Coastal Lagoons - Chapter 8 ppt

Decision Making for Sustainable Use and Development Karen Terwilliger and John P. Wolflin CONTENTS 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Purpose and Scope 8.1.2 Common Questions and Answers about Sustainable Lagoon Management 8.1.3 Underlying Principles and Assumptions 8.1.4 What Is Decision Making? 8.1.5 What Is Sustainable Management? 8.2 Identification of the Problem and Need for Sustainable Management 8.3 Definition of Lagoon System and Characteristics Useful for the Decision Support System 8.4 Tools for Decision Making 8.4.1 Modeling as a Decision-Making Tool 8.4.2 Monitoring as a Decision-Making Tool 8.4.3 Indicators as Decision-Making Tools 8.4.4 Graphical User Interface as a Decision-Making Tool 8.4.4.1 Types of User Interfaces 8.4.4.2 What Can a User Interface Do? 8.4.4.3 Design and Development of User Interfaces 8.4.5 Economic Valuation as a Decision-Making Tool 8.4.6 Environmental and Social Impact Assessment as a Decision-Making Tool 8.4.6.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 8.4.6.2 Social Impact Analysis (SIA) 8.4.7 Policy Transformation and Implementation 8.4.8 Public Input as a Tool for Integration of the ILSMP 8.5 The Process of Developing a Plan to Support Decision Making for an Integrated Lagoon Sustainable Management 8.6 Plan Development and Implementation through Infrastructure— The Integration Process 8 L1686_C08.fm Page 331 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM © 2005 by CRC Press 8.7 Linking Infrastructure and Function 8.8 The Importance of Evaluation in the Decision-Making Process 8.9 Conclusion Acknowledgements References 8.1 INTRODUCTION 8.1.1 P URPOSE AND S COPE The purpose of this chapter is to suggest a basic framework for making informed decisions and taking positive actions regarding the sustainable management of lagoon systems utilizing the information and tools described in this book. Previous chapters have presented the current status of available information on lagoon systems and models to describe the processes and mechanisms of the interrela- tionships and energy flow within a lagoon system. These data and models are useful for demonstrating the cause and effect relationship of changing input variables to predict the alternative future outputs for a lagoon ecosystem. They form the basis of a decision support system (DSS) that should be customized and enhanced on a continuing basis in order for sustainable management decisions to be effec- tively integrated into the socio-economic system (SES) influencing the natural lagoon system. It must be recognized that many decisions that affect each lagoon will be made temporally (over a time scale) and spatially (across a wide geographic area and diverse societal infrastructure units and levels). It is critically important to provide the best available knowledge and information in a coordinated way. This will result in decisions that foster the sustainable management of these threatened coastal systems. It is the task of the decision maker to make choices that affect the lagoon system using the best available information and tools. These decisions inevitably center around finding the balance between the finite capacity of the lagoon system and the many demands placed upon it by the socio-economic system that depends upon it. It is a further task to establish a process or plan according to which informed decisions can be made over time about the future of the lagoon, with consistency and coordination by the multitude of “users” of the lagoon system. In this chapter we suggest that a framework be established and used to guide the multidisciplinary decisions of the SES and diverse human communities of the lagoon watershed—an integrated lagoon sustainable management plan (ILSMP). The many sectors/disciplines/community functions and structures that make deci- sions that impact the lagoon should then incorporate the goals and principles of the overall lagoon plan into their respective arenas. Continued integration of this plan- ning process with the best available knowledge and information into the many sectors of the socio-economic infrastructure of the lagoon area will promote informed decision making for sustainable management of the lagoon. This chapter presents a stepwise process as a guide for decision making with the goal of sustainable management of a lagoon (Figure 8.1). It emphasizes the importance of developing and employing a good decision support system (DSS). L1686_C08.fm Page 332 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM © 2005 by CRC Press Such a DSS should include a wide range of ecological and socio-economic data along with the appropriate tools to collect, analyze, and evaluate this complex of information (Figure 8.2). This chapter provides examples and lists of the basic components of a DSS to assist in the decision-making process. This process attempts to answer the basic questions that are commonly asked in the course of lagoon management. FIGURE 8.1 Lagoon management decision-making process. Problem Definition—Identify Driving Forces Goal of Sustainable Management (WHY) Development of Action Plan/Process (HOW) Identify Information Needed Function WHAT Structure WHO Process HOW Identify Stakeholders, Establish Effective Infrastructure Identify Mechanisms Needed Customized Implementation for Each Stakeholder/Tool/Need Integrates Ecological and Scientific Data into Cultural, Social, Economic, and Political Systems Informed Decisions and Desired Outcomes, Improved Lagoon Quality, Informed and Involved Constituencies Scientific Data and Tools, Including Model Indicators, Monitoring, Ecological and Socio-Economic Impact Assessments, etc. Scientific Data and Tools, Including Model Indicators, Monitoring, Ecological and Socio-Economic Impact Assessments, etc. Evaluation of Products and Process Scientific Data and Tools, Including Model Indicators, Monitoring, Ecological and Socio-Economic Impact, Assessments, etc. System Definition Watershed Components, Constituents, Interrelationships (WHAT) Scientific Data and Tools Including Model Indicators, Monitoring, Ecological and Socio-Economic Impact Assessments, etc. IMPLEMENTATION L1686_C08.fm Page 333 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM © 2005 by CRC Press 8.1.2 C OMMON Q UESTIONS AND A NSWERS ABOUT S USTAINABLE L AGOON M ANAGEMENT • WHY—Why manage a lagoon for sustainability? The “health” of the SES is dependent upon the “health” of the lagoon ecosystem. Sustainable management means to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. 1 Only through sustainable management will a healthy socio-economic and ecological system be maintained. • WHAT—What lagoon system components and information do we need to make a decision about sustainable management? The best available socio-economic and ecological data are necessary along with a process for long-term integration of sustainable practices into the human infrastructure and footprint. FIGURE 8.2 Decision support system. Model Simulation of Future System Conditions Data and Knowledge Base Environmental, Economic, Population, and Land Use Data Policy and Decision Making Scientific Data and Tools Monitoring and Evaluation L1686_C08.fm Page 334 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM © 2005 by CRC Press • HOW—How do we begin and continue to manage a lagoon for sustainability? Establishing an integrated lagoon sustainable management plan is a process for long-term integration into the temporal and spatial diversity of decisions made about the lagoon system. • WHO—Who should be involved in the process? As many sectors/stakeholders as possible should be involved early on and continually throughout the process to maximize both short- and long- term successful implementation. • WHERE—What area should be managed? The entire lagoon watershed and exchange area must be considered for sustainable management. This requires interjurisdictional coordination. • WHEN—Over what time period is this necessary? Sustainability infers a long-term intergenerational timeframe and decision making will therefore need to be a continuing process that should employ the most current and best available data and knowledge. Regular evaluation intervals should be established to evaluate effectiveness of the management plan and its implementation for the benefit of this and future generations. 8.1.3 U NDERLYING P RINCIPLES AND A SSUMPTIONS • Sustainable management is a conscious social decision that provides for the long-term health of both the ecological and economic systems of the lagoon area. The finite capacity of the lagoon’s natural capital (NC) cannot meet the growing demands of the socio-economic system without a strat- egy of sustainable management. • The use of the best available information, knowledge, and tools, infused throughout and an interactive process will result in improved, better- informed decisions. • The use of a model as a tool in the decision-making process will enhance awareness of the interrelationships within the ecosystem, especially its input and output variables. This will further enhance accuracy of predic- tions for and awareness of the consequences of human actions and deci- sions concerning the lagoon system. • Implementation and integration will need to occur at various national, regional, and state levels, but will be most effectively and ultimately accomplished at the local level. • Public and stakeholder input and involvement into the process provides for increased acceptance of the plan and degree of implementation success. 8.1.4 W HAT I S D ECISION M AKING ? Decision making means choosing between alternative courses of action when the consequences resulting from this choice are not always certain. Decision making involves information processing. Therefore, both the information and the process utilized are critical to effective decision making. The process of decision making calls L1686_C08.fm Page 335 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM © 2005 by CRC Press for an assessment of existing and desired information and constraints as well as an analysis of the costs and benefits of each possible alternative choice. The accuracy of the analysis depends upon the accuracy of the information available for the analysis. The information and tools available to the decision maker are referred to as the DSS (see Figure 8.2). The DSS therefore consists of a wide array of quantitative and qualitative data and tools, as well as the process and structure developed to ensure integrated and coordinated long-term decision making. A number of tools are available to the decision maker. This book focuses on providing these data and tools, including models, to be used as valuable means for predicting outcomes of alternative choices. A conceptual example of a DSS for decision making in balancing socio-economic and NC development is presented in Vadineanu. 2,3 An example of a DSS used for management of a watershed is the Colorado River DSS by the Colorado Water Con- servation Board and Division of Water Resources. 4 Other examples of applied decision- support systems and integrated modeling are the USDA’s DSS for the Integrated Pest Management Program 5 and the Rousseau et al. 6 integrated model of land use and water management. These examples demonstrate model applications and scenario analyses based upon real data derived from the information collected as part of the project’s DSS. An underlying premise to any decision is the recognition of the interdependence between the lagoon ecosystem and the socio-economic infrastructure that directly and indirectly influences the ecosystem (i.e., catchment area, watershed, airshed). This important link is the basis for any DSS with the goal of developing a long- range integrated plan for sustainable management of lagoons. The area’s socio- economic goals should reflect sustainability of the ecological life-support system of the lagoon. Both ecological and economic impacts should be quantified and analyzed as thoroughly as possible in any decision. The following sections describe a process that facilitates decision making. Each section addresses an essential step that allows the decision maker to gather, process, and analyze information to produce effective decisions that result in sustainable management of a lagoon system. These sections further suggest the involvement of the public and stakeholders wherever possible in order to maximize information exchange and implementation success. Decision making must be recognized as an ongoing process. Decisions that affect the lagoon area will be made continually. The important need and goal should be to develop a process or system that provides for informed decisions by the many different agencies and authorities that will be making decisions in this area. This is why an integrated, multidisciplinary plan is necessary. A plan or process that involves as many of the decision-making authorities as possible will increase effectiveness, consistency, and integration into the community. Decisions will continue to be made and the process should incorporate additional information and tools through regular evaluation of existing conditions. 8.1.5 W HAT I S S USTAINABLE M ANAGEMENT ? As introduced in Chapters 1 and 2, sustainable management is managing to meet present needs as well as providing for future generations to meet their own needs. 1 Conceptually, it requires the awareness and consideration of the ecological system L1686_C08.fm Page 336 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM © 2005 by CRC Press by the socio-economic system that has super-imposed itself upon the natural lagoon system. It requires measurements of and accountability for the values that the lagoon ecosystem provides to the SES that affects it. 2,7 Harris 8 has compiled a series of papers on rethinking sustainability in terms of institutional roles and many other societal considerations. 8.2 IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM AND NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT Since early times, human settlement of coastal zones and utilization of these highly productive natural resource areas have created rural and urban landscapes reflecting cultures centered on trade and largely oriented toward the use of these special ecological systems. Agricultural development, urbanization, and associated indus- trial developments continue to modify and impact the coastal zones globally. It is no wonder that we find today that in most NATO coastal countries the vast majority of the population lives within a 50-km coastal band. 9 This has resulted in direct and indirect impacts that have considerably reduced the ability of these ecosystems to meet an ever-increasing demand for their use and development. Human population impacts have upset the delicate ecological balance and have resulted in the compro- mised health and productivity of both the ecological and economic systems no longer best serving the people of the area. It is ironic that the values provided by the lagoon systems that have been the basis for human habitation and development are those values that have been most significantly impacted as a result of habitation. If coastal zones are going to continue to meet competing interests, an integrated, balanced management approach must be defined and implemented for the long term. The management approach must consider not only the broad interests for use and development (demand), but also the natural resource limits for delivery of goods and services (supply) and consequences of overutilization. Decisions about lagoon management should be based upon the best available scientific ecological and economic information and should be made with the best tools and processes available. Just as the decade of the 1970s was considered the foundation of modern envi- ronmentalism, the 1980s were recognized as the emergence and framing of the concept of sustainable development. The World Conservation Strategy (WCS) launched by the IUCN in 1983 not only presented the popular definition of sustainable develop- ment, but also concluded that existing decision-making structures and institutional arrangements, both national and international, were inadequate to meet the demands of sustainable development. 1 Numerous multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) resulted, and the multilateral fund encouraged participation of developing countries. 10 The 1990s were then considered the decade for implementing sustainable development as the trend toward gobalization accelerated. The 1992 UNCED Rio Earth Summit pro- duced major advancements in the implementation and application of sustainable development. Agenda 21 provided a blueprint for the environment and development into the 21st century and resulted in several major conventions and agreements. The Global Environmental Facility (GEF), created in 1991, and the Commission L1686_C08.fm Page 337 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM © 2005 by CRC Press on Sustainable Development in 1992 facilitated the implementation of Rio agree- ments; however, the Rio + 5 report concluded that progress had been inadequate and too slow. The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) created in 1995 and the International Organization of Standardization 14000 mir- rored sustainable development efforts in the private sector. Since the turn of the century, attempts to implement sustainable development have continued around the world, as more specific challenges and questions emerge with the additional inte- gration into traditional approaches to development and planning. 10 Below is a list of common problems and conditions associated with degradation of lagoons. The decision-making process must identify these conditions, prioritize these problems, and address them in an integrated, long-term plan in order to sustainably manage the lagoon. Conditions that indicate a need for sustainable management of a lagoon are • Eutrophication • Contamination (by persistent and toxic substances) • Oil pollution • Presence of artificial radionucleides • Exploitation of living (reduced shell and fin fisheries) and mineral resources • Lack of sanitation of bathing waters • Coastal degradation • Threat to marine biodiversity As described in Chapters 4 and 5, nutrient loading is a common problem throughout the coastal zone environment. Inadequate urban and industrial drainage and wastewater treatment facilities and run-off of nutrient-laden water (nitrogen, phosphorus) from agricultural areas in the catchment area are often responsible for nutrient loading in coastal zones. In addition, atmospheric deposition of nitrogen and other chemical constituents is significant in a broad geographic area and con- tributes to concentration of pollutants in coastal zones. Many other specific problems exist locally, including dumping of chemical wastes, weapons, industrial wastes, alien invasive species, and large-scale construction. These conditions are often the result of lack of land use planning and signal the need for sustainable management. It is important to note that it is usually less costly and more efficient to detect and treat these conditions early in their development. These are some of the more visible reasons to sustainably manage a lagoon. They indicate that the health of the lagoon system is threatened and that the lagoon will not be able to continue to provide the life support systems for quality of life for all living plants and animals (including humans) in the lagoon watershed. This results in a compromised ecology and economy of the area. Because coastal lagoon areas are highly sensitive and subject to overutilization and degradation, it is no surprise that more than 30% of the special protection areas designated under European Union directives for conservation are coastal, and that many NATO and partner countries have developed a considerable body of protective legislation in recognition of their value. L1686_C08.fm Page 338 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM © 2005 by CRC Press In order to arrive at the need for sustainable management, it is necessary to first identify the problems or issues driving the lagoon system and its management. The decision maker must assemble and utilize the best available data and the knowledge based on the lagoon system that can provide this information. This can be done by engaging the scientific community, regulatory authorities, nongovernment organiza- tions (NGOs), and stakeholders with the data, expertise, and knowledge of the lagoon system. Compilation and analysis of the most current information and opinions will provide the decision maker with the best definition of the problems and driving forces of the lagoon system. Information must include data on both the lagoon’s ecological and socio-economic values. Once the problem is recognized, the decision maker is faced with a multitude of choices on how to proceed toward a solution. The first step toward a solution, addressed in Section 8.3, focuses on identifying the critical driving forces and components of the lagoon system as well as the SES affecting it. 8.3 DEFINITION OF LAGOON SYSTEM AND CHARACTERISTICS USEFUL FOR THE DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM Decision makers may ask—What are the critical lagoon system components needed in decision making? In order to answer this question they must: • Identify and incorporate the best available data and expertise on the ecological and socio-economic system (SES) of the lagoon area as well as the tools to assess them • Inventory the watershed components, their ecological and economic value, and all existing and potential impacts that call for decision making • Determine those critical driving forces and variables that are producing the problem The first step in defining the lagoon system is to inventory available ecological and socio-economic data and expertise on that specific lagoon system as well as pooling data from other lagoon systems for a broader and more global perspective. Chapter 2 clearly introduced the lagoon system components of both the ecological and socio-economic systems. From this knowledge and these data, the critical driving forces or problems need to be determined. Not all the data are critical to a decision, and it is important to sort out which data are appropriate and needed for the decision. This can be done by locating and engaging those ecological and economic experts and stakeholders most familiar with the lagoon. The lagoon ecosystem components identified and described in Chapter 2 are those components that we recommend be considered in the decision-making process. These ecological components and the hierarchical interrelationships between them are considered to be the basic elements used to define the natural system and identify the problems in the lagoon system. These components describe the “supply” side, or NC, provided by the lagoon system to the SES, or the “demand” side. 9 L1686_C08.fm Page 339 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM © 2005 by CRC Press Just as the ecological components were defined and inventoried (Chapters 2 through 5), the SES components should be, too. The basic units or elements of the SES and the hierarchical interrelationships within its infrastructure need to be iden- tified and inventoried. 11,12 For example, the units and levels of agencies, private interest groups, industries, land use, education system, and information system that have an effect on the lagoon system should all be considered as basic conceptual and meth- odological units with which to approach sustainability. Ecological and economic variables representing both the potential capacity of the lagoon and the potential use (supply and demand) should be inventoried and viewed as important considerations to the decision maker. 12–15 Once inventoried, the value of the basic components should be estimated. An example of an economic valuation or inventory is provided in Figure 8.3. It consists of two steps. The first step is to define the economic values derived from and intrinsic to the lagoon ecosystem, commonly referred to as the NC. Capital has been traditionally defined as the accumulated wealth in the form of investments, factories, equipment, etc. NC is similarly defined as the natural resources we use, both renewable and nonrenewable. More recently, this definition has been expanded to include not only the “goods,” but also the myriad ecological “services” that the natural system provides (e.g., wetland filter pollutants from run-off water, buffer shorelines from erosion) and which are, in many cases, sinks to ground water. 16 For example, Costanza et al., 17 Brouwer et al., 18 and Wilson and Carpenter 19 describe the significant economic values of wetlands acknowledging their multi- functional resource role. The status of a methodology attempting to quantify these values is rapidly evolving and still considered to be inadequate in its early devel- opment stages. 13,20–23 Defining the contribution of a lagoon to an area’s economic system therefore consists of identifying the major economic and social values of the lagoon ecosystem. This can be done by categorizing the stocks that produce the wide range of ecological and economic goods and services used by the area’s economy as NC or manmade capital. 17,24,25 Any analysis of NC should include both renewable and nonrenewable resources as well as the wide range of ecosystem processes that maintain and provide for the ecological life-support system of the area. Therefore, it is important to include in any analysis the many natural processes and functions that maintain the atmosphere, climate, hydrology, soils, biological fertility, and productivity as well as nutrient recycling, waste assimilation, and even the maintenance of genetic stocks (Figure 8.3). Unfortunately, estimation of these values is not a simple process and has only recently begun to be well quantified. Nevertheless, estimates of these values should be developed in order to comprehensively account for the value of the lagoon ecosystem to the area. Additional anthropogenic values, including aesthetic and amenity values, have been placed on ecosystems. 14,15,17,19,24,26 These values should also be estimated in order to allow for a realistic cost-benefit analysis of the various alternatives for lagoon management. Section 8.7 presents a summary of some of the existing valu- ation tools and methods for quantifying the economic value of the ecological assets. The second step in this inventory or SES definition is to identify those natural and human elements and actions (demands) that influence the lagoon ecosystem L1686_C08.fm Page 340 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM © 2005 by CRC Press [...]... (scientific ecological and socio-economic) tools available are • Models—including modules of hydrodynamics, chemical processes, biological, ecological, land-use, and spatio-temporal factors that describe the lagoon system (Chapters 3–6, Section 8. 4.1) • Monitoring (Section 8. 4.2 and Chapter 7) • Indicators—biological, social, economic, etc (i.e., the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development... indicators) (Section 8. 4.3) • Graphic user interface, including geographic information system (GIS) (Section 8. 4.4) • Economic valuation methods (Section 8. 4.5) • Environmental and social assessments (Section 8. 4.6) • Policy transformation and implementation (Section 8. 4.7) • Public input (Section 8. 4 .8) Since most of these tools have been described in more detail in previous chapters, only a brief... illustrated in Figure 8. 5 © 2005 by CRC Press L1 686 _C 08. fm Page 352 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM 8. 4.5 ECONOMIC VALUATION AS A DECISION-MAKING TOOL Section 8. 2 provided the conceptual framework and need for economic valuation of the ecological lagoon system Quantifying the various components of the lagoon system as accurately as possible will produce the best information for a cost-benefit analysis Once... in Figure 8. 1 1 Set the goal—sustainable management of the lagoon 2 Define the problem—the problems/conditions that manifest the lagoon ecological and socio-economic systems imbalance (see Section 8. 2) 3 Define the system—the lagoon’s ecological and socio-economic structure and components (see Chapter 2) 4 Develop an effective DSS (see Section 8. 1) 5 Use the best data and tools (see Section 8. 4) 6 Develop... influence this system © 2005 by CRC Press L1 686 _C 08. fm Page 343 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM Time Scale Restrictions and Constraints for Each Option Trajectory Lagoon Natural Capital Socio-Economic System (State) T2 Tn Sustainable Management Goal Modeling Alternatives or Options Alternative Comparison Valuation (Use/Non-Use Values) Evaluation and/or Monitoring Cost -Benefit Analysis (+/−) (CBA) Decision... actions The existence of indicators helps to facilitate and to stimulate long-term protection of the environment and to foster sound environmental decision making through credible science The OECD developed a systematic framework for environmental indicators commonly referred to as “pressure-state-response” or driving force-pressure-state/impactresponse (DPSIR),34 which is based on the following causality... prediction of the resulting estimated economic decline Costs of clean-up or other water quality improvement efforts could then be factored into the equation to calculate both short and long-term net gains or losses These are additional concerns and values that the decision maker must factor into the cost-benefit analysis © 2005 by CRC Press L1 686 _C 08. fm Page 344 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM Another example... on a set of performance indicators to measure user-base service levels This provides © 2005 by CRC Press L1 686 _C 08. fm Page 353 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM decision makers data on regional and national performance of resources and assets Traditionally, the cost-benefit analysis (CBA) framework has been used extensively in program evaluation (Figure 8. 4) CBA is an important informational tool available... CRC Press L1 686 _C 08. fm Page 355 Monday, November 1, 2004 5:49 PM 8. 4.6.2 Social Impact Analysis (SIA) Social impact analysis (SIA) is used interchangeably with socio-economic impact analysis.64 SIA includes impacts to health and welfare, recreational and aesthetic values, land and housing values, job opportunities, community cohesion, life styles, governmental activities, physiological well-being, and... Commercial and Non-Commercial (Personal) Harvest of Lagoon Resources, i.e., Shell Fish and Fin Fish, Salt and Mineral Extraction, Water Usage Global Linkages Bequest Value Non-Market Value Output of Non-Market Goods Recreation and Tourism: i.e., Boating, Swimming, Hunting, Fishing, Nature Appreciation, Nature Photography, etc Regional Impacts to Socio-Economic and Ecological Systems FIGURE 8. 3 Economic . Decision-Making Tool 8. 4.2 Monitoring as a Decision-Making Tool 8. 4.3 Indicators as Decision-Making Tools 8. 4.4 Graphical User Interface as a Decision-Making Tool 8. 4.4.1 Types of User Interfaces 8. 4.4.2. Function 8. 8 The Importance of Evaluation in the Decision-Making Process 8. 9 Conclusion Acknowledgements References 8. 1 INTRODUCTION 8. 1.1 P URPOSE AND S COPE The purpose of this chapter. Interface Do? 8. 4.4.3 Design and Development of User Interfaces 8. 4.5 Economic Valuation as a Decision-Making Tool 8. 4.6 Environmental and Social Impact Assessment as a Decision-Making Tool 8. 4.6.1