The Science and Technology of Materials in Automotive Engines Part 12 doc

Glossary 263 Malleability This term is used when plastic deformation occurs as the result of applying a compressive load. The plastic deformation under a tensile load is referred to as ductility. Patenting An isothermal heat treatment applied to medium- and high- carbon steel wire prior to its final drawing operation. This process generates steel wire having high tensile strength. This produces strong wire such as piano wire. Patenting consists of passing the wire through tubes in a furnace at about 970 °C. After austenitizing the wire at 970 °C and the rapid cooling to 550–600 °C generate a very fine pearlitic microstructure. The resulting ferrite with a fine distribution of carbide has a very high ductility and can be cold drawn with total reduction in diameter of 90%. The cold drawn wire may achieve tensile strength levels in excess of 1.6 GPa without becoming brittle. Phase A homogeneous portion of a system that has uniform physical and chemical characteristics. Precipitation A phenomenon in which a crystal of a different phase is separated from a solid solution and grows. Quenching Operation which consists of cooling a ferrous product more rapidly than in still air. The use of the term specifying the cooling conditions is recommended, for example air-blast quenching, water quenching, step quenching, etc. Residual stress A stress that exists inside metal though no external force or thermal gradient is acting. When a heat treatment is carried out, thermal stress or transformation stress due to the difference of cooling rate is produced inside and outside of the material and these combined remain inside the material as stress. The residual stress is also produced by cold working, welding, forging, etc. Segregation A phenomenon in which alloying elements or impurities are unevenly distributed, or its state. Single crystal A crystalline solid for which the periodic and repeated atomic pattern extends throughout the crystal. A single crystal does not include grain boundaries. Solid solution Homogeneous, solid, crystalline phase formed by two or more elements. Solution treatment Heat treatment intended to dissolve previously precipitated constituents and retain them in the solid solution. Spheroidal (spheroidized) carbide or globular carbide Carbides in a globular form. Spheroidizing Geometric development of the carbide particles, such as the cementite platelets, toward a stable spherical form. Strain ageing An ageing occurring in cold worked materials. Sub-zero treatment or deep freezing Heat treatment carried out to transform the retained austenite into martensite after quenching, and consisting of cooling to and soaking at a temperature below ambient. Science and technology of materials in automotive engines264 Superalloy Alloys capable of service at high temperatures, usually above 1,000 °C. Ni and Co alloys are normally included. Supercooling (undercooling) An operation in which metals are cooled down to the transformation temperature or the solubility line or lower so that transformation and precipitation may be entirely or partly prevented. Temper embrittlement (brittleness) Brittleness which appears in a certain quenched and tempered steel, after soaking at a certain temperature or during slow cooling through these temperatures. The primary temper embrittlement produced by tempering at about 500 °C and the secondary temper embrittlement produced by slow cooling after tempering at even higher temperatures are called high-temperature temper embrittlement. The temper embrittlement in the case of tempering at temperatures around 300°C is called low-temperature temper embrittlement. Tempering Heat treatment applied to a ferrous product, generally after quench hardening, or another heat treatment to bring the properties to the required level, and consisting of heating to specific temperatures (<Ac 1 ) and soaking one or more times, followed by cooling at an appropriate rate. Toughening An operation in which steel is turned into troostite or sorbite structure by tempering at a comparatively high temperature (about 400 °C or higher) after quench hardening. This increases the ratio of the elastic limit to the ultimate tensile strength (yield ratio). This is also referred to as thermal refining. Transformation A crystal structure is changed into another crystal structure by the rise or fall of temperature. Temperature at which a change of phase occurs and, by extension, at which the transformation begins and ends when the transformation occurs over a range of temperatures. Transgranular fracture Fracture of polycrystalline materials by crack propagation through the grains. T6 The temper designation system is used for all forms of wrought and cast aluminum and aluminum alloys except ingot. For heat-treatable alloys the following designations are used. T1: cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition. T2: cooled from an elevated-temperature shaping process, cold worked and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition. T3: solution heat-treated, cold worked and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition. T4: solution heat-treated and naturally aged to a substantially stable condition. T5: T1 + artificial age. T6: solution heat-treated and artificially aged (T4 + artificial age). T7: solution heat-treated and overaged/stabilized. T8: T3 + artificial age. T9: T6 + artificial age. T10: T2 + artificial age. 265 Appendix A: international standards conversion table for alloys Table A.1 compares JIS and other alloy standards. Blanks indicate no direct comparison, although similarities in chemical composition among materials may be identified. Appendices Table A.1 Comparison of Japanese industrial standard (JIS) with other standards Japan USA UK Germany France JIS AA AISI/SAE ASTM BS DIN NF ISO AC4B 333.0 331 333.0 G(GK)-AlSi9Cu3 AC8A 336.0 321 336.0 LM-13 A-S12UNG AC9B LM-28 A-S18UNG ADC12 383.0 LM2 FC200 Class No. 30 200.0 FLG200 FC350 Class No. 50 350.0 FLG350 FCD700-2 100-70-03 350.0 GGG-70 FGS700-2 700-2 S45C 1045 C45 C45 C45 C45 S50C 1049 C50 C50 C50 C50 S55C 1055 C55 C55 C55 C55 SCM420 708M20 SCM435 4137 34CrMo4 34CrMo4 34CrMo4 SUS304 304 S30400 304S31 X5CrNi1810 Z7CN18.09 11.0 SKD11 D2 BD2 X160CrMoV12 SKD61 H13 BH1B X40CrMoV51 X40CrMoV5 40CrMoV5 SUH1 S65007 401S45 Z45CS9 X45CrSi93 SUH3 Z40CSD10 SUH35 349S52 Z53CMN21.09AZ X53CrMnNiN219 SUJ2 52100 52100 100Cr6 100Cr6 B1 or 100Cr6 Appendices 267 Appendix B: function analysis table The engine parts explained in this book have various functions, and the function analysis tables used in several chapters examine the function of a part and the associated requirements for materials and manufacture. For example, the camshaft has to drive accurately to open and close the valves while rotating at high velocity. Figure B.1 analyses the three fundamental functions required, which include: (i) the camshaft should drive the valve accurately even at high rotational velocities; (ii) the camshaft itself should rotate at high speed without torsion and bending; (iii) camshaft manufacture requires precision at low cost. The third column lists the means for meeting the requirements of each function, and the fourth column lists the properties required of the materials used. The shape of the camshaft, which is another aspect that must be taken into consideration in the design and manufacture of camshafts, is not included in this table. The fifth column lists the materials and material technologies suitable for meeting the functional and property requirements of camshafts. These are known as technological seeds. For instance, steel is preferred over aluminum for the shaft portion because of its higher rigidity. Various methods can be used to harden the cam lobe, such as quench-hardening of forged steel or cast iron, carburizing of forged steel, chilled cast iron, remelting of the cam lobe portion of the cast iron camshaft or sintering. Quench-hardening may be used for forged steel or cast iron, but remelting is applicable only to cast iron, so remelting cannot be used if the designer plans to use a lightweight steel. Generally, a part performs several functions simultaneously, and the mechanical designer must choose the most suitable material and technology on the basis of analysis and experience. Reference 1. Wright I.C., Design Methods in Engineering and Product Design, Berkshire, McGraw- Hill Publishing Company, (1998) 221. Required functions Means Required functions for materials Chosen material & technology Camshaft for high rotational velocity Generating accurate valve motion Operating at high rotational velocity Precise shape with less cost High dimensional accuracy High rigidity to prevent abnormal torsion & bending Wear resistance of cam lobe under high contact pressure Durability of shaft High rigidity for torsion & bending Light weight High shapability High machinability High Young’s modulus High hardness High fatigue strength Heat resistance at lubricant oil temperature High Young’s modulus High strength Near net shape Low cost Cast iron Copy grinding Steel shaft Quench-tempered camshaft Chilled camshaft Carburized camshaft Remelted camshaft Sintered cam lobe Steel shaft Assembled camshaft Gun drill boring Casting Forging Cast iron Assembling B.1 Camshaft for high rotational speeds. Appendices 269 Appendix C: the phase diagram Equilibrium phase diagram: the crystal structure of a metal often changes with temperature. When a pure metal absorbs a certain amount of another element, it becomes an alloy and the crystal structure will change. The phase diagram is a map that shows the variations in crystal structure across a wide temperature range. Figure C.1 is the binary phase diagram of the alloy consisting of iron and Temperature (K) 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 γ + α α (Ferrite) Temperature (°C) 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 01234 567 Carbon concentration (%) 1809 L (liquid) * 4.30 L + γ γ (austenite) 1183 A 3 0.8 0.02 Acm Eutectoid point A 1 = 1000 1427 2.07 2.09 1420 4.35 γ + Fe 3 C (or graphite) Fe 3 C (cementite) 1013 L + Fe 3 C 1525 L + graphite α + Fe 3 C (or graphite) C.1 Binary phase diagram consisting of iron and carbon. A steel containing 0.8% carbon transforms from austenite into a mixture of ferrite and cementite. This is called eutectoid transformation. The 0.8% carbon steel is especially called eutectoid steel. The temperature at which the eutectoid transformation takes place is termed the eutectoid point. The annealed eutectoid steel consists only of pearlite. The steels having a higher carbon content above the eutectoid composition are called hyper-eutectoid steels. The hyper-eutectoid steels comprise both cementite and pearlite. The steels having a lower carbon content below the eutectoid composition are called hypo-eutectoid steels. The hypo-eutectoid steels comprise both ferrite and pearlite. We can roughly judge the carbon content in a steel through observing its microstructure. Transformation temperatures change with carbon content. Each boundary line at which the crystal structure changes has a particular name. A 1 : The horizontal line at 723 °C (1000 K). Acm: the oblique line between γ and γ + Fe 3 C. A 3 : the oblique line between γ and γ + α . Also, the transformation temperature shifts a little either in cooling or in heating. To distinguish it, a suffix c is attached in heating, while r in cooling. These are indicated such as Ar 1 or Ac 1 . Science and technology of materials in automotive engines270 carbon. The carbon content is shown on the horizontal axis and temperature on the vertical axis. Pure iron is represented on the left (carbon content = 0%), and carbon content increases to a maximum of 7% on the right-hand side of the diagram. The phase diagram indicates the equilibrium states at various compositions and temperatures, and is also referred to as an equilibrium phase diagram. In thermo-dynamics, the state of equilibrium is reached when there is no net heat exchange between an object and its surroundings. For instance, when a glass of water at 10 °C is placed in a room at 30 °C, the temperature of the water will rise until it is the same as that of the room. This is the equilibrium state, and it will remain stable unless the temperature of the room is changed. The phase diagram displays equilibrium states on a temperature vs. composition plane. For instance, in Fig. C.1, an iron containing 4.3% carbon is liquid at 1,450 °C (indicated by *). Below 1,154 °C, it is solid for all compositions. Crystal structures change in the solid state. The boundary lines in the phase diagram separate the different crystal structures. The area enclosed by a boundary line has the same crystal structure throughout. Crystal structures given by equilibrium transformations: Table C.1 summarizes the characteristics of the typical crystal structures shown in Fig. C.1. Ferrite (Fig. C.2 (a)) exists in the narrow portion on the left side in Fig. C.1. Ferrite ( α -iron) has a bcc structure where iron atoms (white circles) are arranged as shown schematically in Fig. C.2 (a). Table C.1 Characteristics of typical crystal structures 1 . Name Microstructure Characteristics Austenite γ iron γ solid solution containing a carbon content below 2.06%.This transforms to pearlite below 723 °C. Alloys having this structure are tough, corrosion resistive and paramagnetic. Ferrite α iron α solid solution dissolving small amounts of carbon (0.02% at 723 °C, and 0.006% at room temperature). This phase is soft, ductile and ferromagnetic. Cementite Iron carbide (Fe 3 C) Hard and brittle iron-compound containing 6.67%C. This phase is ferromagnetic at room temperature, while ferrimagnetic above A 0 transformation (215 °C). Pearlite Eutectoid A lamellar structure formed through A 1 precipitates of transformation, comprising ferrite and α and carbide cementite. There is a vertical line at 6.67%C, which represents the composition of a carbide called cementite. Since the ratio Fe 3 C of iron to carbon does not Appendices 271 change up to the melting temperature, it is shown by a straight line. Cementite is very hard. It raises hardness and strength when dispersed finely in the iron matrix. The state γ + Fe 3 C, where austenite and cementite coexist, is stable below 1,147 °C. The mixed state α + Fe 3 C, consisting of ferrite and cementite, appears below 723 °C. A steel of 0.8% carbon is austenite at 900 °C. It changes to a mixed state comprising ferrite and cementite below 723 °C. This mixed state is called pearlite. Changes in crystal structure are referred to as transformation. The transformation of 0.8% carbon steel from austenite to a mixture of ferrite and cementite is referred to as the eutectoid transformation, and 0.8% carbon steel is frequently called eutectoid steel. The temperature at which the eutectoid steel transforms is termed the eutectoid point. Steels with a carbon content above eutectoid steel are called hyper-eutectoid steels, whereas steels with a lower carbon content are called hypo-eutectoid steels. From the phase diagram, it can be seen that pure iron transforms from ferrite to austenite at 910 °C (allotropic transformation). Figure C.3 shows the microstructures of irons of various compositions, obtained by etching polished iron alloys with acids and viewed under 100 times magnification. Figure C.3 (a) is a typical ferrite of a 0.01% carbon steel. Only linear grain boundaries are observable (see Appendix G). Each grain boundary separates single crystals. Figure C.3 (b) shows the microstructure of a 0.35% carbon steel, comprising ferrite and pearlite. Pearlite is a mixture of ferrite and cementite. Pearlite displays a lamellar microstructure similar to a herringbone pattern under microscopy. Figure C.3 (c) shows the microstructure of a 0.8% carbon steel consisting of pearlite. In the region of the mixture of α + γ , the amount of cementite 2.87 nm (a) 3.63 nm (b) C.2 (a) Bcc structure of ferrite. (b) Fcc structure of austenite. Austenite ( γ -iron) has a fcc structure. The interaction between atoms determines metal structures. A metal includes countless crystal lattices comprising such atomic arrangements. One lattice has a size of 3–4 nm. The difference in the crystal structure corresponds to the difference in the atomic arrangement. Science and technology of materials in automotive engines272 increases with increasing carbon content. The amount of ferrite inversely decreases. Coarse grain size in steel lowers impact strength considerably, so it is very important to measure and control the grain size. The grain size is adjusted by heating the steel in the austenite temperature region. However, since austenite transforms to ferrite and cementite below 723 °C (Fig. C.1), the original austenite grain boundary is not observable at room temperature and a different technique is needed to see the austenite grain boundary at high temperatures. 50 µm (a) C.3 (a) Microstructure of a 0.01% carbon steel. Grain boundaries are observable. (b) C.3 (b) Microstructure of a 0.35% carbon steel (hypo-eutectoid steel). The white portions are ferrite. Pearlite is gray because it is fine. 50 µm [...]... solidifies the melt continuously The steel ingots are converted into the desired shape by rolling Even after refining, non-metallic inclusions such as Al2O3, MnS, (Mn, Fe)O · SiO2, remain in the steel These inclusions are internal defects and are sometimes the cause of cracking To obtain high quality steels, molten steel must be further refined by a secondary refining process, as described in Chapter... microstructure of the matrix is influenced by the cooling rate after solidification The natural differences among cast irons are due to dispersed graphite in the microstructure A high carbon content, over 3%, lowers the melting temperature of iron, so that it makes casting easy Fine patterns in the mold can be transferred precisely into the cast part because cast irons expand 276 Science and technology of materials. .. above the temperature of the lower broken line (723 °C) and becomes austenite above the upper broken line The detailed transformation temperatures shown as the upper line differ with carbon concentration, while the lower line is always located at 723 °C The two lines coincide at the composition of the eutectoid steel The upper line moves to the high-temperature side with decreasing carbon content in the. .. after the color of the fracture surfaces of the cast parts References 1 JIS Handbook of Iron and Steel, Tokyo, The Japanese Standards Organization, (1996) (in Japanese) 2 Zairyouno Chishiki, Toyota Gijutsukai, (1984) 46 (in Japanese) Appendices 279 Appendix E: steel-making and types of steel Automotive engines use various kinds of iron, mostly iron alloys called steels Steels generally contain carbon and. .. can be obtained by changing the heating temperature and the cooling speed after heating The table lists the names of heat treatments, purposes, resulting microstructures and typical parts Figures F.2 (a) to (e) 723 °C Water or oil cooling Bolt, ball joint Transmission gear, drive pinion Spring F.1 Heat treatment diagram.1 The vertical axis indicates temperature and the horizontal axis time The microstructure... to the high level of impurities A converter or an electric furnace removes the impurities to give the required composition of steel This part of the process is called steel-making Waste steel scraps are put directly into the steel-making process, by-passing the blast furnace The steels produced are cast into various ingot shapes (billet, bloom or slab), mainly using the strand, or continuous, casting... materials in automotive engines when graphite crystallizes During machining, graphite works as a chipbreaker to give high machinability and dimensional accuracy Since graphite itself works as a solid lubricant during machining, the cutting tool is unlikely to seize, another factor in the high machinability Dispersed graphite also gives cast irons a high damping capacity Casting methods control the graphite... higher the price of the steel However, engine parts often use high alloy steels because of the high strength requirements Soaking E.1 Production process of iron and steel.1 Blooming Electric furnace Converter Steel-making Ingot making Steel scrap Pig iron Limestone Iron ore Blast fumace Cokes Sinter Pellet Iron-making Direct transfer to rolling Heating furnace Slabs Blooms Billets Continuous casting... because the rapid quenching suppresses the eutectoid transformation that 286 Science and technology of materials in automotive engines gives rise to the pearlite microstructure This heat treatment is called quench hardening Figure F.2 (a) shows a martensite microstructure The chemical composition of steel is important if the appropriate hardness value cannot be obtained by quenching The addition of elements... cooling Quench hardening Time Temperature 284 Science and technology of materials in automotive engines (a) (b) (c) 50 µm 50 µm 50 µm Appendices (d) (e) 285 50 µm 50 µm F.2 (Left and above) (a) Martensite of a medium carbon steel JIS-S45C (Fe-0.45%C-0.25Si-0.8Mn) having a hardness of 661 HV HV indicates Vickers hardness number (b) Sorbite of JIS-S45C having a hardness of 256 HV (c) Normalized S45C having . either in cooling or in heating. To distinguish it, a suffix c is attached in heating, while r in cooling. These are indicated such as Ar 1 or Ac 1 . Science and technology of materials in automotive. table The engine parts explained in this book have various functions, and the function analysis tables used in several chapters examine the function of a part and the associated requirements for materials. at low cost. The third column lists the means for meeting the requirements of each function, and the fourth column lists the properties required of the materials used. The shape of the camshaft,