Muhammad ayub understanding islamic finance phần 6 ppt

248 Understanding Islamic Finance reduced the period to fifteen days, some even to one day, which, as they argued, was the minimum period necessary for the transport of a commodity from one market to another. Some jurists believed in precise fixation of the date on which delivery was to be made, while some others approved of a rough date but a definite period or occasion of delivery; for example, on harvest. 20 Contemporary scholars recommend that the due date and place of delivery must be known. The period could be anything from a few days to a number of years, depending upon the nature of the commodity involved. Delivery can also be made in different consignments or instalments if mutually agreed. 21 Before delivery, goods will remain at the risk of the seller. Delivery of goods can be physical or constructive. After delivery, risk will be transferred to the purchaser. Transferring of risk and authority of use and utilization/consumption are the basic ingredients of constructive possession. If a place of delivery is not stipulated at the time of the Salam agreement, the place at which the contract was executed will be regarded as the place where the goods will be delivered. The parties can also mutually decide about the place, keeping in mind the customary practice. 22 10.4.4 Khiyar (Option) in Salam The jurists disallow the operation of the Islamic law of option (Khiyar alShart) in the case of Bai‘ Salam because this disturbs or delays the seller’s right of ownership over the price of the goods. The purchaser also does not have the “option of seeing” (Khiyar al Ro’yat), which is available in the case of normal sales. However, after taking delivery, the purchaser has the “option of defect” (Khiyar al‘Aib) and the option of specified quality. This means that if the commodity is defective or it does not have the quality or specification as agreed at the time of contract, the purchaser can rescind the sale. But in that case, only the paid amount of price can be recovered without any increase. 10.4.5 Amending or Revoking the Salam Contract In Salam, a seller is bound to deliver the goods as stipulated in the agreement. Similarly, the buyer has no right to unilaterally change the conditions of the contract in respect of the quality or quantity or the period of delivery of the contracted goods after payment is made to the seller. Both parties, however, have the right to rescind the contract with mutual consent in full or in part. The buyer will thus have a right to get back the amount advanced by him; but not more or less than it. 23 The seller may often be willing to rescind the contract if the market price of the contracted goods is higher at the time of delivery than what the bank has paid to him. Similarly, the bank may be inclined to withdraw from the purchase if the price of the contracted item goes down at the time of delivery. It is, therefore, advisable, to make Bai‘ Salam between a bank and a supplier an irrevocable contract. The only exception may be the complete absence of the goods in the market or their becoming inaccessible to the seller just at the time of 20 Hasanuz Zaman, 1991, p. 447. 21 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, clause 3/2/9, p. 165. 22 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, clause 3/2/10, p. 165. 23 See, Hasanuz Zaman, 1991, p. 453 and AAOIFI, 2004–5a, clauses 4/2, 4/3, 5/5, pp. 165, 166, 173. Forward Sales: Salam and Istisna‘a 249 delivery. Only in this situation may the seller be allowed to rescind the contract, provided the bank refuses to extend the period of delivery until the next supply season. In the case of revocation of the contract, the bank will charge exactly the same amount that it had paid. If the seller supplies the goods before the stipulated time, generally the jurists do not bind the buyer to take possession of it. Those who relax the rule subject it to the interest of the buyer. The buyer can refuse to accept the goods only if they are not according to the stipulated specifications. Any change in prices would allow neither the seller nor the buyer to rescind the contract or to refuse to give or take delivery. Hence, according to the majority of jurists, Salam is considered a nonrevocable sale except with free mutual consent. Jurists allow the purchaser to take any goods in place of the agreed goods, after the due date falls, provided both parties agree and the new item is of a different genus from the original commodity and the market value of the substitute is not more than the value of the original commodity at the delivery date. Further, it should not be stipulated in the Salam contract. 24 10.4.6 Penalty for Nonperformance The seller can undertake in the Salam agreement that in the case of late delivery of Salam goods, he shall pay into the Charity Account maintained by the bank an amount which will be given to charity on behalf of the client. This undertaking is, in fact, a sort of self-imposed penalty to keep oneself away from default. Clause 5/7 of the AAOIFI’s Salam Standard says: “It is not permitted to stipulate a penalty clause in respect of delay in the delivery of the Muslam Fihi (Salam commodity).” This implies that any such penalty cannot become part of the bank’s (seller’s) income. A penalty can be agreed in the contract in order to avoid wilful default, as discussed in Chapters 4 and 7. If the seller fails to fulfil his obligation due to insolvency, he should be granted an extension of time for delivery. 25 10.5 SECURITY, PLEDGE AND LIABILITY OF THE SURETIES It is permissible to ask for security or a pledge in a Salam transaction as proved from the Sunnah of the holy Prophet (pbuh). Imam Bukhari has captioned two chapters “Kafeel fis Salam” and “Al-Rihn fis Salam” and reported the Hadith of the holy Prophet borrowing grain from a Jew against the pledge of an iron breastplate. This Hadith has no mention of Kafeel. Ibn Hajar in Fathul Bari has explained this by saying that Imam Bukhari intended to describe the permissibility of Kafeel in Salam by copermitting Rihn and Kafeel. 26 The seller can be required to furnish any security, personal surety or a pledge. In the case of a pledge, the bank, in the event of the seller’s default, has the right to sell out the pledge and purchase the stipulated goods from the market in collaboration with the customer or take away his advance payment out of the sale proceeds and return the balance to the owner. If the bank gets its money back, it cannot be more than the price paid in advance, as the advance price is like a debt outstanding on the seller. Purchase of the stipulated commodity by the bank from the sale proceeds of the pledge should not result in any exploitation of the customer. He, therefore, may be involved in the process. 24 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, clauses 4/2 and 5/4, pp. 165, 166, 173. 25 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, Standard on Salam, clause 5/6, p. 166. 26 Ibn Hajar, 1981, 4, pp. 433–434; see also AAOIFI, 2004–5a, Standard on Salam, clause 3/3, p. 165. 250 Understanding Islamic Finance If a seller has furnished a personal surety, the latter will be liable to deliver the goods if the former fails to do so. If revocation of the contract is required, only the seller is authorized to revoke and not the surety; only the price paid will be taken in that case. The seller can, with the permission of the purchaser, shift the liability to the transferee on the basis of Hawalah, subject to acceptance by the latter. The liability of the surety or the transferee will automatically cease if the contract of Bai‘ Salam is rescinded. As a result, the pledge will also be released. 10.6 DISPOSING OF THE GOODS PURCHASED ON SALAM First, the Salam buyer cannot sell the commodity onward before taking its delivery. There is a difference of opinion among Muslim jurists regarding the legality of selling the purchased goods in a Salam contract prior to taking delivery. The majority maintain that the Salam purchaser is not allowed to enjoy ownership rights nor he has the right of disposal of such goods until he has received them. 27 Therefore, the seller cannot resell an item, even at cost, cannot contract its transference and cannot make it partnership capital. These jurists rely on the tradition reported by Abu Daud and Ibn Majah: “Whoever makes Salam should not transfer it to others”. 28 It is argued that in this Hadith, it is clear that the buyer should not exchange the subject matter of Salam with any person. However, this is a weak tradition, as pointed out by Hafiz Ibn Hajar. 29 Therefore, it cannot be the basis for any ruling. As indicated earlier, Salam is an exception and the basis on which a person purchases a commodity on Salam can be invoked for selling that commodity onward; from here we derive the permission for Parallel Salam for disposal of the commodity. Therefore, many jurists have given some relaxation. Ibn Taymiyah and Ibn al-Qayyim maintained that there is no legal problem in exchanging the subject matter of Salam before taking possession. If it is sold to a third party, it may be at the same price, a higher price or a lower price. However, if it is sold to the seller himself, it should be at the same price or a lower price but not at a higher price. Companion Ibn Abbas (Gbpwh) and Imam Ahmad have the same view on the issue. This is also the Maliki view. However, they also disapprove of reselling the subject matter of Salam before taking possession if it is a foodstuff. 30 The contemporary position of Muslim scholars is also divergent. Shaikh Nazih Hammad, for instance, maintains that it is permissible to resell Salam goods before taking possession, as maintained by Ibn Taymiyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, because there is no text from the Qur’ ¯ an or Sunnah, Ijma‘a or Qiy ¯ as to prohibit this. On the contrary, the texts as well as the Qiy ¯ as convey its legality. 31 This view has also been backed by some other scholars. On the other hand, many scholars have maintained that it is illegal to resell anything before taking possession of it. 32 It seems logical to take into consideration the opinion of those who uphold the legality of reselling Salam before taking possession, since there is no genuine text to prohibit that and as 27 Ibn Abideen, n.d., 4, p. 209; al-Buhuti, Kashshaf al-Qina, 3, p. 293; Al-Kasani, 1400 AH, 5, p. 214; Ibn Qudama, 1367 AH, 4, p. 334. 28 Abu Daud, 1952, 2, p. 247. 29 Among its narrators is one person named Atiah, rejected by Muhaddiseen; see, Ibn Hajar, 1998, 3, No. 1203, p. 69. 30 Ibn Rushd, 1950, 2, p. 231. 31 Majalla Majma‘ al-Fiqh al-Islami, No. 9, 3, pp. 628–629. 32 Majalla Majma‘ al-Fiqh al-Islami, No. 9, 3, pp. 643–654. Forward Sales: Salam and Istisna‘a 251 a result the ideas of parallel Salam and Sukuk, or certificates based on Salam, that are crucial for the functioning of Islamic banks can be materialized. Transfer of ownership to the pur- chaser means transfer of risk to him and at least the price risk of the commodity is transferred as soon as the Salam agreement is executed. Otherwise, the legality of parallel Salam as has been allowed in the current framework of Islamic finance would become doubtful. The possibility of having negotiable Salam certificates is yet to be decided. So far, the majority of the contemporary scholars have not accepted this. To be on the safer side, we may not allow actual or constructive delivery of the Salam goods before taking possession, but if banks maintain inventory of various types of goods, any units of which are sold out of inventory without identification of the particular units, it could be acceptable. 10.6.1 Alternatives for Marketing Salam Goods There are a few options for disposing of or marketing the goods purchased through Salam. The options available to Islamic banks are: (i) enter into a Parallel Salam contract; (ii) an agency contract with any third party or with the customer (seller); and/or (iii) sale in the open market by the bank itself by entering into a promise with any third party or direct selling upon taking delivery. One thing must be clear, however, that such goods cannot be sold back to the Salam seller. Hence, Parallel Salam cannot be entered into with the original seller – this is prohibited due to being buy-back. Even if the purchaser in the second contract is a separate legal entity but owned by the seller in the first contract, this would not amount to a valid Parallel Salam agreement. One deviation from the above principle would be that after settlement of the Salam transaction, i.e. transfer of ownership/risk to the bank (buyer), there might be a totally separate Murabaha or Musawamah deal with the same client. The State Bank of Pakistan, while giving the Shar ¯ ı´ah essentials of Islamic modes of financing, has allowed this option. 33 Accordingly, one Islamic bank in Pakistan had been selling carpets purchased through Salam, the day after the culmination of Salam, to the Salam seller, who used to export the carpets as per the concerned L/C. However, as the majority of Shar ¯ ı´ah scholars were not inclined to accept this arrangement, the bank shifted to the alternative of appointing the client as agent to export the goods on behalf of the bank. We give hereunder the procedure of the above options. A bank may take a promise from any third party that he will purchase the goods of stipulated specification at any stipulated price. This promise would be binding on the promisor, and in case of breach of promise, he would be liable to make up the actual loss to the promisee. The bank also has the option of waiting to receive the commodity and then selling it in the open market for cash or deferred payment. In this case, it may have to create an inventory that could be useful for the bank from a business point of view, subject to proper risk mitigation and the concerned regulatory framework. Agency Contract If the bank considers that it is not suitable for it to keep inventory of the goods and/or it has no expertise to sell the commodities received under a Salam contract, it can appoint any third party or the customer as its agent to sell the commodity in the market. It is 33 SBP website: http://www.sbp.gov.pk/departments/ibd.htm 252 Understanding Islamic Finance necessary, however, that the Salam agreement and agency agreement should be separate and independent from each other. A price can be determined in the agency agreement at which the agent will sell the commodity, but if the agent is able to get a higher price, the benefit can be given to the agent. 34 Parallel Salam In Salam, both the seller and the buyer can enter into a parallel contract. The bank, as seller, can sell the goods on Parallel Salam on similar conditions and specifications as it previously purchased on the first Salam, without making one contract dependent on the other. The date of delivery in the parallel contract can be the same as that of the original Salam. This does not come under prohibition in any way. Similarly, the seller can enter into a parallel contract to enable him to deliver the agreed commodity at the agreed time. If the seller in the first Salam contract breaches his obligation, the buyer (the injured party) has no right to relate this breach/default to the party with whom he concluded a Parallel Salam. The two contracts cannot be tied up and performance of one must not be made contingent on the other. The delivery date in the parallel contract can be the same as in the original Salam contract, but not earlier than that, as this would mean sale of goods which one does not possess. There must be two separate and independent contracts, one where the bank acts as buyer and another in which it is a seller. 35 Getting Promise for Purchase A Salam purchaser may like to get a promise from any third party whereby the latter will buy the commodities of specified quality and quantity at a mutually agreed price. The delivery date of the Salam goods can be the delivery date in the promise. The bank (as promisee) may take earnest money (Hamish Jiddiyah) from the promisor and if the latter backs out, the bank will have the right to cover the actual loss from the earnest money. In the case of promise, prepayment of price by the promisor would not be necessary, and this is the edge of the promise option over the option of Parallel Salam for disposing of goods purchased on the basis of Salam. 10.7 SALAM – POST EXECUTION SCENARIOS After execution of the Salam contract, a number of situations could arise. 10.7.1 Supply of Goods as Per Contract The seller delivers the commodity with the stipulated features at the due time and place of delivery. The bank (buyer) takes delivery and the transaction culminates smoothly; the bank will dispose of the commodity as per its plan. 34 The AAOIFI has described the permission for appointing the client bank’s agent for sale of the subject matter of Istisna‘a (see p. 185, clause 6/6 of Istisna‘a Standard; this implies that such agency is also possible in the case of Salam. See also Hasanuz Zaman, 1991, p. 457). 35 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, Standard on Salam, clause 6, pp. 167, 173. Forward Sales: Salam and Istisna‘a 253 10.7.2 Failure in Supply of Goods The seller defaults and does not deliver the goods, saying, for example, that he was unable to produce goods of the agreed quality or the required quantity. The Salam buyer shall have the following options: 36 • to wait until the commodity is available; • to cancel the contract and recover the paid price; • to agree to a replacement with mutual consent and subject to the relevant rules. The bank will ask the client to acquire the goods, or part thereof, from the market for supply to it as per the contract, and if the customer is unable to do so, the bank will sell the pledge/collateral given by the client in the market, purchase the commodity (the subject of Salam) from the market with the proceeds and give the remainder amount, if any, to the customer. If the proceeds are not sufficient to procure the goods as per the contract, the bank has the right to ask the customer to make good the deficit. It is pertinent to observe here that the bank has the right to take the goods that it is purchasing from the proceeds of the security, but if it decides to get cash from the customer, it has the right to get only the price given in advance at the time of the contract. The price paid in advance by the bank amounts to a debt in the hands of the seller for the entire period until the goods are delivered. If the contract stands rescinded, the amount of debt will have to be refunded without any increase or decrease. The same amount of money will be returned without any consideration to the increase or decrease in its relative value. 10.7.3 Supply of Inferior Goods Another situation may be that the seller supplies goods inferior to what had been agreed upon and thus forces the bank to either accept those inferior goods or to rescind the contract. This will put the bank in an embarrassing situation. Disputes regarding quality of the goods can be adjudicated by any institution having expertise in the area. A clause to this effect can be inserted in the Salam agreement at the time of the contract. The bank would not be obliged to accept the goods if their quality is judged to be inferior. It may, however, agree to acceptance, may be even at a discounted price. It may also make adjustment for superior quality or additional quantity. 37 There may be a number of solutions to this problem, and some of these are as follows: 1. The bank may refuse to accept the goods and insist on the supply of the agreed goods according to the procedure given in Section 10.7.2, or get the price paid at the time of contract back. 2. If the seller is not able to supply the agreed item, and the item is absolutely out of stock in the accessible market, the bank may ask the seller to supply any other goods. 3. If the seller can only partly supply the agreed goods, the bank may accept the same and revise the purchase order to the extent of the remaining quantity, or it may claim a refund of the balance. Solution 1 above will be permissible provided it does not involve the return of a price that is different from what the bank had paid. As to solution 2, the substitution is allowed 36 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, clause 5/8. 37 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, clause 5/3. 254 Understanding Islamic Finance with some conditions. The rules applicable for substitution are that the new commodity must also be fungible and not nonfungible – every unit of which is different in quality and price than the other units – and its value should not be more than the value of the Salam commodity. The new commodity should not be of the same genus as that of the original Salam commodity; for example, if the subject of the Salam was wheat, it can be substituted by cotton but not by corn or other animals owned by the customer. Both parties will mutually decide the present market price of the original Salam goods and enter into a sale agreement for the new commodity. This will be done only when the agreed item is absolutely out of stock in the accessible market. If the item is available, the seller is obliged to buy it for delivering the same to the bank, whatever the market price may be. It is possible that the seller may require additional finance for purchasing the item to deliver it to the bank. He may approach the same bank for a facility to discharge the liability, but the new facility or advance so made by the bank will have to be treated as a separate transaction. Under no circumstances may the two contracts be tied up. As regards solution 3 involving part delivery of the item, the bank may resort to any of the solutions given above for the remainder amount of the goods. It has to accept the available quantity of the contracted item; for the remaining amount, it can get back the part of the price it has paid. If the seller becomes insolvent and absolutely incapable of honouring the commitment at any time in the near future, he will be treated like an insolvent debtor. 10.8 SALAM-BASED SECURITIZATION – SALAM CERTIFICATES/SUKUK Salam certificates representing a sort of forward contract can be issued against the future delivery of a commodity, product or service. In countries with large public sectors or where the governments have substantial deposits of natural resources, such as petroleum, copper, iron, etc., they can issue certificates for the future delivery of such products, which are fully paid for on the spot by investors, who receive certificates of purchase in return. For example, a country that produces oil may want to expand its refining facilities. It may sell oil products through Salam instead of borrowing on the basis of interest and use the price received in advance. The Salam purchaser can choose to hold onto the Salam contract and receive the shipment on the designated date, or he may elect to sell the goods involved in the contract through Parallel Salam before the date of delivery, at whatever possible market price, to another investor. He could also issue Salam Sukuk or certificates (SC) against the price paid for future delivery of the oil products. An SC may change hands between the beginning of the contract and its date of maturity. Actual delivery and receipt, and not just paper settlement, are binding on the SC issuer or the final holder of the certificate. The essential feature of Salam certificates is the fact that the issuer’s obligation towards the investor is not different from what the market in the real sector pays on the due date of payment. Salam certificates are geared to a specific commodity or project. People who purchase SCs share income from those commodity/projects, and as such their income is not guaranteed, although it can be quasi-fixed. Since the Salam certificates tie finance, production and sale of the items involved into one contract, the risk of changing prices of the subject of Salam belongs to those who invest in them, i.e. the Salam purchasers. The investors in Sukuk have to bear counterparty as well as market risks. The counterparty risk would arise with regard to the possibility of the seller being unable to deliver the goods. Forward Sales: Salam and Istisna‘a 255 The market risk would result from the buyer being unable to market the goods at the time of delivery, or selling them at a sale price lower than the cost to him. These risks can be mitigated by the structure of the deal. In Bahrain, for example, aluminium has been designated the underlying asset for issuing Salam Sukuk. The Bahrain government sells aluminium to the buyer in the future market. The Bahrain Islamic Bank (BIB) purchases the aluminium and it has been nominated to represent the other banks wishing to participate in the Salam transaction. As consideration for this advance payment, the government of Bahrain issues Salam certificates and undertakes to supply a specified amount of aluminium at a specified date. 10.9 SUMMARY OF SALAM RULES • In Salam, the seller undertakes to supply specific goods to the buyer at a future date in exchange for an advanced price fully paid on the spot. • As the object of sale in Salam is a debt, payment of the price cannot be delayed, otherwise it will be a sale of debt for debt, which is prohibited. • The capital (price) of Salam is money, but it can also be a service or a usufruct. • A debt of the buyer in Salam against the seller or against any third party cannot be used as capital in Salam. • The object of exchange must be fungible, clearly describable in terms of weight, size, volume, colour, quality, grade, and the like in a way that avoids disputes in the future. Negligible variation can be tolerated. Salam has to be in things that usually exist in markets but are not in the possession of the seller at the time of contracting. The objects of Salam can be agricultural, industrial or natural goods or any well-defined service. • Salam cannot take place in money or currencies. Salam is not permitted for anything specific like “this car”, land, buildings or trees or for articles whose value changes according to subjective assessment. • It must also be ensured that the commodity is able to be delivered when it is due. • The place and time of delivery of the object have to be specified. Instalments in delivery of the Salam goods are permissible. • Salam goods can be delivered before the stipulated date if it does not cause the buyer inconvenience/loss. • Salam involves no cash settlement. Actual physical delivery is a must. However, if the contract is rescinded for any reason, the actual price paid has to be recovered. • The seller in Salam need not necessarily be an owner or a producer of the goods. • The Salam contract is conclusive and binding. It can be altered or revoked only with the consent of both parties. • Banks should not offset their receivables for payment of the Salam price, as a Salam sale cannot be contracted against a loan, or partly cash and partly loan, in which case the contract will be effective only to the extent of the cash payment. • If a bank advances money for more than one item, it will be advisable to lay down a breakdown of the value of each item. This will facilitate readjustment of the contract in case of its partial fulfilment. The contract should also expressly provide for the periods of delivery of different items. The same will apply if the contract stipulates different places of delivery. • If the seller is willing to hand over the contracted goods on the due date, the bank is duty-bound to take possession of the goods, failing which the former will be absolved of his liability. The bank can refuse to accept the goods only if the goods do not fulfil the 256 Understanding Islamic Finance stipulated specifications or the same have been offered to it before the fixed date. The bank’s refusal will be optional in the latter case. • The bank, after entering into a Salam contract, can enter into a parallel contract or a promise with any third party to sell the same commodity with the same specifications and date of delivery. The two contracts would be enforceable separately and independently. Box 10.1: Flow of Salam Transactions by Banks SALAM PURCHASER SALAM SELLER Delivery of Commodity Salam on Credit Salam Sale ISLAMIC BANK Purchaser Seller 2 1 3 1. The bank will purchase the item from client A with full prepayment of the price and delivery on an agreed specified date. 2. The customer (seller) will deliver the commodity at the agreed time and place. 3. The bank will sell the commodity to any third party C by way of any of the following alternatives: — Parallel Salam with C for receipt of full payment; — get a promise to purchase from C at any agreed price; — appoint A its agent to sell it to any third party; — wait until the goods are received and then sell in the market. 4. After taking delivery from A on the agreed date, the bank may make delivery to C or any other purchaser. Forward Sales: Salam and Istisna‘a 257 10.10 SALAM AS A FINANCING TECHNIQUE BY BANKS Islamic banks have been in operation in various parts of the world for about a quarter of a century, but they have not generally used Bai‘ Salam as a financing mode. The reason may be that Salam has no practical advantage over (mark-up based) Murabaha–Mu’ajjal. Its main conditions emphasize that the price fixed in the contract must be paid in full in cash, immediately at the time of contract, and banks have to take delivery of goods in the future, not money. Marketing the goods so received and any type of default, e.g. delivery of inferior goods or failure in timely delivery, etc. may also cause problems for the banks. The practical problems in using this mode to finance agriculture, industry and other commodity sectors can be easily imagined: taking delivery of the produce, assessing its quality, then storing and disposing of it. But the banks perceive such problems when they compare this with the conventional banking practice of not dealing in goods or the easier way of entering into a Murabaha to Purchase Orderer with the client serving as the bank’s agent. Once they realize the requirement of actual involvement in business, avenues of risk mitigation in Salam and the fact that Salam is the only mode allowed expressly by the holy Prophet (pbuh) himself, they will surely be inclined towards its greater use. Salam has its own benefits as well, particularly for farmers and SMEs. Further, it can be more profitable for Islamic banks provided they are equipped with expertise in dealing in commodities. It has great potential, which Islamic banks and financial institutions need to realize. Of late, a number of IFIs have used Salam as a separate mode and also in combination with Murabaha in respect of export financing. Below we shall discuss some aspects of Salam as a financing mode. Box 10.2: The Difference between Salam and Murabaha Salam Murabaha • In Salam, delivery of the purchased goods is deferred; the price is paid on the spot. • In Murabaha, the purchased goods are delivered on the spot; the price may be either on the spot or deferred. • In Salam, the price has to be paid in full in advance. • In Murabaha, the price may be on the spot or deferred. • Salam is not executed in the particular commodity but the commodity is specified by specifications. • Murabaha is executed in particular commodities. • Salam cannot be executed in respect of things which must be delivered on the spot, e.g. Salam between wheat and barley. • Murabaha can be executed in those things. [...]... 40 Zuhayli, 2003, p 267 Islamic Fiqh Council of the OIC, Resolutions, No 65 (3/7), pp 137, 138; AAOIFI, 2004–5a, p 191 For details about Istisna‘a, see Zuhayli, 2003, pp 267 –279 42 This is because Istisna‘a is a sale contract and not a mere promise; see Zuhayli, 2003, pp 269 , 270; See also AAOIFI, 2004–5a, Standard on Istisna‘a, clause 2/2/2, p 179 41 264 Understanding Islamic Finance In Istisna‘a,... be discussed briefly where deemed necessary 1 Lane, 19 56; Also see Al-Atasi, 1403 AH, Majallah, Articles 405, 420, 421; Zuhayli, 2003, 1, pp 3 86, 387; Qastalani, 1304 H, IV, p 124 2 Al-Kasani, 1993, 4, pp 452–457 3 Al-Kasani, 1993, 4, pp 552–5 56; Zuhayli, 2003, 1, pp 385–388 4 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, Standard on Ijarah, p 151 280 Understanding Islamic Finance 11.2 ESSENTIALS OF IJARAH CONTRACTS As can be... for a job should be known. 16 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Zuhayli, 2003, pp 387, 388; see also Jassas, 1999, 2, p 395; AAOIFI, Standard on Ijarah, clause 5/1/1, pp 142, 153 Ibn-Hazm, 1988, 8, pp 182–183 Zuhayli, 2003, p 402 Al-Kasani, 1993, 4, p 458 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, Standard on Ijarah, clauses 3/3, 3 /6, pp 140, 152 Zuhayli, 2003, p 391; Al-Kasani, 1993, p 465 Holy Qur’¯ n, 65 : 6 a Al-Kasani, 1993, p 471... that other party, on the basis of Parallel Istisna‘a, and fulfil its contractual obligation accordingly 53 54 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, clause 3/3, p 182 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, clauses 7/1, 7/3, pp 182, 1 86  268 Understanding Islamic Finance 10.11.8 Istisna‘a and Agency Contract The bank, acting either as a seller or as a buyer in Istisna‘a, can appoint any agent, with the consent of the other party, to supervise the... defects Therefore, if the bank is the manufacturer for the purpose of an Istisna‘a contract, it cannot absolve itself from loss on 55 56 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, clauses 5, 6/ 6, p 184 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, Standard on Istisna‘a, clause 3/2 /6 Forward Sales: Salam and Istisna‘a 269 this account The orderer (purchaser) has the right to obtain collateral from the manufacturer for the amount he has paid and as regards... for Preshipment Export Finance Rs 110 M (EXPORT PROCEEDS) BANK Rs 100 M (ISTISNA‘A) Spot Deferred CUSTOMER Agent EXPORT Rs 110 M Hypothetical case study: 1 Client A gets an export order for the export of ready-made garments of value Rs 110 million 2 A approaches bank B for financing and indicates that he has the expertise to prepare the consignment 2 76 Understanding Islamic Finance Box 10.14: (Continued)... liability/risk of B 6 If A sells sugar in the market as an agent of B at Rs 21 per kg, for example, one rupee per kg could be his service fee, if the bank agrees 7 If prices fall and sugar is sold at Rs 18 per kg (for example), despite effort by A, B will have to suffer the loss 39 Prepared by Mr Omer Mustafa Ansari of Fords Rhodes Sidat Hyder & Co., Karachi  262 Understanding Islamic Finance Box 10.8:... usage of this contract without any explicit prohibition See Zuhayli, 2003, pp 271, 272 47 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, clauses 3/2/2 to 3/2/4, p 182 48 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, p 192 49 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, p 193  266 Understanding Islamic Finance price if the contract is completed, and can be forfeited if the contract is rescinded However, the amount forfeited may be restricted to the amount of actual damage suffered and the... Purchase Murabaha 38 The author is grateful to Mr Omer Mustafa Ansari of Fords Rhodes Sidat Hyder & Co., Karachi for his help in the preparation of the case studies on Salam and the flowcharts  260 Understanding Islamic Finance Box 10.4: (Continued) 1 Farmer A or a grain dealer executes a Salam contract on 1st January to sell 5000 tons of wheat in advance for Rs 100 million to bank B 2 Bank B pays Rs 100...258 Understanding Islamic Finance 10.10.1 Risks in Salam and their Management In Salam, Islamic banks may face the following risks: • • • • • • • counterparty risk; commodity price risk; delivery risk/settlement risk; quality risk/low investment return . 5/4, pp. 165 , 166 , 173. 25 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, Standard on Salam, clause 5 /6, p. 166 . 26 Ibn Hajar, 1981, 4, pp. 433–434; see also AAOIFI, 2004–5a, Standard on Salam, clause 3/3, p. 165 . 250 Understanding. 2004–5a, clause 3/2/9, p. 165 . 22 AAOIFI, 2004–5a, clause 3/2/10, p. 165 . 23 See, Hasanuz Zaman, 1991, p. 453 and AAOIFI, 2004–5a, clauses 4/2, 4/3, 5/5, pp. 165 , 166 , 173. Forward Sales: Salam. Mustafa Ansari of Fords Rhodes Sidat Hyder & Co., Karachi. 262 Understanding Islamic Finance Box 10.8: Accounting Treatment by Islamic Banks in Salam and Par- allel Salam Initial recognition • Salam