PRINCIPLES OF ECONOMICS phần 4 doc

some members of this society will be satisfied either not at all or, at any rate, only in an incomplete fashion. Here human self-interest finds an incentive to make itself felt, and where the available quan- tity does not suffice for all, every individual will attempt to secure his own requirements as completely as possible to the exclusion of others. In this struggle, the various individuals will attain very dif- ferent degrees of success. But whatever the manner in which goods subject to this quantitative relationship are divided, the requirements of some members of the society will not be met at all, or will be met only incompletely. These persons will therefore have interests opposed to those of the present possessors with respect to each portion of the available quantity of goods. But with this Opposition of interest, it becomes necessary for society to protect the various individuals in the possession of goods sub- ject to this relationship against all possible acts of force. In this way, then, we arrive at the economic origin of our present legal order, and especially of the so-called protection of ownership, the basis of property. Thus human economy and property have a joint economic ori- gin since both have, as the ultimate reason for their existence, the fact that goods exist whose available quantities are smaller than the requirements of men. Property, therefore, like human economy, is not an arbitrary invention but rather the only practically possi- ble solution of the problem that is, in the nature of things, imposed upon us by the disparity between requirements for, and available quantities of, all economic goods. As a result, it is impossible to abolish the institution of property without removing the causes that of necessity bring it about—that is, without simultaneously increasing the available quantities of all eco- nomic goods to such an extent that the requirements of all members of society can be met completely, or without reducing the needs of men far enough to make the available goods suffice for the complete satisfaction of their needs. Without establishing such an equilibrium between requirements and available amounts, a new social order could indeed ensure that the available quantities of economic goods would be used for the satisfaction of the needs of different persons than at present. But by such a redistribution it could never surmount Economy and Economic Goods 97 the fact that there would be persons whose requirements for eco- nomic goods would either not be met at all, or met only incom- pletely, and against whose potential acts of force, the possessors of economic goods would have to be protected. Property, in this sense, is therefore inseparable from human economy in its social form, and all plans of social reform can reasonably be directed only toward an appropriate distribution of economic goods but never to the abolition of the institution of property itself. B. Non-economic goods. In the preceding section I have described the every-day phe- nomena that result from the fact that requirements for certain goods are larger than their available quantities. I shall now demon- strate the phenomena arising from the opposite relationship—that is, as a consequence of a relationship in which the requirements of men for a good are smaller than the quantity of it available to them. The first result of this relationship is that men not only know that the satisfaction of all their needs for such goods is completely assured, but know also that they will be incapable of exhausting the whole available quantity of such goods for the satisfaction of these needs. Suppose that a village is dependent for water on a mountain stream with a normal flow of 200,000 pails of water a day. When there are rainstorms, however, and in the spring, when the snow melts on the mountains, the flow rises to 300,000 pails. In times of greatest drought it falls to but 100,000 pails of water daily. Suppose further that the inhabitants of the village, for drinking and other uses, usually need 200, and at the most 300, pails daily for the complete satisfaction of their needs. Their highest requirement of 300 pails is in contrast with an available minimum of at least 100,000 pails per day. In this and in every other case where a quantitative relationship of this kind is found, it is clear not only that the satisfaction of all needs for the good in question is assured, but also that the economizing individuals will be able to utilize the available quantity only par- tially for the satisfaction of their needs. It is evident also that partial 98 Principles of Economics quantities of these goods may be removed from their disposal, or may lose their useful properties, without any resultant diminution in the satisfaction of their needs, provided only that the aforemen- tioned quantitative relationship is not thereby reversed. As a result, economizing men are under no practical necessity of either preserving every unit of such goods at their command or conserv- ing its useful properties. Nor can the third and fourth of the above-described phe- nomena of human economic activity be observed in the case of goods whose available quantities exceed requirements for them. If such a relationship should exist, what sense would there be in any attempt to make a choice between needs that men should satisfy with the available quantity and needs that they will resign themselves to leaving unsatisfied, when they are unable to exhaust the whole quantity available to them even with the most complete satisfaction of all their needs? And what could move men to achieve the greatest possible result with each quantity of such goods, and any given result with the least pos- sible quantity? It is clear, accordingly, that all the various forms in which human economic activity expresses itself are absent in the case of goods whose available quantities are larger than the requirements for them, just as naturally as they will necessarily be present in the case of goods subject to the opposite quantitative relationship. Hence they are not objects of human economy, and for this reason we call them non-economic goods. To this point we have considered the relationship underlying the non-economic character of goods in a general way—that is, without regard to the present social organization of men. There remains only the task of indicating the special social phenomena that result from this quantitative relationship. As we have seen, the effort of individual members of a society to attain command of quantities of goods adequate for their needs to the exclusion of all other members has its origin in the fact that the quantity of certain goods available to society is smaller than the requirements for them. Since it is therefore impossible, when such a relationship exists, to meet the requirements of all individuals completely, each individual feels prompted to meet his own requirements to the exclusion of all Economy and Economic Goods 99 other economizing individuals. Thus, when all the members of a society compete for a given quantity of goods that is insufficient, under any circumstances, to satisfy completely all the needs of the various individuals, a practical solution to this conflict of interests is, as we have seen, only conceivable if the various portions of the whole amount at the disposal of society pass into the possession of some of the economizing individuals, and if these individuals are protected by society in their possession to the exclusion of all other individuals in the economy. The situation with respect to goods that do not have economic character is profoundly different. Here the quantities of goods at the disposal of society are larger than its requirements, with the result that all individuals are able to satisfy their respective needs completely, and portions of the available amount of goods remain unused because they are useless for the satisfaction of human needs. Under such circumstances, there is no practical necessity for any individual to secure a part of the whole sufficient to meet his requirements, since the mere recognition of the quantitative rela- tionship responsible for the non-economic character of the goods in question gives him sufficient assurance that, even if all other members of society completely meet their requirements for these goods, more than sufficient quantities will still remain for him to satisfy his needs. As experience teaches, the efforts of single individuals in soci- ety are therefore not directed to securing possession of quantities of non-economic goods for the satisfaction of their own individual needs to the exclusion of other individuals. These goods are there- fore neither objects of economy nor objects of the human desire for property. On the contrary, we can actually observe a picture of communism with respect to all goods standing in the relationship causing non-economic character; for men are communists when- ever possible under existing natural conditions. In towns situated on rivers with more water than is wanted by the inhabitants for the sat- isfaction of their needs, everyone goes to the river to draw any desired quantity of water. In virgin forests, everyone fetches unhin- dered the quantity of timber he needs. And everyone admits as much light and air into his house as he thinks proper. This communism is 100 Principles of Economics as naturally founded upon a non-economic relationship as prop- erty is founded upon one that is economic. C. The relationship between economic and non-economic goods. In the two preceding sections we examined the nature and ori- gin of human economy, and demonstrated that the difference between economic and non-economic goods is ultimately founded on a difference, capable of exact determination, in the relationship between requirements for and available quantities of these goods. But if this has been established, it is also evident that the eco- nomic or non-economic character of goods is nothing inherent in them nor any property of them, and that therefore every good, without regard to its internal properties or its external attributes, attains economic character when it enters into the quantitative relationship explained above, and loses it when this relationship is reversed. 10 Economic character is by no means restricted to goods that are the objects of human economy in a social context. If an isolated individual’s requirements for a good are greater than the quantity of the good available to him, we will observe him retaining pos- session of every unit at his command, conserving it for employ- ment in the manner best suited to the satisfaction of his needs, and making a choice between needs that he will satisfy with the quan- tity available to him and needs that he will leave unsatisfied. We will also find that the same individual has no reason to engage in this activity with respect to goods that are available to him in quantities exceeding his requirements. Hence economic and non- economic goods also exist for an isolated individual. The cause of the economic character of a good cannot therefore be the fact that it is either an “object of exchange” or an “object of property.” Nor can the fact that some goods are products of labor while others are given us by nature without labor be represented with any greater justice as the criterion for distinguishing economic from non-eco- nomic character, in spite of the fact that a great deal of clever rea- soning has been devoted to attempting to interpret actual phe- Economy and Economic Goods 101 10 The next paragraph originally appears here as a footnote.—TR. nomena that contradict this view in a sense that does not. For expe- rience tells us that many goods on which no labor was expended (alluvial land, water power, etc.) display economic character whenever they are available in quantities that do not meet our requirements. Nor does the fact that a thing is a product of labor by itself necessarily result in its having goods-character, let alone economic character. Hence the labor expended in the production of a good cannot be the criterion of economic character. On the con- trary, it is evident that this criterion must be sought exclusively in the relationship between requirements for and available quantities of goods. Experience, moreover, teaches us that goods of the same kind do not show economic character in some places but are economic goods in other places, and that goods of the same kind and in the same place attain and lose their economic character with changing circumstances. While quantities of fresh drinking water in regions abounding in springs, raw timber in virgin forests, and in some countries even land, do not have economic character, these same goods exhibit economic character in other places at the same time. Examples are no less numerous of goods that do not have economic character at a particular time and place but which, at this same place, attain economic character at another time. These differences between goods and their changeability cannot, therefore, be based on the properties of the goods. On the contrary, one can, if in doubt, con- vince oneself in all cases, by an exact and careful examination of these relationships, that when goods of the same kind have a dif- ferent character in two different places at the same time, the rela- tionship between requirements and available quantities is different in these two places, and that wherever, in one place, goods that originally had non-economic character become economic goods, or where the opposite takes place, a change has occurred in this quan- titative relationship. According to our analysis, there can be only two kinds of rea- sons why a non-economic good becomes an economic good: an increase in human requirements or a diminution of the available quantity. The chief causes of an increase in requirements are: (1) 102 Principles of Economics growth of population, especially if it occurs in a limited area, (2) growth of human needs, as the result of which the requirements of any given population increase, and (3) advances in the knowl- edge men have of the causal connection between things and their welfare, as the result of which new useful purposes for goods arise. I need hardly point out that all these phenomena accompany the transition of mankind from lower to higher levels of civiliza- tion. From this it follows, as a natural consequence, that with advancing civilization non-economic goods show a tendency to take on economic character, chiefly because one of the factors involved is the magnitude of human requirements, which increase with the progressive development of civilization. If to this is added a diminution of the available quantities of goods that previously did not exhibit economic character (timber, for instance, through the clearance or devastation of forests associated with certain phases of cultural development), nothing is more natural than that goods, whose available quantities on an earlier level of civilization by far outstripped requirements, and which therefore did not show economic character, should become economic goods with the passage of time. In many places, especially in the new world, this transition from non-economic to economic character can be proven historically for many goods, especially timber and land. Indeed the transition can be observed even at the present time. Despite the fact that information in this field is only fragmentary, I believe that in Germany, once so densely forested, but few places are to be found where the inhabitants have not, at some time, experienced this transition—in the case of firewood, for example. From what has been said, it is clear that all changes by which economic goods become non-economic goods, and conversely, by which the latter become economic goods can be reduced simply to a change in the relationship between requirements and available quantities. Goods that occupy an intermediate position between economic and non-economic goods with respect to the characteristics they exhibit may lay claim to a special scientific interest. In this class must be counted, above all, such goods in highly civilized countries as are produced by the government and of- Economy and Economic Goods 103 fered for public use in such large quantities that any desired amount of them is at the disposal of even the poorest member of society, with the result that they do not attain economic character for the consumers. Public school education, for instance, in a highly developed society is usually such a good. Pure healthy drinking water also is considered a good of such importance by the inhabitants of many cities that, wherever nature does not make it abundantly available, it is brought by aqueducts to the public fountains in such large quantities that not only are the requirements of the inhabitants for drinking water completely met but also, as a rule, considerable quantities above these requirements are available. While instruction by a teacher is an economic good for those in need of such instruction in societies at a low level of civilization, this same good becomes a non-economic good in more highly developed societies, since it is provided by the state. Similarly, in many large cities pure and healthy drinking water, which previ- ously had economic character for consumers, becomes a non- economic good. Conversely, goods that are naturally available in quantities exceeding requirements may attain economic character for their consumers if a powerful individual excludes the other members of the economy from freely acquiring and using them. In densely wooded countries, there are many villages surrounded by natural forests abounding in timber. In such places, the available quantity of timber by far exceeds the requirements of the inhabitants, and uncut wood would not have economic character in the natural course of events. But when a powerful person seizes the whole for- est, or the greater part of it, he can regulate the quantities of timber actually available to the inhabitants of his village in such a way that timber nevertheless acquires economic character for them. In the heavily wooded Carpathians, for instance, there are numerous places where peasants (the former villains) must buy the timber they need from large landholders, even while the latter let many thousands of logs rot every year in the forest because the quan- tities available to them far exceed their present requirements. This, however, is a case in which goods that would not possess economic character in the natural course of events artificially be- 104 Principles of Economics come economic goods for the consumers. In such circumstances, these goods actually manifest all the phenomena of economic life that are characteristic of economic goods. 11 Finally, goods belong in this category that do not exhibit eco- nomic character at the present time but which, in view of future developments, are already considered by economizing men as eco- nomic goods in many respects. More precisely, if the available quantity of a non-economic good is continually diminishing, or if the requirements for it are continually increasing, and the relation- ship between requirements and available quantity is such that the final transition of the good in question from non-economic to eco- nomic status can be foreseen, economizing individuals will usually make portions of the available quantity objects of their economic activity. They will do this even when the quantitative relationship responsible for the non-economic character of the good still actu- ally prevails, and will, when living as members of a society, usu- ally guarantee themselves their individual requirements by taking possession of quantities corresponding to these requirements. The same reasoning applies to non-economic goods whose available quantities are subject to such violent fluctuations that only com- mand of a certain surplus in normal times assures command of requirements in times of scarcity. It applies also to all non-eco- nomic goods with respect to which the boundary between require- ments and available quantities is already so close (the third case mentioned on p. 94, above all, belongs in this category) that any misuse or ignorance on the part of some members of the economy may easily become injurious to the others, or when special consid- erations (considerations of comfort or cleanliness for example) apparently make expedient the seizure of partial quantities of the non-economic goods. For these and similar reasons the phenome- non of property can also be observed in the case of goods that appear to us still, with respect to other aspects of economic life, as non-economic goods. Finally, I would like to direct the attention of my readers to a circumstance that is of great importance in judging the eco- Economy and Economic Goods 105 11 Using a mode of expression already current in our science, we could, by analogy, call the latter quasi-economic goods (as opposed to true economic goods), and the former quasi-non-economic goods. nomic character of goods. I refer to differences in the quality of goods. If the total available quantity of a good is not sufficient to meet the requirements for it, every appreciable part of the total quantity becomes an object of human economy and thus an eco- nomic good whatever its quality. And if the available quantities of a good are greater than the requirements for it, and there are there- fore portions of the total stock that are utilized for the satisfaction of no need whatever, all units of the good must, in accordance with what has already been said about the nature of non-economic goods, have non-economic character if they are all of exactly the same quality. But if some portions of the available stock of a good have certain advantages over the other portions, and these advan- tages are of such a kind that various human needs can be better satisfied or, in general, more completely satisfied by using these rather than the other, less useful, portions, it may happen that the goods of better quality will attain economic character while the other (inferior) goods still exhibit non-economic character. Thus, in a country with a superabundance of land, for instance, land that is preferable because of the composition of the soil or by rea- son of its location may already have attained economic character while poorer lands still exhibit non-economic character. And in a city situated on a river with drinking water of inferior quality, quantities of spring water may already be objects of individual economy when the river water does not, as yet, show economic character. Thus, if we sometimes find that different portions of the whole supply of a good differ in character at the same time, the reason, in this case too, always lies solely in the fact that the available quan- tities of the goods of better grade are smaller than requirements while the poorer goods are available in quantities exceeding requirements (requirements not covered by the goods of better grade). Such instances do not, therefore, constitute exceptions, but are, on the contrary, a confirmation of the principles stated in this chapter. D. The laws governing the economic character of goods. In our investigation of the laws governing human require- ments, we have reached the result that the existence of require- 106 Principles of Economics [...]... explanation of a phenomenon If we explain the economic character of goods of first order by that of goods of second order, the latter by the economic character of goods of third order, this again by the economic character of goods of fourth order, and so on, the solution of the problem is not advanced fundamentally by a single step, since the question as to the last and true cause of the economic character of. .. enjoyment depends But careful examination of the phenomena of life shows that these differences in the importance of different satisfactions can be ob- 1 24 Principles of Economics served not only with the satisfaction of needs of different kinds but also with the more or less complete satisfaction of one and the same need The lives of men depend on satisfaction of their need for food in general But it... 59ff 112 Principles of Economics of any item of wealth presupposes, therefore, an economizing individual, or at any rate one in whose behalf acts of economizing are performed Quantities of economic goods destined for a specific purpose are therefore not wealth in the economic sense of the word The fiction of a legal person may be valid for purposes of legal practice or even for purposes of juridical... goods as “products of labor” or “objects of exchange,” also rule out these criteria whenever it is a question of distinguishing between goods that do and goods that do not have value for us 116 Principles of Economics of the significance that command of each concrete unit3 of the available quantities of these goods has for our lives and wellbeing, thus causing it to attain value for us .4 Just as a penetrating... economic character of goods of higher order depends upon the economic character of the goods of lower order for whose production they serve In other words, no good of higher order can attain economic character or maintain it unless it is suitable for the production of some economic good of lower order If, therefore, goods of lower order displaying economic char- 108 Principles of Economics acter are... dependent upon them for the satisfaction of our needs The value of goods is therefore nothing arbitrary, but always the necessary consequence of human knowledge that the maintenance of life, of well-being, or of some ever so insignificant part of them, depends upon control of a good or a quantity of goods Regarding this knowledge, however, men can be in error about the value of goods just as they can be in... products of labor and objects of exchange and to non-economic goods being “free gifts of nature” and not objects of exchange We reached the conclusion that the economic character of goods is not dependent on either of these two factors The same thing is true of value Like the economic character of goods, value is he result of the relationship between requirements and available quantities of goods to... 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2 1 0 3 2 1 0 2 1 0 Suppose that the scale in column I expresses the importance to some one individual of satisfaction of his need for food, this importance diminishing according to the degree of satisfaction already attained, and that the scale in column V expresses similarly the importance of his need for tobacco... at which further acts of satisfaction of his need for food have a smaller (2) The satisfaction from the consumption of each commodity is independent of the amount of consumption of other commodities (3) Successive additions to total satisfaction in each vertical column are the result of successive equal additions to the amount of the commodity consumed (4) Additional amounts of the different commodities... of the economic activity of men that fills their minds more than any other, that has the most far-reaching influence on their economic efforts, and that is exercised almost continually by every economizing individual But human knowledge of the different degrees of importance of satisfaction of different needs and of separate acts of satisfaction is also the first cause of differences in the value of . satisfaction of their special needs but to the satisfaction of the needs of the totality of individuals com- 112 Principles of Economics 18 “Zweckvermögen.”—TR. posing the economy, then we do, of course,. character of goods. In our investigation of the laws governing human require- ments, we have reached the result that the existence of require- 106 Principles of Economics ments for goods of higher. the explanation of a phenomenon. If we explain the economic character of goods of first order by that of goods of sec- ond order, the latter by the economic character of goods of third order,