers. Known as white water. TSS, TDS and BOD Fibers reclaimed, liquid wastes treated by coagulation, activated sludge Finishing and converting Surface improving, size cutting. Mostly dry process Little or no liquid waste, mainly solid waste Recycled in pulping operation, incineration TABLE 4 Summary of industrial wastes from major food industry Industries Producing Waste Origin of Major Wastes Major Characteristics Major Treatment and Disposal Methods Canned goods Trimming, culling, juicing and blancing of fruits and vegetables High in suspended solids, colloidal and dissolved organic matter Screening, lagooning, soil absorption by spray irrigation Dairy products Dilutions of whole milk, buttermilk, and whey High in dissolved organic matter, mainly protein, fat, and lactose Biological treatment aeration, RBC, trickling filtration, activate sludge, whey recovery Brewed and distilled beverages Steeping and pressing of grain; residue from distillation of alcohol; condensate from stillage evaporation High in dissolved organic solids, containing nitrogen and fermented starches or their products Recovery, concentration by centrifugation and evaporation, RBC; trickling filtration; use in feeds; anaerobic biological treatment followed by aerobic biological treatment Meat and poultry products Stockyards; slaughtering of animals; rendering of bones and fats; residues in condensates; grease and wash water; picking chickens Organic matter, blood, other proteins, and fats and oils Screening, settling and/or floatation, trickling filtration, RBC, activated sludge, recovery for animal food products Animal feedlots Excreta from animals High in organic suspended solids and BOD Land disposal and anaerobic lagoons Beet sugar Transfer, screening, and juicing waters; drainings from lime sludge; condensates after evaporator; juice and extracted sugar High in dissolved and suspended organic matter, containing sugar and protein Reuse of wastes, coagulation, lagooning, activated sludge, trickling filter, anaerobic process Cane sugar Spillage from extraction, clarification, evaporation cooling, and condenser waters Variable pH, soluble organic matter with relatively high BOD of carbonaceous nature Neutralization, recirculation, chemical treatment, some selected aerobic oxidation © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT 535 furniture, and containers. There are approximately 35,000 establishments in the United States. The industry uses approx- imately 32 billion cubic meters of water per year. Four per- cent of the plants use 92 percent of the water. These industries generate wastewaters which vary in quantity and quality. Table 8 provides the reader with a brief summary of the major liquid wastes, their origin, characteristics, and methods of treatment in four major metals industries. TABLE 6 Summary of industrial wastes from several major chemical industries Industries Producting Wastes Origin of Major Wastes Major Characteristics Major Treatment and Disposal Methods Acids and Alkalies Dilute wash waters; many varied dilute acids and bases Low or high pH, low organic content Unflow or straight neutralization, coagulation and sedimentation Detergents Washing and purifying soaps and detergents High in BOD and saponified soaps Flotation and skimming, precipitation with CaCl 2 Explosives Washing TNT and guncotton for purification, washing and pickling of cartridges TNT, colored, acid, odorous, and contains organic acids and alcohol from powder and cotton, metals, acid, oils, and soaps Flotation, chemical Precipitation, biological treatment, aeration, chlorination of TNT, neutralization, adsorption Pesticides Washing and purification of products High organic matter, benzene ring structure, toxic to bacteria and fish, acid Dilution, storage, activated-carbon adsorption, alkaline chlorination Phospate and phosporus Washing, screening, floating rock, condenser bleed-off from phospate reduction plant Clays, slimes and oils, low pH, high suspended solids, phosphorus, silica and fluoride Lagooning, mechanical clarification, coagulation and settling of refined waste Formaldehyde Residues from manufacturing synthetic resins and from dyeing synthetic fibers Normally high BOD and formaldehyde, toxic to bacteria in high concentrations Trickling filtration, absorption on activated charcoal Plastics and resins Unit operations from polymer preparation and use; spills and equipment washdowns Acids, caustic, dissolved organic matter such as phenols, formaldehyde, etc. Discharge to municipal sewer, reuse, controlled-discharge Fertilizer Chemical reactions of basic elements. Spills, cooling waters, washing of products, boiler blowdown Sulfuric, phosphoric, and nitric acids; minerals elements, P, S, N, K, Al, NH 3 , NO 3 Neutralization, detain for reuse, sedimentation, air stripping of NH 3 , lime precipitation Toxic chemicals Leaks, accidental spills, and refining of chemicals Various toxic dissolved elements and compounds such as Hg and PCBs Retention and reuse, change in production, neutralization and precipitation, carbon adsorption TABLE 7 Summary of wastes generated from various oil refinery operations Major Industrial Operations Origin of Major Wastes Major Characteristics Major Treatment and Disposal Methods Crude oil and product storage Primary fractionation of oil and water, spills and leakages High concentrations of emulsified oil, COD, TSS API separation, DAF, settling, aeration Crude desalting Chemical desalting, heating and gravity separation of oil Emulsified and free oil, ammonia, phenol, sulfide, TSS, high BOD and COD API separation, DAF, activated sludge, carbon adsorption Cracking Thermal cracking or catalytic cracking, fractionation, steam stripping, and overhead accumulators or fractionators BODs, COD, ammonia, phenol, sulfides, cyanides, and alkalinity Chemical oxidation, biological treatment carbon adsorption Polymerization Catalytic reaction, acid, removal action, and gas stabilizer Alkaline waste stream, high in sulfide, mecaptans, and ammonia Acid catalysts recycled, carbon adsorption Alkylation Catalytic reaction caustic and water wastes, neutralization of hydrocarbon streams Oil, sulfides, TSS, fluoride Neutralization, chemical oxidation, sedimentation © 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC [...]... The Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gordon and Breach, Science Publishers, New York, Second Edition, 1983, pp 560–582 15 U.S Environmental Protection Agency, “Handbook for Monitoring Industrial Wastewater”, Technology Transfer, August 1973 16 Task Force on Pretreatment, “Pretreatment of Industrial Wastes”, POP FD-3, Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington, D.C., 1981 17 Environmental. ..536 INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT TABLE 8 Origin, characteristics, and treatment of wastes in four major metal industries Industries Producting Wastes Origin of Major Wastes Major Characteristics Major Treatment and Disposal Methods Steel Coking of coal, washing of blast-furnace flue gases, and pickling of steel Low pH, acids, phenol, ore, coke, limestone, alkali, oils, mill scale, and fine suspended... Nostrand Reinhold, N.Y., 1992 29 Conway, R.A and R.D Ross, “Handbook of Industrial Waste Disposal”, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, 1980 30 Eckenfeller, W.W., Industrial Water Pollution Control” McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1989 31 Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., “Wastewater Engineering: Treatment Disposal and Reuse”, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 3rd Edition, 1994 32 Azad, H.S (Editor), Industrial Wastewater Management. .. (CERLA), (PL 9 6-5 10), 96th U.S Congress, 1980 11 The Superfund Amendmenls and Reauthorization Act of 1986 (PL 9 9-4 99), 99th U.S Congress, October 17, 1986 12 Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 (PL 10 0-3 89), 100th U.S Congress, 1990 13 “Standard Industrial Classification Manual”, Executive Office of the President, Office or Management and Budge, NTIS, PB 8 7-1 00012, 1987 14 Nemerow, N.L., Liquid Wastes from... of Water and Wastes”, Technology Transfer, EPA 1602 0-0 7/71, 1971 18 Environmental Protection Agency, “Handbook for Analytical Quality Control in Water and Waste Water Laboratories”, Technology Transfer, June 1972 19 APHA, AWWA, and WPCF, “Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater”, American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., 19th Edition, 1995 20 Devore, J.L., Probability and. .. Control Technology for Industrial Wastewater”, Noyes Dala Corporation, Park Ridge, N.J., 1981 26 Dyer, Jon C., A.S Vernick and H.D Feiler, “Handbook of Industrial Wastes Pretreatment”, Water Management Series, Garland STPM Press, New York, 1981 27 Theodore, L and Y.C McGuinn., Pollution Prevention, Van Nostrand Reinhold, N.Y., 1992 28 Sell, N.J., Industrial Pollution Control: Issues and Technologies, 2nd... conduction, and long-wave radiation Land area of the ponds are generally 0.5–1 hectare/MW Cooling Towers Cooling towers are used to eliminate discharge of heated water into natural bodies of water There are two types of cooling towers: natural-draft and mechanical-draft Natural-draft cooling towers rely on natural air circulation to dissipate waste heat to the atmosphere The mechanical-draft cooling... Quality Act of 1987 (PL 10 0-4 ), 100th Congress, February 4, 1987 7 Toxic Substance Control Act (PL 9 9-5 19), 99th U.S Congress, October 22, 1986 8 The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (PL 8 9-2 72), 89th Congress, 1976 9 The Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments of 1984 (PL 9 8-6 16), 98th U.S Congress, November 8, 1984 10 The Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liabilities Act of 1980... Qasim, S.R., Wastewater Treatment Plant: Planning Design and Operation, Technomic Publishing Company, Inc Lancaster, PA, 1994 3 Federal Water Pollution: Control Act Amendment of 1972 (PL 9 2-5 00), 92nd U.S Congress, October 18, 1972 4 Clean Water Act (PL 9 5-2 17), 95th U.S Congress December 27, 1977 5 Wentz, C.A., Hazardous Waste Management, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1995 INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT. .. Management Handbook”, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1976 33 U.S Department of Interior, “The Cost of Clean Water”, Industrial Waste Profile Series, FWPCA, Publication No I.W.P 1 to I.W.P 10, 1967 34 U.S Environmental Protection Agency, “Development Documents for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and Standards for Point Source Category”, Effluent Guidelines Division, U.S EPA, Washington, D.C., 1979 35 U.S Environmental . Presented here is an overview of industrial pollu- tion control legislation and standards, Standard Industrial Classification, industrial waste survey and monitoring, and wastewater treatment systems. requirements for the management and treatment of small quantities of hazardous wastes. 9 The Comprehensive Environmental Response Compen- sation and Liabilities Act of 1980 (CERLA), the so-called Superfund. sewer lines, waste routing, and material balance. Since an industrial waste survey provides an under- standing of the waste flow through the plant, and the potential for water and residual