Volume 04 - Heat Treating Part 15 pot

• • • Billet is preheated in molten salt bath at 630 °C (1165 °F) and extruded Extruded billet is machined into blank that is solution heat treated at 800 °C (1475 °F) for h in vacuum and water quenched Blank is aged at 385 °C (725 °F) for 4.5 h in argon and water quenched Example 2: U-0.75Ti Bars of DU-0.75Ti alloy, 36 mm (1.4 in.) in diameter are to be heat treated to the following specifications: hardness, 38 to 44 HRC; minimum 0.2% yield strength, 725 MPa (105 ksi); minimum elongation, 12%; and maximum hydrogen content, ppm The procedure is to: • • • • Cut extruded bar stock to length Pickle in 1:1 nitric acid to remove copper sheath Rinse and air dry Place rods vertically in a basket • Solution treat • • • Quench into circulating water at 455 mm/ (18 in./min) Air dry Age 16 h at 350 °C (660 °F) in an inert gas recirculating furnace h at 850 °C (1560 °F) in a vacuum of × 10-3 Pa (5 × 10-5 torr), or better Example 3: U-6Nb Alloy A U-6 Nb alloy is to be formed into a hemisphere with the following mechanical properties: ultimate tensile strength, 770 MPa (112 ksi) min; yield strength at 0.2% offset, 360 to 485 MPa (52 to 70 ksi); and total elongation, 25% • • • • • • Billet is preheated to 800 to 850 °C (1475 to 1560 °F) and forged Forged billet is homogenized at 1000 °C (1830 °F) for h in vacuum Forged billet is preheated to 850 °C (1560 °F) in molten salt bath and cross rolled into plate Plate is preheated in argon furnace to 850 °C (1560 °F) and formed into a hemisphere Hemisphere is solution heat treated to 800 °C (1475 °F) for to h in vacuum and water quenched Hemisphere is aged in argon at 200 °C (400 °F) for h References cited in this section K.H Eckelmeyer, A.D Romig Jr., and L.J Weirick, The Effect of Quench Rate on the Microstructure, Mechanical Properties, and Corrosion Behavior of U-6 Wt Pct Nb, Met Trans A, Vol 15A, 1984, p 1319 K.H Eckelmeyer and F.J Zanner, The Effect of Aging on the Mechanical Behavior of U-0.75 wt.% Ti and U-2.0 wt.% Mo, J Nucl Mater., Vol 62, 1976, p 37 G.H Llewellyn, G.A Aramayo, M Siman-Tov, K.W Childs, G.M Ludtka, "Computer Simulation of Immersion of Uranium-0.75 wt.% Titanium Alloy Cylinders," Y-2355, Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc., June 1986 G.H Llewellyn, G.A Aramayo, G.M Ludtka, J.E Park, M Siman-Tov, "Experimental and Analytical Studies in Quenching Uranium-0.75% Titanium Alloy Cylinders," Y-2397, Martin Marietta Energy Systems, Inc., Feb 1989 Licensing and Health and Safety Requirements Possession of more than 15 lb (6.8 kg) of depleted uranium in any form requires a license from the U.S Nuclear Regulatory Commission Title 10, Part 40, of Federal Regulations describes the steps necessary and the requirements to obtain such a license In addition, all other local, state, and federal regulations are effective as applicable The greatest potential source of contamination in the heat-treating area is uranium oxide The area should be isolated from the remainder of the plant, and everyone entering should be required to wear disposable protective footwear Smoking and eating should be restricted Caution: The toxicity of depleted uranium if it enters the blood stream may result in poisoning similar to that caused by lead, arsenic, mercury, or any other heavy metal A more detailed discussion about health and safety requirements is provided in Volume of ASM Handbook, formerly 10th Edition Metals Handbook The important fact to remember is that each new operation or procedure involving uranium alloys should be individually evaluated to determine the correct protective clothing and equipment, dosimetry, and handling requirements for that particular job The prior processing history of the heat treatment samples is likewise important in this consideration since operations which change the state of the uranium, like casting, can make concerns about daughter-product beta radiation more important than normal low-level alpha radiation associated with depleted uranium Annealing of Precious Metals Gaylord Smith, Inco Alloys International, Inc.; Al Robertson, Englehard Corporation Introduction THE PRECIOUS METAL GROUP consists of silver, gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, ruthenium, and osmium Significant production of wrought product forms is limited to the first four elements and their alloys The last four elements become increasingly intractable or less ductile and consequently cannot be practically fabricated into engineering products Because of the dissimilarities of the physical metallurgy of elements within the precious metal group, the annealing practice for each member of the group will be considered separately For each element and its alloys, a brief description of the compositions, uses, annealing practices, and nominal annealing effects on key properties is given Silver and Silver Alloys Consumption of silver and silver alloys in wrought product form is large and exceeds that of any other members of the precious metal group Because of the extensive use of silver, data on annealing practice and the effects of annealing on mechanical properties are more available for silver than for the remainder of the precious metal group Commercially Pure Fine Silver Commercially pure fine silver contains, by definition, at least 99.9% Ag It is widely used in the electrical and electronics industries as contacts and conductors and in the chemical industry as linings for reactors and process/storage vessels, particularly caustic evaporators and crystallizers Annealing Practice Commercially pure fine silver is typically annealed between 300 and 350 °C (570 and 660 °F) following at least 50% cold work However, data exists in the literature for annealing times up to 1.5 h at temperatures as high as 565 °C (1050 °F) Most annealing of silver, however, is done at approximately 500 °C (930 °F) Under extreme conditions of cold work, ultra-pure (99.99% pure) silver can recrystallize at temperatures as low as room temperature Silver is typically annealed in air at temperatures below 350 °C (660 °F) without adverse effects However, higher annealing temperatures (550 to 650 °C, or 1020 to 1200 °F) can result in oxygen adsorption due to the high solubility and diffusion rate (under 0.025 mm at >800 °C/h, or 1440 °F/h) of oxygen in silver Very pure silver has a hardness of 25 HV after a hydrogen anneal at 650 °C (1200 °F) and 27 HV after annealing in air at the same temperature Oxygen present in silver tends to react with impurities and has the beneficial effect of inhibiting grain growth Silver containing oxygen will become embrittled when annealed in hydrogen Hydrogen annealing of thin material sections of silver can cause the formation of blisters This effect is similar to that known to occur when tough pitch copper, that is, copper refined in a reverberatory furnace to adjust the oxygen content to 0.2 to 0.5%, is annealed in hydrogen Thus, deoxidized silver is essential where hydrogen annealing is practiced Effect of Annealing Temperature on Mechanical Properties The effect of annealing temperature on the tensile strength and elongation of wire cold drawn 49% prior to annealing is presented in Fig Ductility is maximized at approximately 370 °C (700 °F) Higher temperatures reduce ductility and ultimately increase tensile strength as grain growth and perhaps oxygen adsorption begin to adversely influence tensile properties Comparable data are presented in Table for commercially pure fine silver sheet, 0.81 mm (0.032 in.) thick Data on the deep-drawing characteristics of commercially pure fine silver as a function of annealing temperature are given in Table Annealing lowers Poisson's ratio to 0.37 from 0.39 for hard-drawn material The most frequently reported room-temperature value for the elastic modulus of commercially pure fine silver is 71 GPa (10.3 × 106 psi) This value was determined on material strained 5% and then annealed 0.5 h at 350 °C (660 °F) Cold work and annealing temperature, as well as compositional variations, apparently can affect the elastic modulus The shear modulus is reduced by annealing from the cold worked state from 26.9 GPa (3.90 × 106 psi) for hard-drawn material to 26.6 GPa (3.86 × 106 psi) for annealed commercially pure fine silver at 20 °C (68 °F) Table Effect of annealing temperature on room-temperature tensile properties of commercially pure fine silver cold rolled 50% to 0.81 mm (0.032 in.) thickness Annealing condition (held °C Tensile strength Elongation, % h) °F MPa ksi As rolled 50% 374 54.3 2.4 205 400 183 26.5 43.7 315 600 172 25.0 51.6 425 800 172 25.0 51.5 540 1000 166 24.1 50.3 650 1200 158 22.9 53.9 760 1400 155 22.5 48.4 Table Cup depth at room temperature as a function of annealing temperature for commercially pure fine silver sheet 0.81 mm (0.032 in.) thick Annealing temperature Cup depth °C °F mm in 95 200 3.56 0.140 205 400 7.65 0.301 315 600 8.33 0.328 425 800 8.43 0.332 540 1000 8.38 0.330 650 1200 8.41 0.331 760 1400 8.31 0.327 Source: Ref Fig Tensile properties of commercially pure fine silver 2.3 mm (0.091 in.) diam wire Effect of Cold Work on Recovery and Recrystallization Data for the onset of softening (recovery) for commercially pure fine silver as a function of the degree of cold rolling at 20 °C (68 °F) are shown in Table Commercially pure fine silver that has been cold worked extensively, that is, greater than about 95%, can recrystallize at relatively low temperatures The effect of small amounts of a second element has been found to measurably influence the recrystallization temperature under these conditions A brief summary of these observations is given in Table Because of the uncertainty of overall purity and whether the temperature given is the start or finish of recrystallization, these data are only indicative of a general trend Table Effect of cold work on the softening temperature of commercially pure fine silver Reduction by rolling at 20 °C (68 °F), % Softening temperature °C °F 10 250 480 50 100 210 90 65 150 Table Effect of second elements on the recrystallization temperature of commercially pure fine silver that has been extensively cold worked Element Nominal composition, wt% Recrystallization temperature °C °F 150 300 Aluminum 0.200 190 370 Copper 0.012 200 390 Copper 0.037 175 350 Copper 0.303 230 450 Gold 0.100 110 230 Gold 0.200 110 230 Iron 0.035 110 230 Iron 0.055 20 70 Iron 0.065 20 70 Lead 0.059 145 290 Nickel 0.100 140 280 Palladium 0.100 110 230 Zinc 0.119 145 290 Source: Ref Silver-Copper Alloys The most common silver-copper alloys are sterling silver (92.5% Ag minimum), coin silver (Ag-10% Cu), and the eutectic alloy containing 28.1% Cu Sterling silver is normally alloyed only with copper because other elements have proved to be less effective hardeners Sterling silver is typically used for flat and hollow tableware and in the manufacture of jewelry Coin silver is used for coins and in certain electrical contacts where pure silver is deemed too soft and prone to pitting Spring-type electrical contacts are made from the eutectic alloy Effect of Annealing Temperature on Mechanical Properties Figure shows the effect of annealing temperature on the strength and elongation of cold drawn 2.3 mm (0.091 in.) diam sterling silver and eutectic alloy wire Commercial silver-copper alloys are typically annealed between 480 and 535 °C (900 and 1000 °F) followed by furnace cooling under protective atmosphere, which can result in some age hardening Process annealing can be conducted at temperatures as high as 675 °C (1250 °F) usually in a steam atmosphere or salt bath However, at the higher temperature, quenching is required for producing full softness Alternating between oxidizing and reducing atmospheres during annealing is damaging to this alloy compositional range Where light oxidation has occurred, pickling in a hot (approximately 50 °C, or 120 °F) sulfuric acid solution (5 to 10%) is suitable Fig Tensile properties and electrical conductivity of silver-copper alloys 2.3 mm (0.091 in.) diam wire, cold drawn (CD) 49% before annealing (a) Sterling silver (92.5Ag-7.5Cu) (b) Eutectic alloy (72Ag-28Cu) Figure records the nominal electrical resistivity of annealed as well as annealed/aged silver-copper wire as a function of copper content The silver-copper alloys can be age hardened as depicted in Fig The solubility of copper in silver at 650 °C (1200 °F) is about 4% and at 730 °C (1350 °F) about 6%, thus sterling silver annealed at these temperatures is duplex with small amounts of the copper-rich phase scattered through the silver-rich matrix Aging treatments cause precipitation of the copper-rich phase and, if prolonged, increase the electrical conductivity considerably Coin silver will remain duplex after any annealing treatment, and ages in much the same manner as sterling silver Both alloys respond to aging at 280 °C (535 °F) (Fig 4) The mechanical properties of sterling silver and coin silver are virtually the same after the usual annealing treatment at about 650 °C (1200 °F) because the composition of the silver-rich phase is essentially the same Alloys containing 20 to 30% Cu have much more of the copper-rich phase and show less age hardening Fig Effect of copper content on the electrical resistivity of annealed silver-copper alloys and annealed/aged silver-copper alloys Fig Effect of copper content on properties of silver-copper alloys References cited in this section A Butts and C.D Coxe, Ed., Silver: Economics, Metallurgy, and Use, R.E Kriegier Publishing, 1967, p 141 A Butts and C.D Coxe, Ed., Silver: Economics, Metallurgy, and Use, R.E Kriegier Publishing, 1967, p 144 A Butts and C.D Coxe, Ed., Silver: Economics, Metallurgy, and Use, R.E Kriegier Publishing, 1967, p 149 A Butts and C.D Coxe, Ed., Silver: Economics, Metallurgy, and Use, R.E Kriegier Publishing, 1967, p 148 Gold and Gold Alloys There are a number of types of pure and alloy gold systems of commercial significance each with different annealing practices Included here will be annealing information on pure gold, color and white gold, gold-platinum, gold-palladiumiron, and cast and wrought gold alloys for dentistry Pure Gold The usual grade of refined gold is 99.99% pure and is suitable for jewelry and dental applications Coin gold contains 89.9 to 91.7% Au, with the balance being copper Annealing Practice Pure gold can be annealed in air at 305 °C (580 °F) to control grain size but it is usually not required because pure gold easily recrystallizes at room temperature Wrought annealed pure gold has a room temperature tensile strength of 131 MPa (19 ksi), 45% elongation, and a hardness of 25 HB The elastic modulus is 80 GPa (11.6 × 106 psi) Color Gold Alloys Most of the commercially important color gold alloys are based on the gold-silver-copper system although zinc and nickel are frequent modifiers The composition of typical color gold alloys is given in Table These alloys are used principally in jewelry; slip rings and bushings in electrical devices; and in dental applications Table Chemical composition of typical color gold alloys Alloy, k Color Nominal composition, wt% Au Cu Ag Zn 10 Yellow 41.7 43.8 5.5 9.0 10 Yellow 41.7 48.0 6.6 3.7 10 Yellow 41.7 40.8 11.7 5.8 10 Green 41.7 9.1 48.9 0.3 14 Yellow 58.3 31.3 4.0 6.4 14 Yellow 58.3 29.2 8.3 4.2 14 Yellow 58.3 39.7 10.0 2.0 14 Yellow 58.3 25.0 16.5 0.2 14 Yellow 58.3 16.8 24.8 0.1 14 Green 58.3 6.5 35.0 0.2 18 Yellow 75.0 10.0 15.0 Annealing Practice Typical annealing temperatures for the color gold alloys are in the range of 500 to 700 °C (930 to 1290 °F) depending on the exact composition It is recommended that color gold alloys be quenched in water after annealing to avoid age hardening This has the secondary effect of removing any oxide scale that may have formed during annealing in air Commercially, most annealing of color gold alloys is done in a 7% H2-N2 atmosphere with slow cooling instead of quenching However, nickel-containing white gold alloys should be air cooled as quenching introduces high residual stress levels in these alloys Aging of the two-phase alloys is customarily done at 260 to 315 °C (500 to 600 °F) Effect of Annealing and Aging on Hardness Figure depicts the effect of annealing, followed by quenching, on the hardness of the color gold alloys Also shown is the effect of aging at 260 to 315 °C (500 to 600 °F) as a function of silver content Age hardening temperatures can vary from between 100 °C (210 °F) and 425 °C (800 °F) depending upon the alloy that is being used Aging times can vary from to h, with increasing time associated with increasing strength and lower ductility Longer aging times may result in overaging and subsequent decreasing hardness In Fig 5, note the lack of an aging response for the extremes of the silver content for the 10 and 14 k alloys, where k is karats Fig Variation of hardness with silver content for gold-silver-copper alloys Gold Alloys in Dentistry A large number of alloys are used in dentistry in the form of wrought plate and wire, casting, and solder These alloys require high strength and corrosion resistance Both requirements are met by complex alloys of gold, platinum, palladium, silver, copper, and zinc These alloys age harden readily Typical compositional limits of wrought alloys are given in Table and for cast alloys in Table Table Compositions and colors of wrought precious-metal alloys used in high-strength dental wires Alloy(a) Composition(b), % Color Au Pt Pd Ag Cu Ni Zn 25-30 40-50 25-30 Platinum 54-60 14-18 1-8 7-11 11-14 max max Platinum 45-50 8-12 20-25 5-8 7-12 max Platinum o • A • AA • ac • angstrom • Aluminum Association • alternating current • air cool • AC • Accm • in hypereutectoid steel, temperature at which cementite completes solution in austenite • Ac1 • Ac3 • Aecm, Ae1, Ae3 • • • • The temperature at which transformation of ferrite to austenite is completed during heating equilibrium transformation temperatures in steel ADI • The temperature at which austenite begins to form during heating AES • • • AGA • Auger electron spectroscopy AFS • austempered ductile iron AISI • • • • American Iron and Steel Institute ANSI • American Gas Association AMS • American Foundrymen's Society AOD • • • • American National Standards Institute argon oxygen decarburization A/D • Aerospace Material Specification Arcm • • analog-to-digital temperature at which cementite begins to precipitate from austenite on cooling • Ar1 • Ar3 • ASME • • • temperature at which transformation to ferrite or to ferrite plus cementite is completed on cooling temperature at which transformation of austenite to ferrite begins on cooling American Society of Mechanical Engineers • ASTM • at.% • • • AWG • atomic percent atm • American Society for Testing and Materials AWS • • atmospheres (pressure) American Wire Gage • • • Burgers vector; barn • bainite b • American Welding Society B • bal • bcc • bct • balance • body-centered cubic • body-centered tetragonal • BDT • BHP • brittle-ductile transition • Broken Hill Proprietary • edge length in crystal structure; speed of light; specific heat • cementite; coulomb; heat capacity • c • C • CAD/CAM • • CCR • computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing CCT • conventional controlled rolling • continuous-cooling-transformation • carbon equivalent • CE • CHR • cm • conventional hot rolling • centimeter • CNC • CR • computer numerical control • cooling rate • continuous transformation • CT • CVD • CVM • • • d • consumable-electrode vacuum remelted CVN • chemical vapor deposition d • Charpy V-notch (impact test or specimen) • day • used in mathematical expressions involving a derivative (denotes rate of change); depth; diameter • diameter; diffusion coefficient • D • da/dN • fatigue crack growth rate • decibel • dB • DBTT • dc • ductile-to-brittle transition temperature • direct current • dhcp • diam • • • DIN double hexagonal close-packed diameter • • DoD • DOT • Deutsche Industrie-Normen (German Industrial Standards) DPH • • • • diamond pyramid hardness DS • Department of Transportation DRX • Department of Defense DB • • deformation bands • depleted uranium • natural log base, 2.71828; charge of an electron • Young's modulus; applied voltage; activation energy DU • directionally solidified • • dynamic recrystallization e • E • EAF • EB • electric arc furnace • electron beam • EBHT • EDM • • • emf • electrical discharge machining ELI • electron beam hardening treatment EPA • • extra-low interstitial electromotive force • Environmental Protection Agency • equation • Eq • ESCA • • ESR • et al • x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy eV • electroslag remelting • and others • electron volt • exp • f • F • base of the natural logarithm • frequency; transfer function; precipitate volume fraction • ferrite • force • F • FAC • • FATT • forced-air cool FC • fracture-appearance transition temperature • furnace cool • fcc • FCC • fct • face-centered cubic • Federal Communications Commission • face-centered tetragonal • FDM • FEM • • • Fig • finite-element method FIFO • finite-difference method FMS • first in, first out • figure • • gram • acceleration due to gravity • graphite; gauss • gallon • grain boundary • Guinier-Preston (zone) ft • foot • • flexible manufacturing system g • g • G • gal • GB • GP • GPa • h • h • • • • Ha Henry Grossmann number; enthalpy; magnetic field; height • applied magnetic field; activation enthalpy • coercive force; thermodynamic critical field • hardness predicted H • hardness penetration; hardening depth; heat-transfer coefficient; Planck's constant, 6.626 × 10-27 erg · s H • hour • • gigapascal • Hc • HP • HAZ • heat-affected zone • Brinell hardness • HB • hcp • • HIP • hexagonal close-packed HK • • hot isostatic pressing Knoop hardness • hp • HR • HRMF • horsepower • Rockwell hardness (requires scale designation, such as HRC for Rockwell C hardness) • • HV • Rockwell microficial (microhardness) Hz • Vickers hardness • hertz • intensity; electrical current; bias current • I • IACS • ICR • International Annealed Copper Standard • • interstitial free ID • inside diameter • • intensified controlled rolling IF • I/M • in • IPTS • ingot metallurgy • inch • International Practical Temperature Scale • infrared • IR • ISA • • ISCC • ISO • Instrument Society of America IT • intergranular stress-corrosion cracking • International Standards Organization • isothermal transformation • ITT • J • Jeq • impact transition temperature • joule • Jominy equivalent • JIT • k • • • Kelvin • stress intensity factor; thermal conductivity • fatigue notch factor • plane-strain fracture toughness K • thermal conductivity; wave number; Boltzmann constant k • karat • • just in time (manufacturing) K • Kf • KIc • KISCC • • • kilonewton km • kilometer kg • kilogram • • threshold stress intensity to produce stress-corrosion cracking kN • kPa • ksi • kV • kilopascal • kips (1000 lbf) per square inch • kilovolt • kW • l • • length • length longitudinal; liter • l • • • kilowatt pound • pound force L • lb • lbf • LMP • Larson-Miller parameter • natural logarithm (base e) • ln • LNG • liquefied natural gas • common logarithm (base 10) • log • LPCVD • LT • • Mf meter • temperature at which martensite formation finishes during cooling • temperature at which martensite starts to form from austenite on cooling m • long transverse (direction) • • low pressure chemical vapor deposition • Ms • mA • MA • • milliampere microalloyed • MAE • MDRX • MEA • • • • metadynamic recrystallization monoethanolamine MEK • microalloying elements MeV • • methyl ethyl ketone megaelectronvolt • mg • Mg • • milligram • megagram (metric tonne, or kg × 103) MIBK • • MIG • methyl isobutyl ketone • • • mm • minute; minimum mL • metal inert gas MMC • • • • millimeter metal-matrix composite mPa • milliliter MPa • • • mph • megapascal mpg • millipascal ms • miles per gallon • miles per hour • millisecond • MS • mT • • • MV • millitesla mV • megasiemens N • millivolt • megavolt • newton • number of cycles; normal solution • number of cycles to failure • N • Nf • NASA • • NBS • National Aeronautics and Space Administration NDT • • • nm • nil ductility temperature NFPA • National Bureau of Standards NMR • National Fire Prevention Association • nanometer • • nanoseconds No • number • • nuclear magnetic resonance ns • O • oil • outside diameter • oersted • OD • Oe • OM • optical micrograph • OQ • ORNL • OSHA • • oil quenched Oak Ridge National Laboratory • • page • pearlite • number of passes; applied load; pressure • pascal • polyacrylates oz • ounce • • Occupational Safety and Health Administration p • P • P • Pa • PA • PAG • polyalkylene glycol • negative logarithm of hydrogen-ion activity • precipitation hardenable • pH • PH • PLCs • • P/M • programmable logic controllers PMS • • • ppba • Process Management System ppb • powder metallurgy ppm • • • • parts per million ppt • parts per billion atomic PPS • parts per billion psi • property prediction system • parts per trillion • pounds per square inch • psig • PVA • • • polyvinyl alcohol PVP • gage pressure (pressure relative to ambient pressure) in pounds per square inch q • polyvinyl pyrrolidone • incremental quench factor • Q • r • R • • quench factor; heat removal rate • radius • roentgen • stress (load) ratio; radius; gas constant; bulk resistance; reluctance (reciprocal of permeance); rolling reduction ratio • reduction in area; recrystallization annealed R • RA • rad • absorbed radiation dose • rigid boundary (model) • RB • RCR • recrystallization controlled rolling • rare earth • RE • Ref • rf, RF • • • radio frequency RGA • reference RH • • • RSW • refrigeration hardened rms • residual gas analyzer RT • root mean square • • second • siemens s • room temperature • • resistance spot welding S • SAE • SB • SCC • Society of Automotive Engineers • subgrain boundary (model) • • SCR • SDI • stress-corrosion cracking SEM • • • • strategic defense initiative scanning electron microscope sfm • silicon controlled rectifier SHE • • • standard hydrogen electrode SHT • surface feet per minute SI • Sumitomo high toughness • Système International d'Unités • SMAW • SPC • spf • shielded metal-arc welding • statistical process control • seconds per foot • SRX • ST • static recrystallization • short transverse (direction) • STA • std • SUS • solution-treated and aged • standard • • thickness; time • tesla • temperature • boiling temperature • critical ordering temperature; Curie temperature; critical transition temperature Sv • sievert • • Saybolt Universal Seconds (viscosity) t • T • T • Tb • Tc • TGC • grain coarsening temperature • melting temperature • Tm • TRXN • TC • recrystallization stop temperature • total carbon • TEM • TH • TIG • transmission electron microscopy • transformation hardened • • TIR • tungsten inert gas (welding) TMP • total indicator reading • thermomechanical processing • tons per square inch • tsi • TTT • ULCB • • • ultralow-carbon bainitic UNS • time-temperature transformation UTS • • • v Unified Numbering System ultimate tensile strength • velocity • volt • volume; velocity • V • V • VAR • • V-D • VIM • vacuum arc remelting vol • vacuum degassing • vacuum induction melting • volume • vol% • W • volume percent • watt • width; weight • W • WC • wt% • water cooled • • angular measure; degree • degree Celsius (centigrade) • degree Fahrenheit • direction of reaction • divided by • equals • approximately equals • not equal to • identical with • greater than • much greater than • greater than or equal to • infinity • is proportional to; varies as • integral of • less than yr • year • • weight percent ° • °C • °F • € • ÷ • = • ; • ≠ • ≡ • > • ? • ≥ • ∞ • ∝ • • ∫ < • = less than or equal to maximum deviation minus; negative ion charge • diameters (magnification); multiplied by • multiplied by • per • percent • plus; positive ion charge • square root of • approximately; similar to • partial derivative • thermal diffusivity • change in quantity; an increment; a range • strain • strain rate • angle • wavelength • friction coefficient; magnetic permeability • • • • ≤ much less than • • • microfarads ± • - • × • · • / • % • + • • ~ • ∂ • α • • ∆ ε • • θ • λ • μ • μF • μin • μm • • • Poisson's ratio • pi (3.141592) • density • stress • summation of ν • microsecond μs • micrometer (micron) • • microinch π • ρ • σ • Σ • τ • • ohm ω • frequency • • applied stress (shear) Ω o • Greek Alphabet • B, β • Γ, A, α • • alpha beta γ • • ∆, δ • gamma E, ε • delta • ζ epsilon • zeta • Z, • H, η • eta θ • Θ, • I, • K, κ • theta • iota • kappa λ • Λ, • M, μ • • • lambda mu N, v • Ξ, ξ nu • • xi • O, o • Π, • omicron π • • P, ρ • Σσ • pi T, τ • • • rho • sigma • tau ϒ, υ • upsilon Φ, φ • • • X, χ • chi Ψ, ψ • • phi psi Ω, ω • omega o • Tradenames • AL-6X, AL-6XN, AL 29-4C, AL 29-4-2, AL 904L, AL-36, AL-42, AL-52, AL 2205, AL4750, ALFA IV, E-Brite 26-1, Sealmet, and 203 EZ AF-56 • • is a registered tradename of Allison Gas Turbine, Division of General Motors Corporation are registered tradenames of Allegheny Ludlum Steel, Division of Allegheny Ludlum Corporation • Allcor • AM1 • CBS-600 and CBS-1000M • • • is a registered tradename of Teledyne Industries, Inc is a registered tradename of SNECMA/ONERA are registered tradenames of the Timken Company • CM 247 LC and CMSX • Cronifer • • are registered tradenames of Cannon-Muskegon Corporation is a registered tradename of Vereingte Deutsche Metallwerks • Cryogenic Tenelon and Tenelon • Custom 450, Custom 455, Gall-Tough, Glass Sealing "49", Invar "36", Kovar, Low Expansion "42", Pyromet, TrimRite, 7-Mo PLUS, 18-8 PLUS, 20Cb-3, 20Mo-4, and 20Mo6 • • are registered tradenames of USS, Division of USX Corporation are registered tradenames of Carpenter Technology Corporation • CU78, CW67, and CZ42 • Discaloy • DISPAL • • • are registered tradenames of Aluminum Company of America is a registered tradename of Westinghouse Electric Corporation is a registered tradename of Sinter-metallwerk Krebsưge GmbH • DP3 • Elinvar and Invar • Esshete • • • is a registered tradename of Sumitomo Metal America, Inc are registered tradenames of Imphy, S.A is a registered tradename of British Steel Corporation • Ferralium • FVS-0611, FVS-0812, FVS-1212, and Metglas • • is a registered tradename of Bonar Langley Alloy Ltd are registered tradenames of Allied-Signal Inc • GlidCop • Hastelloy and Haynes • Incoloy, Inconel, IncoMAP AL-905XL, IncoMAP AL-9052, Monel, Nimocast, Nimonic, NIRod, and NI-Span-Cl • JS700 • • • • is a registered tradename of SCM Metal Products, Inc are registered tradenames of Haynes International, Inc are registered tradenames of Inco Alloys International, Inc is a registered tradename of Jessop Steel Company • Kapton, Teflon, and Tefzell • MAR-M • • • are registered tradenames of E.I Du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc is a registered tradename of Martin Marietta Corporation Monit • is a registered tradename of Uddeholms Aktiebolag • MP (Multiphase) • Nextel • is a registered tradename of Standard Pressed Steel Company • is a registered tradename of 3M Company • Nitronic and PH 13-8 Mo • PH 15-7 MO, 12SR, 15-5 PH, 17-4 PH, 18 SR, and 21-6-9 • PWA 1484 • • • are registered tradenames of Baltimore Specialty Steels Corporation are registered tradenames of Armco Advanced Materials Corporation is a registered tradename of Pratt & Whitney Aircraft • RA85H • Refrasil • René • • • is a registered tradename of Rolled Alloys, Inc is a registered tradename of Thompson Company is a registered tradename of General Electric Company • René 41 • RR 2000 and SRR 99 • • is a registered tradename of Allvac Metals Company, a Teledyne Company are registered tradenames of Rolls Royce, Inc • Sanicro and 3RE60 • Sea-Cure • Stellite • • • are registered tradenames of Sandvik, Inc is a registered tradename of Crucible, Inc is a registered tradename of Deloro Stellite, Inc • Tantaloy and Tribocor • Transage 134 and Transage 175 • • are registered tradenames of Fansteel Inc are registered tradenames of Lockheed Missile and Space Company • Tufftride • UCON • Udimet • • • is a registered tradename of Kolene Corporation is a registered tradename of Union Carbide Chemicals and Plastics Company, Inc is a registered tradename of Special Metals Corporation • Unitemp • Uranus • • is a registered tradename of Universal Cyclops Steel Corporation is a registered tradename of Compagnie des Ateliers et Forges de la Loire • Vitallium • Waspaloy • Weldalite • • • • is a registered tradename of Pfizer Hospital Products Group, Inc is a registered tradename of United Technologies, Inc is a registered tradename of Martin Marietta Corporation 253MA and 254SMO • are registered tradenames of Avesta Stainless, Inc Copyright â 2002 ASM Internationalđ All Rights Reserved ... 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 4150 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 4161 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 4337 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 4340 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 50B40 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 50B44 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 5046 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 50B46 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550... 147 5-1 550 1144 80 0-8 45 147 5-1 550 1145 80 0-8 45 147 5-1 550 1146 80 0-8 45 147 5-1 550 1151 80 0-8 45 147 5-1 550 153 6 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 154 1 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 154 8 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 155 2 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 156 6... 85 5-8 85 157 5-1 625 Alloy steels 1330 83 0-8 55 152 5-1 575 1335 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 1340 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 1345 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 3140 81 5-8 45 150 0-1 550 4037 83 0-8 55 152 5-1 575 4042 83 0-8 55 152 5-1 575 4047