OXFORD LEARNER''''S GRAMMAR 3 doc

"Vhen \VC say how many actions, we do nor use the continuous. I've tried (0 phone the hotline at least twenty times. We use the present perfect for a state up to the present. My friend has been in a wheelchair for two years now. I've always hated hospItaL<;. NoW look at these examples. 49 The past perfect V·le can use the continuous for repeated actions. I've been trying to pr10ne the hotline all day. We do not use the continuous fOl a state. (NOT -f'-w tl-lttftiyS -been-hating fwspitafs.) We've been living here since May. / We've lived here since May. rue been working there for six weeks. / I've worked [here for six weeks. With live and work, either form is possible, but the continuous is more usual. ~ . t 49 The past perfect 4- _ A Form The past perfect is had + past participle. James apologized for the trouble he had caused. I didn't [rauel to the match because I hadn't hought a ticket. How long had the animals been without food or warer? We use had in all persons. - - - Positive: Negative: Questions: Past perfen someone had played. someone had not pLayed. had someone played? B Use of the past perfect Short forms they'd played they hadn't played. We use the past perfect for an action or a state before a past t ime . Miranda lay on her bed and slUred at the ceiling She was depressed. Her boyfriend Max had gone on holiday with his brother the day before. He hadn't invited Miranda to go with hun. ffe hadn't eIJen said goodbye properly. They had been friends for six monlhs, and e ve rything had seemed fine. Vt/hat had she done wrong? This paragraph begins in the past simple. The situation is that Miranda lay on her bed. The vvritcr looks back from this situation to a time before. Compare the present perfect and past perfect. Present perfect: lhe floor is clean. 1 have just washed it. Pa<;t perfect: Ihe floor was clean. Iliad just washed it. Verh tenses NOTE For Ihe past perfect in if-clauses, > 247. C Past simple and past perfect To talk about a single action in (he past we u se the past simple. '/1,is lamp is new . I bought it last week. (N 0 I' f-hati {,Bttght-it last weefc.) We also use the past simp le when one action comes immediately after another. When the shot rang out, el Jeryone threw th e ms elves to the floor. To say that so meone finished one action and then did something else, we use either when had dune or afler did/had dun e. When Miranda had typed the message, s h. e mail ed it to Max. After Miranda typed/had typed the message, she mailed it to Max. (NOT Whw AfifflTtda f}1'etJ the message, fflt: mttiled it ttl Mft.'C .) Sometimes the choice of pa st simple or p as t perfect makes a difference to the meaning_ When th e boss arrived, the meeting began. (= The boss arri ve d and then the meeting began.) When the bOss arrived, che meeting had begun . (= The meeting began before the boss arrived.) When Max spoke , Miranda pUllh e phone down. (= When Max started s peaking, . ) Wh en Max had spoken, Miranda P'" the phone down . (= When Max fin i shed speaking, ) We can use rhe past perf ec r afrer before or until . The printer went wrong before it prim ed I it had printed a single s he et. We didn't wallt to stop /In til we finished / we had finished 'he job. 50 The past perfect continuous 74 A Form The past perfect c ontinuous is had been + ing-form. Someone had been u.sing my office. Thi'lgS hadn't been going very well/or some [(me. Had Ih e poli ce alr e ady been investigating the matt er? We u se had in all persons. Po siti ve: Nega tiv e: Questions: Past perfect cO lllinuous someone had been playing so meone had not been play ing hatl someone been playing? Short forms 'h ey'd been playing they hadn't been playin! ~ 1 Action verb!. and state verbs B Use of the past perfect continuous We li se rhe past pcrfl'ct continuous for an ':1((lOn t hat w('n! 011 over;:1 pl.!riod before n pa st fIIn e. I was dehghlecJ when I found (J second-Iulfu/ copy of til!' hook I'd heen looking for ONe ]C)r some time . Tile dru:cr who died ill the accident had been drinkillg. In the seco nd example, the actiull (drinkil1g) w('nt on O\ 'er C1 period before Ihe driver'S death C The past perfect continuous and other tenses Compale the pr c~(! nt and past perfe ct continllOw,. Pr ese nt perfect cont inuous : My hond ., ore /IIt~{. I luw f! h ee /l umshillg the fl oor. Past perfect contmuous: My hands were wet. J had heen washiliK fhe floor. Compare the pasl perfect and past perfect con t1l111 0US. Past perfect: The llo/IJ.1lleers had coUecled hundreds of' pound s. Past perfect COilIinllOU'i: fhe IJofunteNs had lwen collecting I/lfJll ey all morning. The past perfect foclIses on the fe<.,ult of t!w anion. The {,o !ltinl! ou~ form focuses on the action going Oil . Co mpare tilt! past cont inuou s and past perfect cOl1 liIlUOll~. Past continuous: H'//('/1 I saw A.hce. sll e? was playing holf (l bC!W her in the middle of th e game. ) Past perfe ct COntl1lUOllS: When f .\liW Alice, sh(~' d been playing gD~r (1 saw her after the game. ) 51 Action verbs and state verbs A Actions and states Actions jane went 10 bed J'm buyillg a. new /)l'iej(;rJ.se. J lent j er!.' II'IY len pound.,. An action i" 'iotnl'thing hilppening. Action verbs ;lre velhs llke do, go, hllY, play, SlOp, rake, d(>c ,' rJf(ile, rell, ask, realize, ele. ,1\1051 refer to physical action s, but sump are \·crbs oj reporting (c.g. Sfty ! or \ ' t~ rbs of t hinking ({' .g. decide). -~ - - jane WllS tired. I neell (I IWW briefcase. jere"l} ' owes nle tell flO/I uris t\ ~ late i<., ! ollH'thlllg that sta y!) the ! <Jllle. Stale\ eri)sareve rbs likt'IN. exi.\t. s{'em, dep eru/. C0I1S1Sr, include, COII[(IlI/ . "elong, aii'll. "eed , maUer, III/end , CO .\I. (Jwe, know, 1. 1IUlentalld , IwiIl've, Love, like, hate. wonl. etc. They ('xprc! s meanings ~ Udl as exblJng. h,l\ing;]11 opinion. and tlllnklllg. Verb tenses 76 We ca n li se a t.: tion ve rbs in the c ontinuou s, but stare ve rb s are not uS U<llI y continuoll s. We are de co rating the flat. (NOT Vie are 8 w " i n~fhe-flaf. ) Th ey u le re guessing th e an swers, (NOT ~ I! () we . e Jm(tttting the -am weFS } B Verbs with more than one meaning Some verbs have more than one meaning. One me a ning can be an action, and ano ther me aning c an be a state. Actions I :ca n be c ontinuous } We're having lunch now . (action - 'e ating') We're thinking about the offer. (action - 'deciding ') They're expecting troubl e. ( action - 'w aiting for it ') Can you imagine th e r es ult? (action - 'pic ture in yo ur he ad ') Nurses care for the sick. (aclion - 'look aftcr') We stopped to admire the view. (action - 'look at with pleas ur e') He was looking al a pi c tur e. (action - 'direc ting his eyes at') Would you like to taste th e s oup? (action - ' eat a little ') Smell th es e flow ers! (action - 's niff . 'u se y our n os e') She's appearing in a film. (action - 'playing a part ') He n ee d. s to measure the door. ( action - 'find out the size') We mu st weigh the luggag e. {action - 'find OUI (he weight') S om eone has to cost the proj ec t. (action - 'find ou( the cost') 1 was fitting a new switch. (action - ' puning in place' ) C State verbs in the continuous States ( cannot be continu ou s) We have a big kite/len. (stat e - 'own' ) I think we s hould accept it . (state - 'believe ') J expect so. (state - 'belie ve ') [ imagine so. (state - 'beli ev e' ) [ don '[ care what happ en s. (state - 'have no feelings a bout it') I admire y our cou.rage. (state - ' appro ve or) It looks lovely. (s tate - 'ha s a love ly app e aran ce') It tasted like water. (s tate - 'had a Oavour ') Il smells ve ry strang e. (s tate - 'has a strange sme ll' ) He app e ared perfectly c alm . ( Sl ate - 'see med') It measured two metr es . (s tate - 'w as two metr es long') It weighed ten kil os. (s tate - '\\las ten kilos in weight ') A ticket emits ten po und s. (s tate - 'has a pri ce of ten po und s ') Th e jacket fits pelf ee lly. (s tate 'is the right size') Wi th s ome state verbs, we c an use th e continuo ll s when we are talking a bout feelings at a partic ular time, rather than a permanent attitud e. I love holidays. ( perman e nt anitude ) J'm loving every minut e of thi s holiday. (a round the present tim e) 51 Action verbs and state verbs Here are s ome more examples of conlinuous verb forms referring to a particular rime. flow are you liking the play? Well, it's.all right so Jar. This trip is costing me a lot of money. Enjoy IS an action verb. I'm enjoying this parey. J always enjoy parties. (NOT I-enjO') this pa, l).) N OTE a Be can be an action verb meaning 'behave', > 6S C. The dog was being a nuisance, so we slnll him out . b Know IS a state verb, but get 10 know expresses an action I know the low" quite well nOlu . I'm gClling to know the town quil c well. o Verbs which can be simple or continuous There are some verbs which can be either simple or continuous when referring to a temporary state. There is almost no difference in meaning. I feel depressed. I I'm fee/ing depressed. She hopes to get a job IShe's hoping to get a job. My arm hurt. / My arm was hurting. These verbs include feel, hope, hurt, lie, look (= appear), stand, wear, and wonder. But feel meaning 'believe' is a state verb. I feel it's the right thing to do. And for other meanings of feel, > E. E Verbs of perception When we are talking about perception (seeing, hearing, etc ), we often use can (present) and could (past) rather than a present or past (ense. I can see something under the sofa. We could hear music. r can smell something burning. Sam could feel the weight of the rucksack. We do not normally use the continuous. We can use the past simple when what we saw, heard, or felt was a comp lete action. We saw a magnificent sunset. Tom lleard the whole story. They felt the building shake. See (= meet) is an action verb. J'm seeing the doctor this aflernoon. See (= understand) is a state verb. You put the CD ;1'1 here, like this Oh, [see. Thank YOll. Verb tenses Loo k (at something), watch, and listen are action verbs. We looked atl ~Ve were looking at the sunset. Sme ll, caste, a nd feel as action verbs mean a deliberate ac ti on, > B. I picked up the carlon and smelled the milk. When we arrived, people were alr eady tasting the wine. Judy was feeling her way ill the dark. 52 Overvi ew : t he main uses of the tenses _ Prescnt simple: A present state or fact lUke old films. > 40 Atlanta is in Georg ia. A permanent routine I work late mo st days. Present In the middle of an ac ti on I'm watching this film. continuous: A temporary routine I'm working la te this week. > 41 Past An action in the past I wrote the lell er yesterday. simp le: A series of past ac tions I played basketball > 43 regularly at one time. A past state I was (h e re for a week. Prescnt An action in the period up I've written tlte letter. perfec t: to the present > 44 A series of actions up to the I' ve played basketball present a few times. A state up {Q the present I've been he re for a week. Pa st An action over a period of It was raining when I got I. co ntinuous: past time > 47 Prescnt An action over a period up It has been raining all day. perfect to the pr esent con ti nuou s: > 48 Pa st An action before a past By (hat time the rain perfect: time had stopped. > 49 A stale before a past time The weather had been a wft for days. Past pe rfe ct An action over a period up By that lime it had been continuous: to a past time rainillg for hour s. > 50 78 The future 53 Introduction A This news ile m is abotl! 11 tt't1cher who is going to run Ihe /englh of Britain . BOIr !-> Il E COH I) (J I/\ UI: '\Gl 32-Yf!ar-uld Hoh Brown , u ,'eacher from Co mu l tllI . is about (0 set o j! 011 a fili i of more that! BOO mile ,~ . '/'omorrow moming at lour o'e/ock he Inwl's John o 'C roats, tile most no rth erly paim if! Scoll and, 011 a Jo urney to LlHui's F:ruj, the so uth -western. lip of Ellgland. He is hoping to heat the record ojll!fI da J'.\ an d two hOllrs. /1 won '( be pasy Each day he will run 84 mil es - 28 Iniles before breakf cH /. 28 mil es heJore l/.lnd, and 28 miles hl10re dinner. But Mr Brown has had IO/ s of prueti re: he once rail 3,000 miles across Ausrralia in ()O da.ys. Hi. ~ penonal clJe) is tmpelling w illi him in a Cflmper va n and will be cooking lOiS a/prls((J. rice and IJoIa toes . In SpIl l' of fl lwgf' mlflke of high-energy [ood. ", iUr Brown will probably hav e lo st len kilos hy lhe end of {he run, '['ve put on a j(nv kilos in p n' pa ratio ll ,' he say s, 'hut 1'", going to burn it off pr (>{{y ({/li ckly ' Mr Br ow n al so expect s co we ar Ollt fOil r pairs of run111nx ., hoe s, In the !<lSI c hapler we looked at ver h rorms referring to the p resen t and the past. For e xampl e we use the past s imple for an anion in the JKISt. Mr Brown onc e ran. across Auslralia, But we ca nnol be as definite ahou t the futur e as we CUll abou t the pr C' sc n[ or {h e past T here ar e difkrenr W; lYS of talkin g abo ut the ftllu re (kpendlJ1g Oil how we see \l futlllC eve nt. We m ay s ee sUIlIt:!thing it S certa in [n happen . or Lt Illay be a plan or an intentIOn, or it ma y he s ome thing \\'c lhink \\'111 ha ppl ' lI but can' t bc s ure a bout. B There is no !> inglc 'f ulUre tense' in English, Here arc '>OJ11C exam pl e<; of [lic' different ways of talking about the future. I- . xam plc - - - - - - - - - - will: he going (o : Pre se nt co ntilluous ' PrC6 ent sim ple: be to: be a bout to: wif/ lJe doing: will huve done: may, n'llghr, could : /:"a.ch day he will run 84 mil( !s. fie is goinK l{) burn olf the e xI ra weight . His personal ch ef is travelling will, II im I-Je Leaves john U'( irutu s at [uur l omorrow mOfllill~ Mr Brown is to appeal' 0 11 a cl'Jat sl ww /l ex { Salwc.iuy He is abnutlO set oJ/un his nw. llis chef will be couking lOI S of pa sfll. /'I ce , (l1If1 polr/l fli'." Mr Braum will hml e lost f en kil os by the e ud oj {Iii' 1"/11/. II all might go horribly wrong, lit' COUlll get i llJured The future To·jnftni li ve after aim, expect, hope, int.cl1d , or plan: Mr Brown is hoping co bear the record. web day he plan s to run 84 miles. Often there is mor e than one po ssible form ;n a particular co nte x t. Each day he will r un 84 mile s. Each day he's going to run 84 miles. Each day he will be running 84 miles. C To s ho w how s ur e or un s ure we are about the future, we can use an adverb like definitely, certainly, probably, perhap s, maybe, or possibly. H e' ll probably lose about ten kilo s. Or we can use [ know, I'm sure, [think, { expect, or { s uppo se. [think he's going to break the record. 54 Wi ll and shall 80 A F or m After will we pu r an infinitive without to. Wi ll h as a s hort f orm ' II , a nd will not has a Sh Of t form won't l wau nt /. This book will change you r Life . I'll know so on if I've got the job. Will you s rilliove me tomorrow? We will not get anol fi er chance. We WOll't get another c ha nce. We use Will in all pe rsons. In the first person we can u se either will or sh all . The m eaning is the sa me , but shall is a little forma l. I will be/s hall be at home tomorrow. We will have / shall have lots of fun. N OT E a Shall not h as a short form shan 't I So: nl /. I sha ll " be here tomorrow Shan't is o ld · ra shloned. Won't is more u~ual. b Tn the US slJalL is less usu al than wIll, and shan', IS nOI used B Will fo r the f uture \'Vill is of ten used to ta lk about things in the fUH ue th at we ca n be fairly ce rt a in abo ut . The future is se en as fa ct, something we ca n nor control. Southern England will stay dry ami sunny over the weekend. My father w ill definirely be in ho s pital for at least lwO weeks. I'll be lwenty ·flve next year. Here there IS no sense of a wish or intention. We ca ll also use will for a prediction. [ rh ink United will win. 54 Will a nd shall We can use will "v ith ha ve to, be allowed £0, and be able lu. Il's geUing lale. We'li ltave to hurry . > 7 lA CompetiLOrs will not be allowed to use mobile plion e s. > 75C Now you 've got some funding, you' lllJe able to continue your s tudi e s> BUB C An instant decision We can sometimes use I'll/we'll for an instant decisiun. It's raining. I'll take an umbrella. I think J'lI just sit down for a minut e. Will expresses the id ea thai we de cide at the moment of speakin g. Compare be going 10. What else do I need? Oh, 1 know. I'll buy some postcards. (I'm deciding now to buy some.) I'm going to buy some postcards, so let's walk past the shops, slzall we? (I've already decided to buy s om e .) , We also use I'll! we'll when ordering food or drink. JIll have the soup, please. Do not confuse will and wartt. Action: 1 think I'll buy some postcards. "-" OK, I' ll wait for you. Wish: I want to buy some postcards, but 1 haven 't gOl any money . D Willingness Will some times expresses w ill ingness. I expect my friend will translat e it for you. She speaks Italian. I'll sit/I'm willing to sit on the floor. J don 't mind I'll sit on the floor means that 1 am willing to S it on !.he floor. Won't or will not can express unwillingness or an emphatic refusal. The doc tor won. 'f come out at this lime of n.ight. I won 't put up willi chis nonsense. The minister will not agree to the plan. The subject can be a thing rather than a per son. I'm late al r eady , and now the car won't s tart . E Other uses of will and shall In an offer we can lise I'll/we'll and shall J/we. I'll hold Ihe door ope/l for you. - 011, Ihank s. Shall I hold the door open for you? - 011, thanks. We do not use be going to to make an offer. In a promise we can use I'll/we' ll. (1 promise ) I'll lLo my best to help you. In an in vilation we can use won 't you, but would you like to is more us uaL Won't you sit down? I Ht ' ould you like to sit down? The ruture When we can't decide, we use shall Jlwe to ask ror advice or a suggestion. Where shall I put these flowers?, , I'll get a vase. What shall we do this weekend? We can use shall we to make a suggestion. Shall we go to the seaside this weekend? This means the same as Let's go , > IIF. NOTE a Will can express an assumption, > 76 James left tills morning. He'll be m wndon now. b When will is stressed. it can express dctermination. I WIU succeed. (= I (1m determined 10 succeed.) c Will is somctimes used in formal orders. It emphasizes the authority uf the speaker. }' Oll willieave the building immedlQceiy. d We gencr.l!ly use shall on ly with lor we, but we can use you shall in 3 promise. You shall be the first CO know, (I promise ). c Shall is also sometlmes used for formal rules. The employee shall gille two weeks' notice in ",ming. 55 Be going to 82 A Form The form is be going + to-infinitive. I'm going to watch television. it isn't going to rain, is it? Are you going to buy a newspaper? NOTE In informal speech going fa is often pronounced /' gAna/. B Be going to for the future We can use be going to for something in the future. It's going to stay dry and sunny over the weekend. ] My father is definitely going to be in the hospital for at lea st two weeks . • We can use be going to to make a prediction. I think Unit ed are going to win. Will is also possible in the three examp le s above, > 54B. For a comparison of will and be going to, > 57. ' When we use be going to, th ere is a sense of something in the present pointing to the future. It 's ten already. We're going to be lale. This fence is going to fall down soon. These predictions are based on somet hing we can see in the present. We can see from the time now that we are going to be lat e, and we can see from the condition of the fence that it is going to fall down. The present evidence points to th e futur e. [...]... Birmingham Th e m eeting is on May 13 Wllallime dQ you arrive ill Chicago? The train leaves in fi ue minutes We do not use the present simple for decisions or intentions (NOT (NOT Jca.,., lhttt-bag /8 f6U ) Fhey-bttiltl-some-ttett#fl-al3 hut: u.ttJn ) For th e present simple in a sub·clau se, > 59A For be due to + to -infinilive referring to a timetable, > 580 83 The future 57 Will, be going to, or... Necessity I must We have to wait here 71B We've got to turn left here > 72 No necessity Necess ity to avoid something 102 :> You needn't wear a lie :::> 73A You don 't have to wear a tie :::> 73A You mustn't break anYlhing :::> 730 71 Must and have to Use Example The right rhing You 'ihould complain > 74A You ought to complain > 74A We'd better get ready now > 74B You're supposed to make your... we ca n use them to say how certain or uncertain we are There is an overview of meanings in G There are [\vo ve rbs which we use e ither as a modal verb or as an ordinary verb They are need (> 73 ) and dare (> 83) B After a modal verb we put an infiniti ve without We can park here lO It's getting lare I must go The government should do more to fl elp It will be windy tomorrow The o nly exception to... 761 :3 This can'l be real gold > 76B Things should sta rt to get beller > 77 We may go/mighl go out laler > 78A We could go out later > 79A J can ski > BOA I could ski when I was a child > BOA We were able to ski all afternoon > nOB,e A milliml pounds would be very useful > 81 B My friend would always call on me after school > 82A We used 10 play logether every day > 82B No one dare speak openly > 83. .. wuuld George Washington was the first Presidew aju nutwl/thal was to /Jecome the richest and most powerful on earth This means that the nation later became th e riches t and mosl powcrfLll 011 earth 63 Overview: the future T_ e_ _ _ o_ , e Of _ ,e n_ _'in_w. _o_f_t_a_~_n g_a_b_o_ _ h_ se ,e s_ IT_ _ "_ '" _ y s ,_ I ' u_t_t_h_e_f_ _ re_ u_tu _ ' Use Form The future: 111e problem will... ionality: Job: Interests: Place: Time: Earlyllate: Age: Qualities: Feelings: contexts where we use the ordinary verb he Those girls are my cuusim We're Swedish We're from/vVe co me [rom Sweden, My sisler is a doctor keen cyclist The Science Museum is in South Kensington I'm a The match was last Saturday We were late for the show I'll be eighteen in November That building is really ugly_ How are you?, I'm fine,... girls have gOlle swimming They're at the pool The girls have been swimming They've just gOl back, In questions about w.hat places people have visited, Have you (ever) been lO /:;,gypt? ' W~ use been 93 Be, have, and do 66 Have and have got A Use The basic use of have and have gOl is to express possession Our friends had a dog We've got a balcony This includes temporary possession I think you've got... intentions, so it is often the safest choice, especiall y in conversa ti on It 's going to be a nice day We're going to have a picnic 2 Use will for instant decisions I'll go and switch the computer off 3 Use the present continuous for arrangements I'm acting in a play next week 4 Do not use the present simple for plans or intention s (~OT f-ttcf in tl phi) nf!'(f-tt;Iee/e-) 58 Be to, be about to, etc... 'Fhe-pkttl-doeffl!r-mtgilr tttt>ri . future 53 Introduction A This news ile m is abotl! 11 tt't1cher who is going to run Ihe /englh of Britain . BOIr !-> Il E COH I) (J I/ UI: 'Gl 32 -Yf!ar-uld. -Fhey-bttiltl-some-ttett#fl-al3 hut: .u.t tJn .) For the pr esent simple in a s ub·clau se, > 59 A. For be due to + to- in finilive referring to a timetabl e, > 5 80. 83 The future 57. story. They felt the building shake. See (= meet) is an action verb. J'm seeing the doctor this aflernoon. See (= understand) is a state verb. You put the CD ;1'1 here,