GLOBALIZATION AND EDUCATION phần 9 ppsx

and the rich, mostly interested in tertiary education – an even in secondary, in the less developed countries – as compared to the poor, whose main interest is preprimary and primary education. 13 Another, very polemic but anyway relevant indicator of investment in education is class size. As we can see in Table 8, again, it is much lower in OECD countries than in Latin America, Asia or Africa concerning pre-pri- mary, primary and secondary education. This contradicts some ‘light’ con- clusions that have been drawn from a developed countries-centered debate, according to which a reduction in class size has no significant results in educational outcomes. 14 The conclusion can tell some truth if it is referred to small increases or decreases of the class size but, at the same time, it seems pretty clear that there are thresholds beyond which class size is very relevant. In other words, one thing is to say that decreasing the size of the classroom from 22 to 20 students has no impact on educational outcomes and another one, very different, is to say that the learning process is the same with 20 or 30 something students in the classroom. JUAN J. LLACH 228 Notes and sources. Elaborated on UNESO (2005) except USA whose data are from OECD (2005) and include public and private expenditure. Regions include all countries with data, whose number shown in is brackets. The world average is weighted. T ABLE 7.3. Expenditure matters (3).Public expenditure per student as a % of GDP per capita. 13 See a coincident approach in Berthélemy (2005). 14 The skeptical view of the impact of class size can be seen in Economic Journal (2003). On the opposite side, Piketty (2004) offers a natural experiment that shows the rel- evance of class size. Primary Secondary Tertiary ‘Elitist’ bias Sec/Prim Ter/Prim Ter/Sec Africa 13.4 (21) 29.2 (19) 234.8 (13) 2.18 17.5 8.04 Latin Amer. 12.7 (16) 13.8 (16) 36.3 (14) 1.09 2.85 2.63 USA 22.0 (1) 25.0 (1) 57.0 (1) 1.13 2.59 2.28 Asia 11.7 (20) 14.4 (18) 42.8 (13) 1.23 3.65 2.97 ‘Emerging’ 16.2 (3) 20.7 (4) 65.8 (3) 1.28 4.06 3.18 W. Europe 19.7 (17) 26.1 (16) 37.7 (16) 1.32 1.91 1.44 E. Europe 22.2 (12) 20.6 (11) 25.5 (14) 0.92 1.15 1.24 Oceania 17.8 (2) 18.5 (2) 31.5 (2) 1.04 1.77 1.70 World aver. 15.5 (92) 21.0 (87) 71.0 (76) 1.36 4.58 3.38 MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:14_Llach(OK+Ale).qxd 12-12-2006 16:56 Pagina 228 THE CHALLENGE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL GAPS 229 Some Conclusions We have shown some strong arguments in favor of the importance of educational investment regarding both, the increase in enrollment rates and the reduction of class size. It is still possible to identify a third reason to justify the need of more resources. There are not enough international comparisons regarding the length of school schedules, but very probably the reality is that in most developing countries it is limited to three and a half hours of language and mathematics, while in most developed countries it lasts up to six hours and includes arts, sports, foreign languages, tech- nologies and other channels that allow students to develop some of their multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1993). Of course, a longer schedule also implies more resources. Factors that support advices 1 and 3 do not end here, however. Perhaps even more interesting is the fact that in the way of comparing educational investment around the world it was possible to find evidence of an educa- tional elitist bias, particularly in developing countries. In most of them, the educational lobby of the poor is weak. This is evident not only in the scarce attention devoted to children development policies and to pre-primary and good primary education, both of them (particularly the first one) still far beyond universalization. It is also reflected, more crudely and painfully, in the fact that the schools attended by the poor are, on average, the worst ones. Given the very well-known fact that ages up to 8 or 9 are critical to allow a good educational development, this school segregation is just the contrary to what is needed and, of course, contributes to maintain or even to increase internal social gaps, as well as international ones. That is why TABLE 8. Class size also matters Ratio of students to teaching staff in educational institu- tions (2003). Ratio by level of education, calculations based on full-time equivalents. Notes and sources: elaborated on OECD (2005). Regions include all countries with data. OECD: all countries. Latin America: n=7. Asia: n=8. Africa: n=3. Pre-primary Primary Secondary Tertiary OECD 14,4 16,5 13,6 14,9 Latin America 23,0 23,7 21,7 11,5 Asia 26,4 25,1 23,2 23,4 Africa 22,0 27,4 19,1 … MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:14_Llach(OK+Ale).qxd 12-12-2006 16:56 Pagina 229 the author wants to emphasize that to give priority to the youngest and to the poorest is the truest way to get educational equity. 15 It can be asked, finally, if confronting such huge evidences in favor of the ‘more education’ agenda it would be needed anyway to perform the ‘bet- ter education’ agenda too. The answer is yes. In addition to the reasons that are possible to find in the literature 16 it is possible to add another one. Educational systems in developing countries, and also in some developed countries, work in the darkness. Just to give some examples, not many countries dare to participate in the international assessments like PISA, PIRLS and TIMSS; only a few perform national assessments based on a census and almost none have statistics that allow the knowing of invest- ment per student in each school. All this does not only hinder the develop- ment of educational policies at the school level, precisely the most impor- tant ones. Additionally, this opacity in the system impedes the poor to real- ize the low quality of education their children receive, giving room to other, more powerful lobbies, educational or not, to be more successful at the time of getting budgetary resources. Just to give an end to this long enough paper it is necessary to under- line the importance of giving greater diffusion to the discussion of these issues because, unfortunately, the most frequent situation in international forums is the prevalence of positions li ke the ones described in advice type 1 or 2. If these approaches continue prevailing we will not find the way out of international educational divergence. JUAN J. LLACH 230 15 All these developments are supported in Llach (2005, forthcoming). Among the recent contributions see World Bank (2005) on the importance of early childhood interventions. 16 See Pritchett (2004) and Hanushek (2005). MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:14_Llach(OK+Ale).qxd 12-12-2006 16:56 Pagina 230 THE CHALLENGE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL GAPS 231 APPENDIX T ABLE A1. Educational Convergence: 1830-1930 (1). Students Enrolled in Primary Schools, per 1000 Children Ages 5-14. Notes and sources. N.L. America: Northern Latin America. S.L. America: Southern Latin America. N. Europe: Northern Europe. C-E Europe: Central and Eastern Europe. S. Europe: Southern Europe. Western Off: Western Offshoots. The statistics are the mean (x), the standard deviation (s) and the variation coefficient (vc). Elaborated on Lindert (2004). MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:14_Llach(OK+Ale).qxd 12-12-2006 16:56 Pagina 231 JUAN J. LLACH 232 TABLE A2. Educational Convergence: 1830-1930 (2). Students Enrolled in Secondary Schools, per 1000 Children Ages 5-14. Notes and sources: as in Table A1. MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:14_Llach(OK+Ale).qxd 12-12-2006 16:56 Pagina 232 THE CHALLENGE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL GAPS 233 TABLE A3. Educational Convergence: 1970-2003. School Expectancy (Primary to Tertiary). A. Developing, non European Countries. Notes and sources. All Counts.: all the countries of the Table. S.Sa. Africa: Sub-Saharan Africa. S. Latin Am.: Southern Latin America. N. Latin Am.: Northern Latin America. Elaborated on UNESCO (2005a). MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:14_Llach(OK+Ale).qxd 12-12-2006 16:56 Pagina 233 JUAN J. LLACH 234 TABLE A4. Educational Convergence: 1970-2003. School Expectancy (Primary to Tertiary). B. Developed, European Countries. Notes and sources. All Counts.: all the countries of the Table. Western Of.: Western Offshoots. Europe N, S, E: Northern, Southern, Eastern Europe. Canada and USA, 1970, estimated on 1981 and 1985 data. The statistics belong to the whole sample (Tables A3 and A4) and are the mean (x), the standard deviation (s) and the variation coefficient (vc). Elaborated on UNESCO (2005a). MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:14_Llach(OK+Ale).qxd 12-12-2006 16:56 Pagina 234 THE CHALLENGE OF INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL GAPS 235 BIBLIOGRAPHY Araujo, Caridad, Francisco Ferreira and Norbert Schady (2004), ‘Is the World Becoming More Unequal? Changes in the World Distribution of Schooling’, World Bank, Washington, DC, processed. Barro, Robert and Jong Wha Lee (2000), ‘International Data on Education Attainment: Updates and Implications’, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research, NBER Working Paper 7911. Barro, Robert and Xavier Sala-i-Martin (2003), Economic Growth, Cambridge: MIT Press, 2nd edition. Berthélemy, Jean Claude (2005), ‘Globalization and Challenges for Education in Least Developed Countries’, Paper prepared for the Joint Working Group on Globalization and Education of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences and the Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences, 16- 17 November, Vatican City. Bloom, David E. (2004), ‘Globalization and Education: An Economic Perspective’, in Suárez-Orozco and Baolian Qin Hilliard (eds.), op.cit., pp. 56-78. Braslavsky, Cecilia and Jorge Wethein (2004, eds.), ‘Education, Economy and Development: Learning from Successful Cases’, IBE (Geneva)- UNESCO (Brasilia)-IIPE (Buenos Aires). Economic Journal, The (2003), Special number devoted to assess the influ- ence of class size in educational outcomes, 113 (485), February. Ferranti, David de, Guillermo E. Perry, Indermit Gil, J. Luis Guasch, William E. Maloney, Carolina Sánchez-Páramo and Norberto Schady (2003). Closing the Gap in Education and Technology, World Bank Latin American and Caribbean Studies, Washington: The World Bank. Gardner, Howard (1993). Multiple Intelligences: the Theory in Practice, New York: Basic Books. Hanushek, Eric A. (2005). What We Know About the Economics of School Quality, Global Development Network, Research for Results in Education, Global Conference on Education Research in Developing and Transition Countries, Prague. Krueger, Alan B. and Mikael Lindahl (2001), ‘Education for Growth: Why and for Whom?’, Journal of Economic Literature, XXXIX, 4, December, pp. 1101-1136. Llach, Juan J. (2002), ‘Gaps and Poverty in the Long Run’, in Globalisation and Inequalities, Proceedings of the Colloquium, Vatican City: The Pontifical Academy of Social Sciences, pp. 43-66. MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:14_Llach(OK+Ale).qxd 12-12-2006 16:56 Pagina 235 ––––––––––– (2003), ‘Globalization and International Inequalities: Gaps and Poverty in Historical Perspective’, Buenos Aires: Asociación Argentina de Economía Política. ––––––––––– (2005), ‘El desafío de la equidad educativa’ (The challenge of equity in education), forthcoming. Lindert, Peter H. (2003), Growing Public. Social Spending and Economic Growth since the Eighteenth Century, vols. 1 and 2, Cambridge University Press. Manuelli, Rodolfo E. y Ananth Seshadri (2005). Human Capital and the Wealth of Nations, University of Wisconsin-Madison. OECD (2005), Education at a Glance. OECD Indicators 2005, Paris: OECD. Parente, Stephen and Edward C. Prescott (2000). Barriers to Riches, Cambridge, MA and London: MIT Press. Piketty, Thomas (2004), L’impact de la taille des classes et de la ségrégation sociale sur la réussite scolaire dans les écoles françaises : une estima- tion à partir du panel primaire 1997, EHESS, Paris-Jourdan. Pritchett, Lant (2004), Towards a New Consensus for Addressing the Global Challenge of the Lack of Education, Copenhagen Consensus Challenge Paper. Suárez-Orozco, Marcelo M. and Desirée Baolian Qin-Hilliard (2004, edi- tors). Globalization: Culture and Education in the New Millennium, The Ross Institute-University of California Press. UNDP (United Nations Development Program, 2005). Human Development Report 2005, New York: UNDP. UNESCO (2005a), Global Education Digest. Comparing Education Statistics around the World, Montreal: UNESCO Institute of Statistics. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 2005b). Education for All Global Monitoring Report: Education for All: The Quality Imperative. Paris /http://www.unesco. org/education/gmr_ download/. World Bank (2004). World Development Report 2004, Washington DC: The World Bank. ––––––––––– (2005). World Development Report 2006, Washington DC: The World Bank. Zhang, Junsen and Tianyou Li (2002), ‘International Inequality and Convergence in Educational Attainment, 1960-1990’, Review of Development Economics, 6, 3, pp. 383-92. JUAN J. LLACH 236 MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:14_Llach(OK+Ale).qxd 12-12-2006 16:56 Pagina 236 WHICH ANTHROPOLOGICAL BASES FOR EDUCATION AND RESEARCH? MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:15_Vincent(OK+Ale+Lena).qxd 12-12-2006 16:57 Pagina 237 [...]... 258 STATEMENT ON GLOBALIZATION AND EDUCATION In our globalized world, the problem of justice is central: namely that all men and women, wherever they are and whatever their condition of life, should have the right to, and the possibility of, a good education and general access to culture This means a goal of basic education – up to nine years – for all, then secondary and higher education on the basis... through education that man becomes fully who he is, aware, free and responsible, a citizen of the world To think about education is to think about future generations and thus is rooted in hope and requires generosity Globalization properly managed may provide a chance for education and peace, bringing human beings closer to one another and fostering the sharing of common values As in all human matters, education. .. 16:57 Pagina 253 EDUCATION BETWEEN ETHICAL UNIVERSALITY AND CULTURAL PARTICULARITY 253 3 Globalization and universality are not the same Globalization controls economic and cultural development; whereas universality, in the shape of universal reason and universal ethics, governs universal claims to validity In the Leonardo world, the fate of education hangs between ethical universality and cultural particularity... GABRIELLA.qxd:17_STATEMENT(Ale+Mal+Lena).qxd 12-12-2006 16:58 Pagina 257 Statement on GLOBALIZATION AND EDUCATION This Statement on Globalization and Education was produced by the joint workshop on the same subject of 16-17 November 2005 which was held at Casina Pio IV On the basis of a text by Prof Léna, Prof Malinvaud, and the Bishop-Chancellor Sánchez, and in response to proposals made by the President of the PAS, Prof... information and communication technologies as well, which are largely not subject to local control, the rise of supra-national political institutions (keyword: globalization of the political’), and the increasing homogenization of education and research structures Not only is an economic and political dimension defined but also general social and cultural dimensions If this analysis is right – and there... Suhrkamp, 198 9); Leonardo-Welt: Über Wissenschaft, Forschung und Verantwortung (Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 199 2) MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:16_Mittelstrass(OK).qxd 248 12-12-2006 16:57 Pagina 248 JÜRGEN MITTELSTRASS beyond this area and have thus far been little understood – especially in their significance for us in our social relations and organizational structures .9 In this sense the concept of globalization. .. knowledge and orientational knowledge, is the work of man ‘Natural’ worlds exist only on the margins of this world, and they are becoming ever fewer and ever weaker This is not simply an incidental but a logical result of the developed essence of man We live in a world that in its structures and its forms of life is the expression of the scientific and technical understanding Science today is everywhere, and. .. (Reinbek: Rowohlt Taschenbuch Verlag, 196 1), p 78 5 A Gehlen, Der Mensch: Seine Natur und seine Stellung in der Welt [ 194 0], 9th ed (Wiesbaden: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Athenaion, 197 2), p 37 6 F Nietzsche, Jenseits von Gut und Böse [1886], in F Nietzsche, Werke: Kritische Gesamtausgabe, G Colli and M Montinari (eds.), vol VI/2 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 196 8), p 79 2 MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:16_Mittelstrass(OK).qxd... Pagina 238 MASTER GABRIELLA.qxd:15_Vincent(OK+Ale+Lena).qxd 12-12-2006 16:57 Pagina 2 39 BRAIN AND EDUCATION JEAN-DIDIER VINCENT Education is a natural and universal function in humans It cannot be dissociated from culture, which is defined as the collective behaviors (or actions) and representations shared by a community, and which are transmitted from generation to generation in the form of units which,... des Menschen im Kosmos (Darmstadt: Otto Reichl, 192 7), p 49 H Plessner, Die Stufen des Organischen und der Mensch: Einleitung in die philosophische Anthropologie (Berlin and Leipzig: de Gruyter, 192 8), pp 362ff 3 H Plessner, op cit., pp 3 09- 346 See K Lorenz, Einführung in die philosophische Anthropologie (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 199 0), pp 102f 4 A Gehlen, Anthropologische Forschung: . Eastern Europe. Canada and USA, 197 0, estimated on 198 1 and 198 5 data. The statistics belong to the whole sample (Tables A3 and A4) and are the mean (x), the standard deviation (s) and the variation. (2005), Globalization and Challenges for Education in Least Developed Countries’, Paper prepared for the Joint Working Group on Globalization and Education of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences and. Bank. Zhang, Junsen and Tianyou Li (2002), ‘International Inequality and Convergence in Educational Attainment, 196 0- 199 0’, Review of Development Economics, 6, 3, pp. 383 -92 . JUAN J. LLACH 236 MASTER