Smart Material Systems and MEMS - Vijay K. Varadan Part 11 potx

of insulator patterned on a flat Cu disk. In selective electroplating, pressure is applied between the Cu anode with the mask and the Ni substrate (cathode). Blanket deposition is also based on the electroplating technique, but without a mask. Basically, the blanket- deposited material (e.g. Ni) is different from the selective plated one (Cu), so that one of them acts as the sacrificial material and could be removed later. The planarization is done by lapping the surplus materials to achieve a precise layer thickness and flatness before deposition of the subsequent layer. By repeating the above steps, a metallic 3-D microstructure can be formed (Figure 11.20). The EFAB process is in its development stage. The resolution obtained is around 25 mm and the smearing caused by lapping and ‘misregistration’ also affects the fabrication precision. Moreover, the fabrication speed is a concern since too many time-consuming electroplating steps are involved, although a throughput of two planar- ized 5 mm layers per hour or about 50 layers per day was anticipated [55]. 11.4.5.5 Localized electrochemical deposition A localized electrochemical deposition apparatus is schematically shown in Figure 11.21 [53]. The tip of a sharply pointed electrode is placed in a plating solution and brought near the surface where deposition is to occur. A potential is applied between the tip and the substrate. The electric field generated for electrodepo- sition is then confined to the area beneath the tip, as shown in Figure 11.21(a). Structural material Sacrificial (support) material (g) (e) (f) (d) (a) Substrate Selectively deposited 1st material (b) (c) Electrolyle Anode Insulator Blanket– depsosited 2nd material Figure 11.20 The EFAB process: (a) electroplating through an instant mask; (b) instant-mask removal; (c) blanket deposition of the structural material; (d) planarization by polishing; (e) repetition of electroplating, blanket deposition and planarization until the final structure is formed; (f) remove of the sacrificial materials; (g) cross-sectional view of one layer consisting of structural material and sacrificial materials [55]. A. Cohen, G. Zhang, F. Tseng, U. Frodis, F. Mansfeld, P. Will, EFAB: rapid, low-cost desktop micromachining of high aspect ratio true 3-D MEMS, Proc. IEEE MEMS’ 99, ß 1999 IEEE Polymeric MEMS Fabrication Techniques 299 In principle, truly 3-D microstructures can be formed by using localized electrochemical deposition, provided it is ‘electrically continuous’ with the substrate. The spatial resolution of this process is determined by the size of the microelectrode. Another important parameter that needs to be considered in this process is the electro- deposition rate. The deposition rate in this case can be 6 mm/s – two orders of magnitude greater than those of conventional electroplating [53]. The shape and geome- try of the microelectrode used for localized electroche- mical deposition is critical for the deposition profile. 11.4.6 Metal–polymer microstructures Composite metal/polymer microstructures are becoming very popular for MEMS. A process developed in cabrera et al. [70] allows build layer-by-layer the 3-D object so as to obtain conductive and non-conductive parts together, instead of manufacturing them separately and assembling afterwards, for example, to build the cylind- rical object described in Figure 11.22, which consists of a metallic element (‘Part 1’) freely rotating inside a poly- mer housing (‘Part 2’). The major steps involved in the fabrication include the following:  Electroplating of copper to make Part 1.  ‘Local’ laser silver plating on the polymer to get the conductive base for the following.  Electroplating of copper.  Microstereolithography (MSL) with an insoluble resin to make Part 2.  MSL with a soluble resin to make a sacrificial structure between Parts 1 and 2. 11.5 COMBINED SILICON AND POLYMER STRUCTURES The MSL process can be used for fabrication of polymer 3-D microstructures, while the silicon micromachining processes have their own advantages in circuit and sensing and actuating element fabrication. Hence, a combined silicon and polymeric microstructure will be attractive for MEMS applications. Some of the research efforts in this direction are introduced in this section. 11.5.1 Architecture combination by MSL Architecture combination is a technology for building complicated structures by mechanically connecting two or more architectures made by different micromachining processes. This approach can enable fabrication of a system consisting of LIGA linkages driven by a Si micromotor Fine electrode Deposit Mandrel Plating solution (a) Micro stepping motors Stepping motor controller Workstation V ref Voltage sulfamate solution Cu or Ni mandrel Pt:Ir tip Trigger Current amplifier (b) Figure 11.21 Localized electrochemical deposition for 3-D micro-fabrication: (a) concept; (b) apparatus [53]. Madden, J.D.; Hunter, I.W., ‘‘Three-dimensional microfabrication by localized electrochemical deposition,’’ Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, Volume 5, Issue 1, ß 1996 IEEE Metal (Part 1) (Part 2) Air Polymer Figure 11.22 Complex 3-D metal–polymer part [70]. 300 Smart Material Systems and MEMS and housed in a polymer structure (Figure 11.2). Photo- forming (its use here is the same as in MSL) is developed for this because of its relatively high resolution and 3-D fabrication capability (Figure 11.23(c)) [71]. Since in this approach the components fabricated with different processes are joined together during the photo- forming process, their proper alignment is critical to achieve a successful architecture combination. 11.5.2 MSL integrated with thick-film lithography Many micromechanical components have been fabri- cated using planar processes, such as thin-film and bulk-silicon micromachining and high-aspect-ratio micromachining (e.g. LIGA, deep RIE and thick-resist lithography), which have high fabrication resolutions, but do not allow true 3-D fabrications. On the other hand, MSL allows the building of 3-D complex micro- structures, but with limited resolution and the problems associated with the manipulation and assembling of the obtained polymer structures. An approach of com- bining MSL and thick-resist lithography may provide a unique technique to build 3-D microstructures with more functions [72]. 11.5.3 AMANDA process AMANDA is a process which combines surface micro- machining, micromolding and diaphragm transfer to fabricate micro-parts from polymers. A flexible dia- phragm with other functional or structural materials is deposited and patterned on a silicon substrate using a surface micromachining process. The molding process is then used to build the housing for the fabricated dia- phragm and is then transferred from the silicon substrate to the polymeric housing. Hence, the AMANDA process Elevator driver Elevator Window Laser oscillator Resin container Pin hole Beam shutter Condenser Head driver (a) Micromotor Substrate Support Glue mechanism Next substrate (b) (1) Make a substrate with functional elements (2) Make glue mechanisms by photoforming (3) Pile up next substrate and remove supports (c) Position the elevator near the window Scan the beam along the first layer Finish the first layer Pull up the elevator for thickness of one laye r Repaet these operations to make the object shape Figure 11.23 (a) 3-D micro-fabrication by the combined process; (b) schematic of a photoforming system; (b) process flow for photoforming [71]. T. Takagi, and N. Nakajima, Architecture combination by micro photoforming process, Proc. IEEE MEMS 94, ß 1994 IEEE Polymeric MEMS Fabrication Techniques 301 allows low-cost production of reliable micro devices by batch fabrication. As an example for the AMANDA process, the fabri- cation process for a pressure transducer is shown in Figure 11.24. A silicon wafer is covered with 60 nm of gold by PVD and then with 1.5 mm of polyimide by spin- coating. The polyimide is patterned by photolithography and an additional 100 nm gold is evaporated on top of the polyimide layer. The second layer of gold is patterned to form strain gauges. A second polyimide disk with a thickness of 30 mm is built on these strain gauges by spin- coating and photolithography. The housing of AMANDA devices are produced by molding. Typically, several housings can be fabricated in a batch. Injection molding is generally used for the molding in AMANDA in order to save time [73]. The housing can be molded from thermoplastic materials such as polysulfone, PMMA, PA, PC, PVDF or PEEK. [73]. Mold inserts are fabricated by milling and drilling with an CNC machine, LIGA, deep RIE, etc. The diaphragm is then transferred into the housing. An adhesive is injected into the cavities inside the housings. In the example shown in Figure 11.24, the housings are ‘adhesively’ bonded to the polyimide on the wafer. The polyimide outside the housing is cut and the housing, together with the polyimide diaphragm, is then separated from the wafer. The polyimide can be peeled off from the wafer because adhesion of the first gold layer to silicon is low. Usually, the diaphragm is encapsulated by a second shell, which is molded and bonded similarly to the first shell. The dimensional accuracy of the microstructures fabricated by the AMANDA process depends on the lithography, precision of the mold insert and molding process and alignment and temperature control during bonding of the molded part and diaphragm. The lateral accuracy of the pattern on the diaphragm can be very high because it is fabricated by photolithography. Transfer of the diaphragm to the polymer housing causes an overall shrinkage due to thermal expansion of the housing and the heating for bonding. The precision of the mold insert for housing fabrication can be very high if the LIGA process is used. The precision of molding can be of several microns but can be improved with injection molding or hot-embossing molding. Disadvantages of this process are in the alignment and control of shrinkage which affects the dimensional accuracy of the AMANDA process [73]. REFERENCES 1. B. Zhu and V.K. Varadan, ‘Integrated MOSFET based hydrophone device for underwater applications’, Proceed- ings of SPIE, 4700, 101–110 (2002). 2. C.W. Hull, ‘Apparatus for production of three-dimensional objects by stereolithography’, US Patent 4 575 330 (1984). 3. J.C. Andre ´ ,A.LeMe ´ haute ´ and O. de Witte, ‘Dispositif pour re ´ alisar un mode ` le de pie ` ce industrielle’, French Patent, 8 411 241 (1984). 4. H. 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Polymeric MEMS Fabrication Techniques 305 12 Integration and Packaging of Smart Microsystems 12.1 INTEGRATION OF MEMS AND MICROELECTRONICS The integration of an MEMS sensor with electronics has several advantages when dealing with small signals. The function of electronics is to make sure that the MEMS components operate correctly. The state-of-the-art in MEMS is combination with ICs, utilizing advanced packaging techniques to create a system-on-a-package (SOP) or a system-on-a-chip (SIP) [1]. However, in such cases it is important that the process used for MEMS fabrication does not adversely affect the electronics. MEMS devices can be fabricated as pre- or post-proces- sing modules, which are integrated by standard proces- sing steps. The choice of integration depends on the application and different aspects of its implementation technology. Various approaches for their integration with microelectronics are considered in this section. In general, three possibilities exist for monolithic integration of CMOS and MEMS: (a) CMOS first, (b) MEMS in the middle, and (c) MEMS first [2,3]. In addition, a hybrid approach, known as a multichip module is also used often for such integration. Each of these methods has its own advantages and disadvantages. A comparison is listed in Table 12.1. It may be recalled that a number of materials, such as ceramics, are used in the fabrication of various MEMS, unlike in CMOS. Annealing of polysilicon or sintering of most ceramics generally require higher processing temperatures, often exceeding that allowed in CMOS. For example, at temperatures in excess of about 800  C, aluminum metal- lizations may diffuse and cause performance degrada- tion. Hence, if ceramic processing at a higher temperature is involved, it may be preferable to fabricate the MEMS first. In contrast, if the MEMS involves delicate structures, several common CMOS processes, such as ‘lift off’, may degrade the MEMS performance. Hence, the choice of process sequence is highly depen- dent on the particular MEMS structure at hand. 12.1.1 CMOS first process In this approach, first developed at UC Berkeley, the temperature limitation due to aluminum is eliminated by using tungsten as the conducting layer [4]. In this process, known as ‘modular integration of CMOS with microstructures’ (MICSs), CMOS circuits are first fabri- cated using conventional processes, and polysilicon microstructures are then fabricated on the top after passivating with SiN and using a phosphosilicate glass (PSG) sacrificial layer. Rapid thermal annealing (RTA) of polysilicon in nitrogen at 1000  C for ‘stress relief’ does not affect the CMOS performance. A cross-sectional view of the device is shown in Figure 12.1. In an alternate approach, MEMS fabrication is limited to below 400  C so that these steps do not adversely affect the CMOS fabricated first. Some examples of successful microsystems fabricated by this approach as listed in Table 12.2. 12.1.2 MEMS first process In the method, MEMS structures are first fabricated on the silicon wafer [12,13]. The primary advantage is that higher processing temperature can be used to achieve better process optimization. In this process, developed at the Sandia National Laboratories, shallow trenches are first anisotropically etched on the wafer and the MEMS is Smart Material Systems and MEMS: Design and Development Methodologies V. K. Varadan, K. J. Vinoy and S. Gopalakrishnan # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 0-470-09361-7 built within these trenches [14]. Silicon nitride and sacrificial oxide may be deposited within these trenches for the MEMS structures. A polysilicon layer on top of these layers helps establish contacts with the subsequent CMOS processing. Chemical–mechanical planarization (CMP) and high-temperature annealing are done to optimize this polysilicon layer. The sacrificial oxide covering the MEMS structure is removed after fabrica- tion of the CMOS device. A photoresist is used as a protective layer during the release process. A cross- sectional view of a typical device fabricated with this process in shown in Figure 12.2. Some examples of successful microsystems fabricated by this approach are listed in Table 12.3. 12.1.3 Intermediate process The simplest form of an integrated MEMS device is where the existing layers for fabricating the IC are used for the mechanical components in MEMS [17–19]. Standard microelectronics processes require a number of layers on top of the wafer, such as oxide, polysilicon, metal and nitride. Utilizing these layers in an MEMS requires only a few additional steps of masking and etching, as explained in Figure 12.3. Some examples of successful microsys- tems fabricated by this approach are listed in Table 12.4. 12.1.4 Multichip module The incompatibilities in the fabrication processes of MEMS and ICs have made their monolithic integration difficult. Multichip module (MCM) packaging provides an efficient solution to integrate MEMS with microelec- tronic circuits as it supports a variety of die types in a common substrate without the need for resorting to significant changes in the fabrication process of either component. Several sensors, actuators or a combination can be combined in a single chip using the MCM technique [22]. Using this approach, both surface- and bulk-micromachined components may be integrated with the electronics. When using this approach, separate procedures are required for releasing and assembling the MEMS structures without degrading the package or other dies in the module. Several variants of this approach exist: high-density interconnect (HDI), chip-on-flex (COF) and micro-module system (MMSs) MCM-D. These are compared in Tungsten metallization Gate poly TiN/TiSi 2 Poly-poly capacitor PSG Nitride passivation Poly 2 Poly 1 n + n + N Substrate P well p + p + Figure 12.1 Cross-sectional view of a device fabricated with the MICS process [4]. W. Yun; Howe, R.T.; Gray, P.R., ‘‘Surface micromachined, digitally force-balanced accelerometer with integrated CMOS detection circuitry,’’ 5th Solid-State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, 1992. Technical Digest, # 1992 IEEE 308 Smart Material Systems and MEMS Publisher's Note: Permission to reproduce this image online was not granted by the copyright holder. Readers are kindly requested to refer to the pr in ted v ersion of this chapter. Table 12.5. In standard HDI process the dies are embedded in cavities milled on the base substrate and then a thin-film interconnecting layer is deposited on top of the compo- nents. Holes for the interconnecting vias are made by laser ablation using a 350 nm argon ion laser. Physical access to the MEMS die is provided by an additional laser ablation step. Figure 12.4(a) shows a typical HDI process flow, compared with an augmented HDI process for MEMS Table 12.2 Examples of the CMOS first approach for the fabrication of microsystems [5]. Organization Microsystem Remarks Reference UC Berkeley Micro- Tungsten metallization to [4] accelerometer increase temperature limit of CMOS; by MICS process Texas Instruments Digital An array of aluminum [6] micro-mirror micro-mirrors integrated over a static random access memory University of Michigan/ Gyroscope — [7] Delphi Automotive Systems University of Acceleration MEMS parts built by additive [8] Bremen/Infineon switch electroplating technology Honeywell Infrared SiN encapsulation of emitter [9] thermal for electrical isolation and imager mechanical support Stanford Biosensor with A hybrid glass/PDMS/silicon [10] University disposable chamber in a cell cartridge cartridges that includes fluidic interchanges, physiological sensors and environmental regulation Austrian Micro Capacitive Wafer bonding of a [11] Systrems acceleration polysilicon sensor wafer sensor with a CMOS substrate p -tub N -tub Sec oxide CMOS device area Micromechanical device area Poly 2 Poly 1 n-type silicon substrate Nitride Nitride Arsenic-doped epitaxial layer MM poly 0 PETEOS Fiell oxide TFOF Ped TEOF Field Oxide PE nitride Pad Figure 12.2 Cross-sectional view of a typical device fabricated with an MEMS –first fabrication process developed at the Sandia National Laboratories [14]. J.H. Smith, S. Montague, J.J. Snieowski, J.R. Murray, and P.J. McWhorter, ‘‘Embedded micromechanical devices for monolithic integration of MEMS with CMOS,’’ IEDM’95 Tech. Digest, # 1995 IEEE Integration and Packaging of Smart Microsystems 309 [...]... surface areas that have the possibility of having some defects [1] Piezoelectric PVDF film is used to Smart Material Systems and MEMS: Design and Development Methodologies V K Varadan, K J Vinoy and S Gopalakrishnan # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd ISBN: 0-4 7 0-0 936 1-7 326 Smart Material Systems and MEMS Flexible Cu-clad Polyamide film PVDF film Figure 13.1 Transducer made of PVDF for structural health monitoring... test systems 322 Smart Material Systems and MEMS REFERENCES 1 A.P Malshe, C O’Neal, S Singh and W.D Brown, ‘Packaging and integration of MEMS and related microsystems for system-on-a-package (SOP)’ in Proceedings of the SPIE Symposium on Smart Structures and Devices, Vol 4235, D.K Sood, R.A Lawes and V.V Varadan (Eds), SPIE, Bellinghan, WA, USA, pp 198–208 (2001) 2 H.Xie and G.K Fedder ‘Integrated microelectromechanical... wafer-level encapsulation Fixtures that hold the MEMS die by sides rather than the top face Low-modulus die attachment, annealing, compatible CTE match-ups Low out-gassing epoxies, cyanate esters, low-moduli solders, new die attachment materials, removal of out-gassing vapors Test all that is possible using wafer-scale probing, and finish with cost-effective specially modified test systems 322 Smart Material. .. Delamination MEMS devices may fail due to delamination of bonded thin-film materials Failure of bonds between dissimilar materials or wafer-to-wafer bonding can also cause delamination in MEMS [48] Dampening This arises as being critical for MEMS devices because of the mechanical nature of the parts and their resonant frequency Dampening can be caused by Integration and Packaging of Smart Microsystems 321... deposited and patterned as the heating and bonding material Fusion bonding is mostly used in silicon-on-insulator (SOI) technology, such as Si-SiO2 [42–44] and silicon bonding [45] Aluminum-to-glass [46] bonding using localized heating can be applied for hermetic packaging In eutectic bonding, gold resistive heaters are sputtered and used as the heating and bonding materials The temperature of the micro-heater... important for MEMS package design With most MEMS being mechanical systems, protection and isolation of such 312 Smart Material Systems and MEMS (a) Mill substrate and attach die Die Bond pads when packaging variuos types of devices are shown in Table 12.6 Die Substrate 12.2.1.3 Protection from environment Apply dielectric layer and laser drill vias Die Dielectric Die Substrate Sputter metallization and apply... also be useful in MEMS die separation [3] 12.2.2 Special issues in MEMS packaging 12.2.2.3 Die handling Although it follows a similar path as microelectronics packaging, the design of MEMS packages does need to During automated processes, vacuum pick-up heads are commonly used in handling the die in microelectronics 314 Smart Material Systems and MEMS As these may not be used for MEMS devices, due...310 Smart Material Systems and MEMS Table 12.3 Examples of the MEMS first approach for the fabrication of microsystems [5] Organization Sandia National Laboratories Microsystem — Physical Electronics Laboratory,Zurich/ Infineon Trench–Hall device Microsystems Technology Laboratory, MIT Pressure sensor and angular rate sensor Remarks Microstructures embedded below the CMOS by an integrated MEMS (iMEMS)... experimental set-up for the localized heating and bonding test [26] L Lin, ‘ MEMS post-packaging by localized heating and bonding,’’ IEEE Trans Advanced Packaging, vol 23, # 2000 IEEE 320 Smart Material Systems and MEMS Table 12.7 Typical process conditions for anodic, glass frit and silicon direct-wafer-bonding (DWB) (adapted from Mirza and Ayon [47].a Parameter Anodic Glass frit DWB Temperature Pressure... DeBusschere and G.T.A Kovacs, ‘‘Portable cell-based biosensor system using integrated CMOS cell-cartridges’’, Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 16, 543–556 (2001) 11 M Brandl and V Kempe, ‘High performance accelerometer based on CMOS technologies with low cost add-ons’, in Proceedings of the IEEE Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Conference, IEEE, Piscataway, NJ, USA, pp 6–9 (2001) 12 Y.B Gianchandani, . at the Sandia National Laboratories, shallow trenches are first anisotropically etched on the wafer and the MEMS is Smart Material Systems and MEMS: Design and Development Methodologies V. K. Varadan, . combination. 11. 5.2 MSL integrated with thick-film lithography Many micromechanical components have been fabri- cated using planar processes, such as thin-film and bulk-silicon micromachining and high-aspect-ratio micromachining. 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