range of power system equipment, most notably capacitors, transform- ers, and motors, causing additional losses, overheating, and overload- ing. These harmonic currents can also cause interference with telecommunication lines and errors in power metering. Sections 5.10.1 through 5.10.5 discuss impacts of harmonic distortion on various power system components. 5.10.1 Impact on capacitors Problems involving harmonics often show up at capacitor banks first. As discussed in Secs. 5.9.3 and 5.9.4, a capacitor bank experiences high voltage distortion during resonance. The current flowing in the capac- itor bank is also significantly large and rich in a monotonic harmonic. Figure 5.32 shows a current waveform of a capacitor bank in resonance with the system at the 11th harmonic. The harmonic current shows up distinctly, resulting in a waveform that is essentially the 11th har- monic riding on top of the fundamental frequency. This current wave- form typically indicates that the system is in resonance and a capacitor bank is involved. In such a resonance condition, the rms current is typ- ically higher than the capacitor rms current rating. IEEE Standard for Shunt Power Capacitors (IEEE Standard 18- 1992) specifies the following continuous capacitor ratings: ■ 135 percent of nameplate kvar ■ 110 percent of rated rms voltage (including harmonics but excluding transients) ■ 180 percent of rated rms current (including fundamental and har- monic current) ■ 120 percent of peak voltage (including harmonics) Table 5.1 summarizes an example capacitor evaluation using a com- puter spreadsheet that is designed to help evaluate the various capac- itor duties against the standards. The fundamental full-load current for the 1200-kvar capacitor bank is determined from I C ϭ ϭ ϭ 50.2 A The capacitor is subjected principally to two harmonics: the fifth and the seventh. The voltage distortion consists of 4 percent fifth and 3 per- cent seventh. This results in 20 percent fifth harmonic current and 21 percent seventh harmonic current. The resultant values all come out 1200 ᎏᎏ ͙3 ෆ ϫ 13.8 kvar 3 ᎏᎏ ͙3 ෆ ϫ kV LL 210 Chapter Five Fundamentals of Harmonics Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. well below standard limits in this case, as shown in the box at the bot- tom of Table 5.1. 5.10.2 Impact on transformers Transformers are designed to deliver the required power to the con- nected loads with minimum losses at fundamental frequency. Harmonic distortion of the current, in particular, as well as of the volt- age will contribute significantly to additional heating. To design a transformer to accommodate higher frequencies, designers make dif- ferent design choices such as using continuously transposed cable instead of solid conductor and putting in more cooling ducts. As a gen- eral rule, a transformer in which the current distortion exceeds 5 per- cent is a candidate for derating for harmonics. There are three effects that result in increased transformer heating when the load current includes harmonic components: 1. RMS current. If the transformer is sized only for the kVA require- ments of the load, harmonic currents may result in the transformer rms current being higher than its capacity. The increased total rms current results in increased conductor losses. 2. Eddy current losses. These are induced currents in a transformer caused by the magnetic fluxes. These induced currents flow in the windings, in the core, and in other conducting bodies subjected to the magnetic field of the transformer and cause additional heating. This component of the transformer losses increases with the square of the frequency of the current causing the eddy currents. Therefore, Fundamentals of Harmonics 211 0102030 –200 –150 –100 –50 0 50 100 150 200 Time (ms) Current (A) Figure 5.32 Typical capacitor current from a system in 11th-harmonic resonance. Fundamentals of Harmonics Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. this becomes a very important component of transformer losses for harmonic heating. 3. Core losses. The increase in core losses in the presence of harmon- ics will be dependent on the effect of the harmonics on the applied voltage and the design of the transformer core. Increasing the volt- age distortion may increase the eddy currents in the core lamina- tions. The net impact that this will have depends on the thickness of 212 Chapter Five Recommended Practice for Establishing Capacitor Capabilities When Supplied by Nonsinusoidal Voltages IEEE Std 18-1980 Capacitor Bank Data: Bank Rating: 1200 kVAr Voltage Rating: 13800 V (L-L) Operating Voltage: 13800 V (L-L) Supplied Compensation: 1200 kVAr Fundamental Current Rating: 50.2 Amps Fundamental Frequency: 60 Hz Capacitive Reactance: 158.700 Ω Harmonic Distribution of Bus Voltage: Harmonic Number Frequency (Hertz) Volt Mag V h (% of Fund.) Volt Mag V h (Volts) Line Current I h (% of Fund.) 160 100.00 7967.4 100.00 3 180 0.00 0.0 0.00 5 300 4.00 318.7 20.00 7 420 3.00 239.0 21.00 11 660 0.00 0.0 0.00 13 780 0.00 0.0 0.00 17 1020 0.00 0.0 0.00 19 1140 0.00 0.0 0.00 21 1260 0.00 0.0 0.00 23 1380 0.00 0.0 0.00 25 1500 0.00 0.0 0.00 Voltage Distortion (THD): 5.00 % RMS Capacitor Voltage: 7977.39 Volts Capacitor Current Distortion: 29.00 % RMS Capacitor Current: 52.27 Amps Capacitor Bank Limits: Calculated Limit Exceeds Limit Peak Voltage: 107.0% 120% No RMS Voltage: 100.1% 110% No RMS Current: 104.1% 180% No kVAr: 104.3% 135% No TABLE 5.1 Example Capacitor Evaluation Fundamentals of Harmonics Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. the core laminations and the quality of the core steel. The increase in these losses due to harmonics is generally not as critical as the previous two. Guidelines for transformer derating are detailed in ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.110-1998, Recommended Practice for Establishing Transformer Capability When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents. The common K factor used in the power quality field for transformer derating is also included in Table 5.2. 2 The analysis represented in Table 5.2 can be summarized as follows. The load loss P LL can be considered to have two components: I 2 R loss and eddy current loss P EC : P LL ϭ I 2 R ϩ P EC W (5.27) The I 2 R loss is directly proportional to the rms value of the current. However, the eddy current is proportional to the square of the current and frequency, which is defined by P EC ϭ K EC ϫ I 2 ϫ h 2 (5.28) where K EC is the proportionality constant. The per-unit full-load loss under harmonic current conditions is given by P LL ϭ ∑ I h 2 ϩ (∑ I h 2 ϫ h 2 ) P EC Ϫ R (5.29) where P EC Ϫ R is the eddy current loss factor under rated conditions. The K factor 3 commonly found in power quality literature concerning transformer derating can be defined solely in terms of the harmonic currents as follows: Fundamentals of Harmonics 213 TABLE 5.2 Typical Values of P EC Ϫ R Type MVA Voltage P EC Ϫ R , % Dry Յ1 — 3–8 Ն1.5 5 kV HV 12–20 Յ1.5 15 kV HV 9–15 Oil-filled Յ2.5 480 V LV 1 2.5–5 480 V LV 1–5 Ͼ5 480 V LV 9–15 Fundamentals of Harmonics Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. K ϭ (5.30) Then, in terms of the K factor, the rms of the distorted current is derived to be ͙∑ I h 2 ෆ ϭ Ί (pu) (5.31) where P EC Ϫ R ϭ eddy current loss factor h ϭ harmonic number I h ϭ harmonic current Thus, the transformer derating can be estimated by knowing the per- unit eddy current loss factor. This factor can be determined by 1. Obtaining the factor from the transformer designer 2. Using transformer test data and the procedure in ANSI/IEEE Standard C57.110 3. Typical values based on transformer type and size (see Table 5.2) Exceptions. There are often cases with transformers that do not appear to have a harmonics problem from the criteria given in Table 5.2, yet are running hot or failing due to what appears to be overload. One common case found with grounded-wye transformers is that the line currents contain about 8 percent third harmonic, which is relatively low, and the transformer is overheating at less than rated load. Why would this transformer pass the heat run test in the factory, and, perhaps, an over- load test also, and fail to perform as expected in practice? Discounting mechanical cooling problems, chances are good that there is some con- ducting element in the magnetic field that is being affected by the har- monic fluxes. Three of several possibilities are as follows: ■ Zero-sequence fluxes will “escape” the core on three-legged core designs (the most popular design for utility distribution substation transformers). This is illustrated in Fig. 5.33. The 3d, 9th, 15th, etc., harmonics are predominantly zero-sequence. Therefore, if the winding connections are proper to allow zero-sequence current flow, these har- monic fluxes can cause additional heating in the tanks, core clamps, etc., that would not necessarily be found under balanced three-phase or single-phase tests. The 8 percent line current previously mentioned 1 ϩ P EC Ϫ R ᎏᎏ 1 ϩ K ϫ P EC Ϫ R ∑ (I h 2 ϫ h 2 ) ᎏᎏ ∑ I h 2 214 Chapter Five Fundamentals of Harmonics Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. translates to a neutral third-harmonic current of 24 percent of the phase current. This could add considerably to the leakage flux in the tank and in the oil and air space. Two indicators are charred or bub- bled paint on the tank and evidence of heating on the end of a bayonet fuse tube (without blowing the fuse) or bushing end. ■ DC offsets in the current can also cause flux to “escape” the confines of the core. The core will become slightly saturated on, for example, the positive half cycle while remaining normal for the negative half cycle. There are a number of electronic power converters that produce current waveforms that are nonsymmetrical either by accident or by design. This can result in a small dc offset on the load side of the transformer (it can’t be measured from the source side). Only a small amount of dc offset is required to cause problems with most power transformers. ■ There may be a clamping structure, bushing end, or some other con- ducting element too close to the magnetic field. It may be sufficiently small in size that there is no notable effect in stray losses at funda- mental frequency but may produce a hot spot when subjected to har- monic fluxes. 5.10.3 Impact on motors Motors can be significantly impacted by the harmonic voltage distor- tion. Harmonic voltage distortion at the motor terminals is translated Fundamentals of Harmonics 215 ⌽⌽⌽ T ANK FLUX LINKS FUSE HOLDER OR BUSHING END HOT SPOTS ON TANK MAY CAUSE PAINT TO BLISTER OR CHAR ZERO-SEQUENCE FLUX IS IDENTICAL IN ALL THREE LEGS Figure 5.33 Zero-sequence flux in three-legged core transformers enters the tank and the air and oil space. Fundamentals of Harmonics Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. into harmonic fluxes within the motor. Harmonic fluxes do not con- tribute significantly to motor torque, but rotate at a frequency different than the rotor synchronous frequency, basically inducing high-fre- quency currents in the rotor. The effect on motors is similar to that of negative-sequence currents at fundamental frequency: The additional fluxes do little more than induce additional losses. Decreased efficiency along with heating, vibration, and high-pitched noises are indicators of harmonic voltage distortion. At harmonic frequencies, motors can usually be represented by the blocked rotor reactance connected across the line. The lower-order har- monic voltage components, for which the magnitudes are larger and the apparent motor impedance lower, are usually the most important for motors. There is usually no need to derate motors if the voltage distortion remains within IEEE Standard 519-1992 limits of 5 percent THD and 3 percent for any individual harmonic. Excessive heating problems begin when the voltage distortion reaches 8 to 10 percent and higher. Such distortion should be corrected for long motor life. Motors appear to be in parallel with the power system impedance with respect to the harmonic current flow and generally shift the sys- tem resonance higher by causing the net inductance to decrease. Whether this is detrimental to the system depends on the location of the system resonance prior to energizing the motor. Motors also may contribute to the damping of some of the harmonic components depend- ing on the X/R ratio of the blocked rotor circuit. In systems with many smaller-sized motors, which have a low X/R ratio, this could help atten- uate harmonic resonance. However, one cannot depend on this for large motors. 5.10.4 Impact on telecommunications Harmonic currents flowing on the utility distribution system or within an end-user facility can create interference in communication circuits sharing a common path. Voltages induced in parallel conductors by the common harmonic currents often fall within the bandwidth of normal voice communications. Harmonics between 540 (ninth harmonic) and 1200 Hz are particularly disruptive. The induced voltage per ampere of current increases with frequency. Triplen harmonics (3d, 9th, 15th) are especially troublesome in four-wire systems because they are in phase in all conductors of a three-phase circuit and, therefore, add directly in the neutral circuit, which has the greatest exposure with the commu- nications circuit. Harmonic currents on the power system are coupled into communi- cation circuits by either induction or direct conduction. Figure 5.34 illustrates coupling from the neutral of an overhead distribution line by 216 Chapter Five Fundamentals of Harmonics Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. induction. This was a severe problem in the days of open wire telephone circuits. Now, with the prevalent use of shielded, twisted-pair conduc- tors for telephone circuits, this mode of coupling is less significant. The direct inductive coupling is equal in both conductors, resulting in zero net voltage in the loop formed by the conductors. Inductive coupling can still be a problem if high currents are induced in the shield surrounding the telephone conductors. Current flowing in the shield causes an IR drop (Fig. 5.35), which results in a potential dif- ference in the ground references at the ends of the telephone cable. Shield currents can also be caused by direct conduction. As illustrated in Fig. 5.36, the shield is in parallel with the power system ground path. If local ground conditions are such that a relatively large amount of cur- rent flows in the shield, high shield IR drop will again cause a potential difference in the ground references at the ends of the telephone cable. 5.10.5 Impact on energy and demand metering Electric utility companies usually measure energy consumption in two quantities: the total cumulative energy consumed and the maximum power used for a given period. Thus, there are two charges in any given billing period especially for larger industrial customers: energy charges and demand charges. Residential customers are typically charged for the energy consumption only. The energy charge represents the costs of producing and supplying the total energy consumed over a billing period and is measured in kilowatt-hours. The second part of the bill, the demand charge, represents utility costs to maintain adequate elec- Fundamentals of Harmonics 217 NEUTRAL FLUX LINKAGES COMMUNICATIONS CABLE CURRENT Figure 5.34 Inductive coupling of power system residual current to telephone circuit. Fundamentals of Harmonics Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. trical capacity at all times to meet each customer’s peak demand for energy use. The demand charge reflects the utility’s fixed cost in pro- viding peak power requirements. The demand charge is usually deter- mined by the highest 15- or 30-min peak demand of use in a billing period and is measured in kilowatts. Both energy and demand charges are measured using the so-called watthour and demand meters. A demand meter is usually integrated to a watthour meter with a timing device to register the peak power use and returns the demand pointer to zero at the end of each timing inter- val (typically 15 or 30 min). Harmonic currents from nonlinear loads can impact the accuracy of watthour and demand meters adversely. Traditional watthour meters are based on the induction motor principle. The rotor element or the rotating disk inside the meter revolves at a speed proportional to the power flow. This disk in turn drives a series of gears that move dials on a register. Conventional magnetic disk watthour meters tend to have a negative error at harmonic frequencies. That is, they register low for power at harmonic frequencies if they are properly calibrated for fundamental frequency. This error increases with increasing frequency. In general, nonlinear loads tend to inject harmonic power back onto the supply sys- tem and linear loads absorb harmonic power due to the distortion in the voltage. This is depicted in Fig. 5.37 by showing the directions on the currents. 218 Chapter Five TWISTED PAIR SHIELD I SHIELD V LOOP V C = COMMUNICATION SIGNAL d Figure 5.35 IR drop in cable shield resulting in potential differences in ground references at ends of cable. POWER SYSTEM NEUTRAL COMMUNICATIONS CABLE RESIDUAL CURRENT Figure 5.36 Conductive coupling through a common ground path. Fundamentals of Harmonics Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. Thus for the nonlinear load in Fig. 5.37, the meter would read P measured ϭ P 1 Ϫ a 3 P 3 Ϫ a 5 P 5 Ϫ a 7 P 7 Ϫ . . . (5.32) where a 3 , a 5 , and a 7 are multiplying factors (Ͻ 1.0) that represent the inaccuracy of the meter at harmonic frequency. The measured power is a little greater than that actually used in the load because the meter does not subtract off quite all the harmonic powers. However, these powers simply go to feed the line and transformer losses, and some would argue that they should not be subtracted at all. That is, the customer injecting the harmonic currents should pay something addi- tional for the increased losses in the power delivery system. In the case of the linear load, the measured power is P measured ϭ P 1 ϩ a 3 P 3 ϩ a 5 P 5 ϩ a 7 P 7 ϩ . . . (5.33) The linear load absorbs the additional energy, but the meter does not register as much energy as is actually consumed. The question is, Does the customer really want the extra energy? If the load consists of motors, the answer is no, because the extra energy results in losses induced in the motors from harmonic distortion. If the load is resistive, the energy is likely to be efficiently consumed. Fortunately, in most practical cases where the voltage distortion is within electricity supply recommended limits, the error is very small (much less than 1 percent). The latest electronic meters in use today are based on time-division and digital sampling. These electronic meters are much more accurate than the conventional watthour meter based on induction motor principle. Although these electronic watthour meters are able to measure harmonic components, they could be set to measure only the fundamental power. The user should be careful to ascertain that the meters are measuring the desired quantity. The greatest potential errors occur when metering demand. The metering error is the result of ignoring the portion of the apparent power that is due solely to the harmonic distortion. Some metering schemes accurately measure the active (P) and reactive power (Q), but Fundamentals of Harmonics 219 etc. I 1 I 5 I 3 I 7 I 1 I 5 I 3 I 7 etc. (a) (b) Figure 5.37 Nominal direction of harmonic currents in (a) nonlinear load and (b) linear load (voltage is distorted). Fundamentals of Harmonics Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website. [...]... h Ͻ 35 35 Յ h TDD Ͻ20 20 50 50 –100 100–1000 Ͼ1000 4.0 7.0 10.0 12.0 15. 0 2.0 3 .5 4 .5 5 .5 7.0 1 .5 2 .5 4.0 5. 0 6.0 0.6 1.0 1 .5 2.0 2 .5 0.3 0 .5 0.7 1.0 1.4 5. 0 8.0 12.0 15. 0 20.0 0.3 0 .5 0. 75 1.0 1. 25 0. 15 0. 25 0. 35 0 .5 0.7 2 .5 4.0 6.0 7 .5 10.0 0.3 0. 45 0. 15 0.22 69 kV Ͻ Vn Յ 161 kV Ͻ20* 20 50 50 –100 100–1000 Ͼ1000 2.0 3 .5 5.0 6.0 7 .5 1.0 1. 75 2. 25 2. 75 3 .5 0. 75 1. 25 2.0 2 .5 3.0 Vn Ͼ 161 kV 50 50 2.0... 6.0 7 .5 1.0 1. 75 2. 25 2. 75 3 .5 0. 75 1. 25 2.0 2 .5 3.0 Vn Ͼ 161 kV 50 50 2.0 3.0 1.0 1 .50 0. 75 1. 15 2 .5 3. 75 *All power generation equipment applications are limited to these values of current distortion regard less of the actual short-circuit current ratio ISC/IL SOURCE: IEEE Standard 51 9-1992, tables 10.3, 10.4, 10 .5 ■ Ih is the magnitude of individual harmonic components (rms amps) ■ ISC is the short-circuit... Interharmonics Measurements and Instrumentation, for Power Supply Systems and Equipment Connected Thereto,” SC77A, 2000, Draft 5 N Mohan, T M Undeland, W P Robbins, Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design, 2d ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, 19 95 6 R C Dugan, L E Conrad, “Impact of Induction Furnace Interharmonics on Distribution Systems, ” Proceedings of the 1999 IEEE Transmission and... Five 5. 13 Bibliography Acha, Enrique, Madrigal, Manuel, Power Systems Harmonics: Computer Modelling and Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2001 Arrillaga, J., Watson, Neville R., Wood, Alan R., Smith, B.C., Power System Harmonic Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1997 Dugan, R C., McGranaghan, M R., Rizy, D T., Stovall, J P., Electric Power System Harmonics Design Guide, ORNL/Sub/81- 950 11/3,... meaningful and user-friendly manner 6.4 .5 Harmonic analysis by computer— historical perspective The most common type of computer analysis of power systems performed today is some form of power flow calculation Most power engineers have some experience with this class of tool Other common computer tools include short-circuit programs and, at least for transmission systems, dynamics (transient stability)... 60 Hz dc LINK 1-PHASE ac 150 -300 Hz CONTROLLED dc-to-ac INVERTER RECTIFIER FURNACE COIL Figure 5. 38 Block diagram of a modern induction furnace with a current source inverter at 160 Hz, the first interharmonic currents will appear at 260 and 380 Hz The second pair of lesser magnitude will appear at 58 0 and 700 Hz A typical spectrum of induction furnace current is shown in Fig 5. 39 In this particular... clock to go faster is presented 5. 12 References 1 Energy Information Agency, A Look at Commercial Buildings in 19 95: Characteristics, Energy Consumption and Energy Expenditures, DOE/EIA-06 25( 95) , October 1998 2 D E Rice, “Adjustable-Speed Drive and Power Rectifier Harmonics Their Effects on Power System Components,” IEEE Trans on Industrial Applications, IA-22(1), January/February 1986, pp 161–177 3 J... harmonic sources were presented in Secs 5. 6 and 5. 7 4 Evaluate harmonic current levels with respect to current limits using Table 6.2 If these values exceed limits, the facility does not meet the limit recommended by IEEE Standard 51 9-1992 and mitigation may be required 6.2 Principles for Controlling Harmonics Harmonic distortion is present to some degree on all power systems Fundamentally, one needs to... distribution systems or industrial power systems 3 Installing large nonlinear devices or loads Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) Copyright © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies All rights reserved Any use is subject to the Terms of Use as given at the website Applied Harmonics 238 Chapter Six 4 Designing a harmonic filter 5 Converting a power factor... Harmonics, 1 through 13 Harmonic Six-pulse ASD PWM drive Arc lighting SMPS 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 100 100 18 12 90 80 6 4 75 70 100 20* 7 3 2.4* 1.8 0.8 100 70 40 15 7 5 3 *For single-phase or unbalanced three-phase modeling; otherwise assume triplen is zero ASD ϭ adjustable-speed drive, PWM ϭ pulse-width modulated, SMPS ϭ switch-mode power supply Downloaded from Digital Engineering Library @ McGraw-Hill (www.digitalengineeringlibrary.com) . R Type MVA Voltage P EC Ϫ R , % Dry Յ1 — 3–8 Ն1 .5 5 kV HV 12–20 Յ1 .5 15 kV HV 9– 15 Oil-filled Յ2 .5 480 V LV 1 2 .5 5 480 V LV 1 5 5 480 V LV 9– 15 Fundamentals of Harmonics Downloaded from Digital. with telecommunication lines and errors in power metering. Sections 5. 10.1 through 5. 10 .5 discuss impacts of harmonic distortion on various power system components. 5. 10.1 Impact on capacitors Problems. currents. Therefore, Fundamentals of Harmonics 211 0102030 –200 – 150 –100 50 0 50 100 150 200 Time (ms) Current (A) Figure 5. 32 Typical capacitor current from a system in 11th-harmonic resonance. Fundamentals