eknowledge transformation phần 2 docx

• Implicit or tacit knowledge is subjective , experience-based knowledge. Ty p i c a l l y, it is not easily expressed in words, sen- tences, and formulae. It is highly context specific. It includes, but is not limited, to beliefs, values, tradecraft, mental models, and technical skills. Tacit knowledge resides in formal and informal networks of experts and communities of re f l e c t i ve practice. Some of this knowledge can be codified, made explicit, and migrated into content repositories and marketplaces. Most is accessed through person-to-person k n owledge sharing or social interactions. New opportunities for sharing are made possible through perva s i ve, secure , online interactivity through communities of practice. Practitioners are deve l- oping heightened appreciation for the i m p o r tance of such vibrant sources of tacit know l e d g e . Tacit knowledge includes the informal k n ow l e d g e that exists thro u g h common practice and is shared via e- mails, communities of practice, expert n e t w o rks, and other permutations of online interaction. As organizations d e v elop their e-knowledge competencies, they enhance their capacity to n u rt u re, harvest, and use informal, tacit know l e d g e . The policies, practices, competencies, n e t w o r ks, communities, and mark e t- places for exchanging explicit and tacit e - k n owledge are developing today. T h e i r refinement to handle continuously revised knowledge will catalyze and drive the re volution in learning and know l e d g e management tomorrow. The nature of knowledge is that it makes itself obsolete. Peter Drucker, 1999 Interactions Between Ta c i t and Explicit Knowledge By definition, knowledge is dynamic, not static. Knowledge continuously changes meaning and form. Whether know l e d g e is held by individuals, organizations, c o m m u n i t i e s of practice or networks of organizations, the content, context, and community in which it is used are always changing. It is especially critical to understand how elements of explicit and tacit know l e d g e can transcend their current states thro u g h p ro g re s s i v e cycles of conversion. Ik u j i ro Nonaka (1999) has captured the essence of the relationships and interactions of tacit and explicit knowledge in four modes: socialization, externalization, combination, and internalization. T h e s e k n owledge conversions are port r a y ed in the figure to the right. Depicting the Interactions Between Tacit and Explicit Knowledge In their work on the integration of e- learning and knowledge management, Woelk and Agarwal (2002) have schemat- ically re p resented the transitions of know l- edge between No n a k a’s four phases. T h e y h a ve added a fifth phase, cognition, in which the knowledge seeker makes sense of tacit knowledge in context thro u g h applying it to a business pro b l e m . Understanding e-Knowledge as a “Thing” and a “Flow” In recent years, practitioners have begun to understand the complexities of modeling knowledge in all its forms. In consequence, the assumption of a clean delineation between tacit and explicit k n owledge and the migration of know l - edge between different states is question- able. The emerging ecology of know l e d g e re p r esentation suggests that know l e d g e exists as both a t h i n g and a f l ow at the same time. The “t h i n g” is knowledge that is “know n” (the “know - w h a t”) and can be formally shared and used. The “f l ow” is the changing contexts or passage of k n owledge through the informal stru c- t u res of organizations where communities of practice and others make sense of it and c o n ve r t it from “know a b l e” to “know n . ” To accept this paradox, practitioners must accept that in the uncertain conditions that characterize most real-life settings, k n o wledge is continuously changing, What is e-Knowledge? Tr a n s f o r ming e-Knowledge 6 Knowledge Management Phases f l owing between different states of chaos, c o m p l e x i t y, and know a b i l i t y. What is “ k n ow n” at any time depends on the management of content, context, and narra- t i ve. Under such conditions, organizations need to manage the different kinds of k n owledge using different tools and tech- niques (Sn owden, 2002). Only when tacit and explicit knowledge interact can innovation occur. Ikujiro Nonaka, 1999 This conception of knowledge re c o g n i ze s that organizations consist of differe n t k n o wledge habitats, each of which has di f f e rent contexts and rules. These include the f o rmal organization, formal commu - nities of practice, shadow or inform a l organizations, and temporary teams dealing with environments re c o g n i z ed to be chaotic and turbulent (many organizations operate in such environments but f e w seem to accept this). The practice of k n owledge management is dealing with these complexities with greater sophisti- cation and understanding. The concept of k n owledge management has been superseded in some circles by the more metaphorical k n owledge ecology. What is e-Knowledge? Tr a n s f o r ming e-Knowledge 7 The most profound technologies are those that disappear. They weave themselves into the fabric of everyday life until they are indistinguishable from it. Marc Weiser Tacit and explicit knowledge are not totally separate. Rather they are mutually complementary. They interact and exchange with each other in the creative activities of human beings. Our model of dynamic knowledge creation is anchored in the assumption that human knowledge is created and expanded through social interactions between tacit and explicit knowledge. We call this interaction knowledge conversion. Ikujiro Nonaka, 1999 Interactions Between Explicit and Tacit Knowledge In the third generation, we grow beyond managing knowledge as a thing to also managing knowledge as a flow. To do this, we will need to focus more on context and narrative than on content. Dave Snowden, 2002 Knowledge Management T h r ough Five Lenses T h e re can be many lenses through which to discern knowledge and its management. These different lenses incorporate a range of perspectives and differentiate betwe e n the purposes and motivations shaping k n owledge management at various leve l s . A broad classification scheme would dis- tinguish betwe e n : • Personal knowledge management ( i n d i - vidual dispositions and behaviors); • Organizational knowledge management (multi-national corporations, small-to- medium enterprises, governments, non- g overnment organizations, educational i n s t i t u t i o n s ) ; • Sectoral knowledge management (economic sectors such as information t e c h n o l o g y, pharmaceuticals, agricul- t u re, indigenous culture, etc.); • National knowledge management (national policies for stimulating inno- va t i ve cultures within industry); and • Cultural knowledge management (transcends and spans organizational, sectoral, and national boundaries). In terms of outcomes, knowledge management could further be classified into outcomes that improve e f f i c i e n c i e s a n d outcomes that stimulate i n n ova t i o n. An International Standard s Movement Has Developed Perhaps the most visible activity in the e- k n owledge world invo l v es a compre h e n - s i ve process of international collaboration in the development of standards and specifications for systems to manage and e xchange learning content, process organizational knowledge, and support e-business transactions. St a n d a rds deve l o p m e n t s in applications interoperability have also a d vanced the growth of so-called “We b s e rv i c e s” which will facilitate the deve l o p- ment of seamlessly and easily integrated applications infrastru c t u re s . The standards movement has been facili- tating the birth of durable and transactable e-knowledge. The complex work of these standards groups has been far too a rcane to engage the detailed attention of most professionals who are responsible in their organizations for knowledge management and learning. But the strategic implications of standards for implement - ing processes, networks, and mark e t p l a c e s for e-knowledge are clear: such standard s assist in building and maturing e-know l - edge marketplaces while also stimulating i n n ovation in the use of transactable e- k n ow l e d g e . These issues should feature p r ominently in the planning of eve ry enterprise for which knowledge is essential to competitive adva n t a g e . What is e-Knowledge? Tr a n s f o r ming e-Knowledge 8 Successful knowledge management requires concentrating on the 8 Cs: connectivity, content, community, culture, capacity, commerce, cooperation and capital. Madanmohan Rao The major standards eff o rt s have involved participation by g o v e rnment, educational, and c o m m e r cial enterprises. Early focal points have included s t a n d a r ds for describing content and ensuring that it will work with other content and with all d e l i v e r y systems ( “ i n t e ro p e r a b i l i t y ” s t a n d a rd s ) . Relevant groups include the IMS Global Learning Consortium, ADL, IEEE LTSC, Dublin Core, and MPEG. More re c e n t l y, pro c e s s s t a n d a r ds have gained attention (WfMC and GKEC). In addition, the publishing, media, and technology industries have focused on standards for digital asset management—PRISM, XMCL, ebXML, XrML, ODRL. At the end of the day, the standard s d e v eloped by these groups, while important for implementers, may prove less significant for organizations than the visibility they have given to the re q u i re- ments and potentials of the emerging e - K n owledge In d u s t r y. Mo re ove r, they h a ve been a powe rful force for the deve l- opment of a truly global perspective to the e-Knowledge In d u s t ry. In addition, while working together to develop learning object standards, professionals in these fields quickly discove red the t a c t i - c a l i m p o r tance of mobilizing and unify- ing the energies of professionals in e-learning and knowledge management. Pa r tnering with one another, they have a c h i e v ed greater visibility than either e-learning or knowledge management would have achieved acting alone. Ove r time, the s t r a t e g i c i m p o rtance of fusing e-learning and knowledge management will become abundantly clear to policy makers and practitioners alike. What is e-Knowledge? Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowledge 9 Traditional Publishers and Direct-to-Digital Publishers— traditional publishers like Harc o u rt Brace, Pearson, Thomson and new direct-to-digital publishing enterprises Course and Learning Management Systems—course materials held by We b C T, Blackboard, Click2learn, Outstart, and other a p p l i c a t i o n s Universities and Colleges—university presses plus faculty course materials P rofessional Societies and Associations—trade publications plus tradecraft-rich bodies of knowledge Corporate Learning and Knowledge Management—private channels for pro p r i e t a ry content, off-the-shelf content, intern a l documents, white papers, and specifications Content/Context Repositories—discipline- and institution- specific repositories, plus marketplaces that aggregate content repositories into a meta-marketplace Content Creation Tools—tools for creating and managing content/context through Learning and Content Management Systems (LACMS) Value-Added Content Services—additional services that enhance the value of content and codified context in learning objects Exchange Infrastru c t u re—the marketplace exchange serv i c e that enables metering, repurposing, combining of content by demand aggregators, and direct users Demand Aggregation/Syndication—enterprises that aggre g a t e demand for e-knowledge, such as colleges and universities, p rofessional societies and associations, and corporate learn i n g (e.g., Emerald Now) To d a y ’s Ve r tical Channels for E-Content Components of To m o rro w ’s Horizontal Channels For e-Knowledge A g g r egators are enterprises or organizations that aggregate or package learning content, such as MERLOT and Emerald Fulltext. A g g r egation is also occurring at the institutional level, providing concentrations of intellectual capital. Adapted from: Patrick McElroy, A New Paradigm for Acquiring, Managing, and Distributing Content in Higher Education Institutions, 2002. Digital Marketplaces for e-Knowledge are Gestating To d a y, pro p r i e t a ry, ve r tical channels for distributing e-knowledge have been initi- ated by traditional publishers, dire c t - t o - digital publishers (purely digital), learning management system prov i d e r s , and others. Gl o b a l l y, hundreds of different channels have developed using their own content repositories, pro p r i e t a r y authoring tools, and learning management systems. These channels have failed to attract a gro u n d s well of users sufficient to effect cultural change. And they won’t until pro p r i e t a r y silos are replaced by open, interoperable, and scaleable marketplace mechanisms for e-know l e d g e . These mechanisms will create “horizo n- t a l” channels that enable the combination and repurposing of content held by dif- f e r ent publishers, learning content management systems, and digital content repositories in general. To d a y’s ve rtical channels are merely an e vo l u t i o n a r y step in the migration path t ow a rd horizontal channels based on more robust, interoperable mechanisms for k n o wledge sharing. To d a y, the know l e d g e i n d u s t ry is ve ry much like the computer i n d u s t ry in the 1980s as described by A n d rew Grove (1998) in his book, On l y the Pa ranoid Su rv i ve . The ve rtical, pro p r i- e t a ry channels in the computer mark e t we re transformed by the shift to a horizontal computer marketplace that enabled cascading innovation, fast growth, keen competition, and reductions in price. In the not-so-distant future, advances in e - k n o wledge will enable the creation of h o r i zontal marketplaces in the Know l e d g e In d u s t ry. They will facilitate the seamless e x change of formally re n d e red, explicit, and tacit knowledge, slashing acro s s t o d a y’s publishing and intellectual pro p- e r ty boundaries, while metering and paying for the use of intellectual pro p e rt y. In n ovation, competition, growth, and cost reduction are likely to thrive as we l l . The Power of e-Knowledge: F rom Value Chain to Value Net The fundamental value chain of the K n o wledge Economy is familiar and p r oven: the related and bi-dire c t i o n a l p r ocesses of computation, cognition, context, and communication that create the h i e r a rchy of data, information, and know l- edge. Yet as leading-edge practitioners have applied network-based tools of know l e d g e management and sharing, they have dis- c ove red several transformative new insights. First, e-Knowledge Chunks are Malleable, Expandable, and Fungible. e - K n ow l e d g e tools enable the unbundling, re p ro c e s s- ing, and repurposing of data, information, and knowledge in ways that can render them into other forms. Da t a becomes information when organized in a way to give it meaning; information is codified as knowledge when pre s e n t e d within a context. We say more on this subject later when we discuss new ways of experiencing e-knowledge. Conve r s e l y, codified knowledge can be decontextual- i z ed and disaggregated to form data-like chunks of content that can then be re - a g g regated or re-purposed. The tools of e- k n owledge can be used to combine content and context to create know l e d g e chunks that are malleable, expandable, and fungible (see graphic page 15). Digital publishing technologies and extensive global networking—coupled with an increasing volume of scientific research and decreasing satisfaction with a dysfunctional economic model—change the fundamental structure of scholarly publishing by allowing its various components to be de-linked, both functionally and economically. When the functions are unbundled and begin to operate separately, each can operate more efficiently and competitively. Raym Crow What is e-Knowledge? Tr a n s f o r ming e-Knowledge 1 0 By three methods we may learn wisdom: first, by reflection, which is noblest; second, by imitation, which is easiest; and third by experience, which is the bitterest. Confucius Second, e-Knowledge Tools Enable the Reinvention of Processes and Rela - tionships. e - K n o wledge has a fundamental characteristic in common with e-business. The core principle of e-business is to change the way that enterprises conduct business, whatever that business may be. This translates into re i n venting and transforming core p r ocesses, relationships, and culture s . Si m i l a r l y, e-knowledge is about the use of technology to transform pro c e s s e s and relationships pertaining to the creation, nurturing, and management of k n owledge. Over time, e-knowledge will c r eate a breed of know l e d g e - s h a r i n g p r ocesses, relationships, and culture s that are much more than just more effi- cient versions of existing practices. If we apply knowledge to tasks we already know how to do, we call it productivity. If we apply knowledge to tasks that are new and different, we call it innovation. Peter Drucker, 1999 T h i r d, e-Knowledge Tr a n s f o r ms Va l u e Chains into e-Knowledge Value Nets. The traditional view of the value chain f o l l ows the linear pro g ressions of an In d u s- trial Age product cycle. But the Know l e d g e Age has been changing all that: d i s a g g re - gating and d i s i n t e rm e d i a t i n g t r a d i t i o n a l value chain relationships and re i n t e rm e d i - a t i n g n e w relationships between mark e t p l a y ers. Don Tapscott (2001) intro d u c e d the term polymediation to herald the emer- gence of entirely new business entities and o p p o r tunities enabled by “digital capital.” The richness in relationships combines ve r- tical and horizontal supply chains to cre a t e what Patrick Mc El roy (2002) characterize s as a “value net” in referring to the e- k n owledge space. This metaphor of a va l u e net aptly captures the multi-dimensional, m u l t i - d i r ectional opportunities for va l u e c r eation, knowledge enhancement, and sharing in our e-knowledge future . What is e-Knowledge? Tr a n s f o r ming e-Knowledge 1 1 Owners of various supply channels set the rules and control supply. Demand aggregators have limited c l o u t . Digital publishing and print-on- demand are controlled by owners of v e rtical channels who set the ru l e s and the practices. New players cannot break into existing channels. New supply channels empower the individual pro v i d e r — f a c u l t y, re s e a rchers, practitioner—and communities of pro v i d e r s . Demand aggregators enhance their clout, building on the power p r ovided by their relationship with l e a rn e r s / c o n s u m e r s . Traditional providers are “ d i s i n t e rmediated” by individual faculty and learners using the marketplace to create digital p ro d u c t s . New organizational forms (form a l and informal) evolve to support the c reation and sharing of knowledge— communities of practice. Power in the Printed Knowledge Age Power in the e-Knowledge Age The e-Knowledge Industry Develops and Grows The e-Knowledge In d u s t ry consists of the individuals and enterprises that cre a t e , s t o r e, and exchange digital content, add value to it, and/or aggregate content, and s e r ve demand for e-knowledge. The e - K n owledge In d u s t ry includes publishers, new media companies, content deve l - oper companies, professional societies and associations, companies, colleges and u n i v ersities, and other know l e d g e - c re a t- ing enterprises. In addition, individual p r ofessionals, faculty, and practitioners a re empowe red by the emerging influence of e-knowledge to create their ow n content, knowledge, and insight and offer it for exchange. Democratization, Empowerment, and New Choices. In a ve ry real sense, the e- K n owledge In d u s t ry is a powe r ful engine for democratization and empowerment. In the Information Age, publishers, colleges, and universities controlled the supply of vetted content. In the e-Knowledge Age, n e w market mechanisms will emerge, including free sources of content, context, and insight. Ma r ketplaces will enable individual professionals, practitioners, f a c u l t y, and others to create and supply e - k n owledge re s o u r ces to augment the traditional supply channels. New Roles, Responsibilities and Players. The e-Knowledge In d u s t ry will prov i d e n e w roles and responsibilities for existing p l a y ers and encourage new players to come to the table. e - Kn owledge suppliers and aggregators will be able to prov i d e their content and encoded contexts to a wider range of audiences than offere d t h r ough traditional ve rtical channels. Value-added e-knowledge partners w i l l enrich content and context, providing a variety of useful services. e - Kn ow l e d g e demand aggregators will be able to leve r - age their market power through aggre - gating demand among their clientele. e - Kn owledge users will include individuals and organizations. Their influence will be dramatically enhanced in the e-know l e d g e m a rketplace economy. A Changing Enterprise Landscape. Which organizations and enterprises will fill these roles over the next ten ye a r s ? Existing learning, publishing, and know l- edge management organizations? New subsidiaries of existing enterprises? To t a l l y n e w enterprises? New kinds of communities of practice that cross traditional organizational boundaries? Cooperatives of f ree agents or amorphous peer-to-peer net- w o rks? New strategic alliances and collab- orations? Only time will tell, and the outcomes may be surprising. The enterprise landscape of the e-Knowledge In d u s- t r y in ten years time will likely be ve r y d i f f e rent from the clusters of organizations and individuals that aspire to be major p l a yers in e-knowledge today. What is e-Knowledge? Tr a n s f o r ming e-Knowledge 1 2 Players in the e-Knowledge Industry Adapted from: Patrick McElroy, A New Paradigm for Acquiring, Managing, and Distributing Content in Higher Education Institutions, 2002. What is e-Knowledge? Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowledge 1 3 Pioneering Examples of e-Knowledge • Pervasive Computing Transforms Approaches to Elder Care • Professional Society as Indispensable Knowledge Resource • Universities Leverage Their Knowledge Resources • Industry-wide Knowledge Sharing Enables German Industry to Compete • Making e-Government Work P e rvasive Computing Tr a n s f o rm s A p p r oaches to Elder Care An e-knowledge approach can be combined with perva s i ve computing to i m p r ove our understanding of aging, to i m p r ove elder care, and to make some aspects of our own aging less pro b l e m - atic. Pe rva s i ve computing makes possible the collection of detailed, moment-by - moment data on user actions and contexts, wire l e s s l y, anywhere and anytime. A global community of organizations is using this approach to gather data on the lives and needs of the elderly with a view to increasing their autonomy and quality of care. One of the data capturing pioneers is El i t e C a re’s Oatfield Estates in Milwaukee, Wi s- consin, which has built perva s i ve computing into its living spaces. Residents carry dual-channel radio frequency locator tags that serve as their apartment key and emit periodic infrared pulses to the sensors in each room. Beds have embedded we i g h t sensors. Each apartment has motion and health vitals sensors plus a network e d computer with touch screen interf a c e , enabling communication through e-mail, w o rd processing, audio for speech re c o g - nition, and video conferencing using webcams. These systems and sensors feed p e r s o n a l i zed databases on each re s i d e n t . C a re g i v ers use these databases to monitor personal health, activity levels, and interactions with medical attention and status of medication. Managers use this know l- edge base to monitor staff perf o r m a n c e . Residents use the personal history data, both theirs and others, to foster social interactions with other patients. This envi- ronment has changed the way that re s i- dents live. They have greater control and a u t o n o m y, knowing that if they become disoriented and wander, re q u i re emer- gency help, or fall behind in their medication, assistance will be fort h c o m i n g i m m e d i a t e l y. Care g i vers and medical per- sonnel do not need to manually re c o rd and enter patient data; they have access to a far richer knowledge base on each patient, easily accessed and arrayed. While these developments bring immedi- ate benefit to residents, their families, and c a re g i v ers, our primary interest is in the implications for e-knowledge. From the p e r s p e c t i ve of health professionals and policy makers, the data collected in such schemes can be merged with data being collected globally on patient health, a c t i v i t y, and care. Multiple analyses can be u n d e r taken, ranging from pattern deter- mination (e.g., as in epidemiology) to cod- ification of “what work s” in elder care, in repositories of grounded knowledge and tradecraft that can be used by care g i ve r s and medical educators. Mo re futuristically, new forms of assisted living can be envisaged in which perva s i ve computing is combined with intelligent agent technology to compensate for declining cognitive facilities. An example is the difficulty that many people have in retaining their skill base and tacit know l- edge as they age. Even when we are yo u n g , our ability to perform a task fluidly and automatically typically declines if we do not practice the task fre q u e n t l y. We become ru s t y. This loss of competence in relation to rarely-used knowledge may become more problematic as we age. Pe r- va s i ve computing offers the prospect of regaining that knowledge on demand. The important thing is not to stop questioning. Albert Einstein P e r vasive computing pro v i d e s mechanisms to capture and re p l a y e v e ry aspect of what we know and what we do. This has implications for people throughout their lives. I m p o r tant applications in elder c a r e include empowering older people and enlarging the knowledge base of “what works” in assisted living. In a possible scenario, our individual re t i r ement plans would go beyond financial considerations to include prov i s i o n for cognitive augmentation. If we learned a skill that we wanted to have available to us years later, we would use perva s i v e computing to assemble rich data on our peak level of performance on that skill. This could be possible through the combined use of webcams and data glove s . Webcams can capture video re c o r ds of that performance from multiple va n t a g e points (including what we see when we p e r form a task). Data gloves can capture data on how our hands and fingers move during performance of a task. T h e various data streams can be analyzed by “re m e m b r a n c e” agents to identify key elements that could be re p l a y ed ye a r s later to stimulate recall of the elements of that skilled performance. For example, re c o rdings from data gloves might be re p l a yed through force-feedback (“haptic” ) g l o ves to convey how it felt to perf o r m the task. Pro s p e c t i ve l y, this could be s h a r ed with others immediately (to demonstrate what a skill entails), and used by us in later life (to re - e s t a b l i s h our original level of competence). As an indication of the wider implications, e l d e rc a re environments that use perva s i ve ICT are being pro g re s s i vely improved by outlinks from patients’ facilities to their families and others. One result is that families can participate in the monitoring of their loved ones’ pro g r ess, activities, and condition. They can also provide more fre- quent contact and interactivity thro u g h e l e c t ronic communication and large- s c reen visual displays that enable re s i d e n t and family to see one another. An unex- pected outcome has been the invo l ve m e n t of elder care residents in family history p rojects and oral history projects invo l v i n g c h i l d ren, grandchildren, and great- grand- c h i l d ren. Such developments will be facil- itated if perva s i ve computing is used routinely to capture day-to-day experiences in a whole-life diary. P rofessional Society as an Indispensable Knowledge R e s o u rc e The American Association of Ph a r m a c e u- tical Scientists is a professional society s e r ving 4,000 pharmaceutical scientists as members and another 50,000 customers. AAPS has evo l ved a knowledge portal that members and non-member customers use to access the latest findings in re s e a rc h and practice in pharmaceutical science. Using the portal, users can create “m y p r ofessional journal” using the port a l’s p e r s o n a l i zed search capabilities to assemble re l e v ant data (author, title, key terms, etc.) on all recently published articles in topic areas that they can enumerate. Su c h data is typically stored as “m e t a d a t a” fol- l owing standards. Subscribers can extract not just the metadata/abstract, but the e n t i re article—or in future, just key por- tions of it. AAPS began by digitizing its own journals, but has since added links to other scientific journals, including 20 f r om El s e v i e r. The personalized port a l also features a specialized news serv i c e dealing in new developments in the field. What is e-Knowledge? Tr a n s f o r ming e-Knowledge 1 4 A knowledge advantage is a sustainable advantage. Thomas H. Davenport and Laurence Prusak The future for the American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists is to fuse education and knowledge experiences together so its members will be learning whenever they access the digital body of knowledge or use the portal to experience new developments in the field. Jack Cox, CEO, American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists, 2002 AAPS also has deployed communities of practice in both established and emerging subdisciplines in pharmaceutical sciences. It has a formal stru c t u re of scientific “s e c- t i o n s” that provide content and pro g r a m materials for AAPS’s meetings and publications. AAPS also fosters the organic d e v elopment of self-forming discussion g roups in new, hybridized areas of intere s t , p r oviding enterprise support as the gro u p s a c h i e ve critical mass and demonstrate sustainable interest. At any one time, it has as many as 25 such groups incubating. A recently formed group on “Nu t r i c e u t i c a l s” combines subject matter content spanning f i v e sections, and focuses on the field of natural health products that desperately re q u i res scientific, government, and public s c ru t i n y. These communities of practice contribute to the perpetual deve l o p m e n t of new findings and insights in the field and to the development and learning of p a rticipating members. AAPS has digitized and repurposed many of its learning materials into online re s o u rces, CDs, and other media. In addition to its formal programs and exc h a n g e s of information, AAPS creates many opportunities for meetings, seminars, and other face-to-face venues. In these settings, the formal programs are only half the va l u e ; the in-the-hall conversations between scientists sharing their latest insights or syn- thesis of new developments are equally value laden. In the future, AAPS sees its publishing and education programs fusing t o g e t h e r. In this rapidly deve l o p i n g f i e l d of pharmaceutical science, just-in-time k n owledge on the latest developments is the vehicle for perpetual learning. Universities Leverage Their Knowledge Resources Thro u g h A l l i a n c e s Alliances of universities for this purpose a re not new. Achieving commercial success is another matter. The first generation of e-learning alliances, set up during the dot.com era with hopes of developing new income streams for universities, spent a g r eat deal of money with little financial return. The lessons learned led to the establishment in the UK of a public- p r i vate part n e r s h i p, e-Un i versities Wo r l d- wide Ltd (“e-U”). This is a collaborative alliance of knowledge organizations, including colleges and universities. T h e p r i m a ry purpose of e-U is to enable UK p roviders of higher education to part i c i- pate in the global e-learning market on a better basis than would be possible if they operated individually. Initiatives such as the e-U show the way for universities to collaborate to exploit and share their knowledge to the benefit of all part i e s . The chances of success have been raised by insistence on the establishment of: • a common technical platform, jointly d e veloped by a leading vendor (Sun) and compliant with all re l e vant standards, to e n s u re that no technical obstacles exist to d e v eloping courses in one institution and running them at another institution; • a shared knowledge base on the effective use of that platform to meet needs in p a r ticular disciplines or to meet generic needs; • p r ocesses to ensure that courses meet international standards of quality and are a p p r opriately certified and re c o g n i ze d ; • d e velopment funds that individual insti- What is e-Knowledge? Tr a n s f o r ming e-Knowledge 1 5 If you can imagine it, it probably will happen. If you can imagine it, it probably already exists, somewhere. Bruce Judson [...]... computing In a world of pervasive knowledge sharing, we will all want to have the capacity to cloak our identities at certain times we choose Tr a n s f o r min g e- Kno wledge 21 What is e-Knowledge? Pervasive Ambient Environments 22 Tr a n s f o rming e-Knowle dge What is e-Knowledge? Changing How We Experience Knowledge Dimensions Today’s Experience Future Experiences Almost everyone will engage in robust... What is e-Knowledge? of performance, putting road warriors and field workers in the center of the information and communications world via mobile portals and on-demand expert services.” Madanmohan Rao, 20 02 What will move us to that new level? We need to make life simpler for learners and for teachers/mentors We can help them to make far more sense of the world and to deploy far more of their taken-forgranted... followe d similar patterns A revolution doesn’t really arrive until we structure our activities around the new technology—and the new technology adapts to us by becoming easy to use W Brian Arthur, March 20 02 P e rvasive Computing The predominant vision of ICT has focused on the development of mobile personal digital devices Laptop and notebook computers, personal digital assistants, mobile telephone, and... finding some special place to log on, you can stay where you are, with other people, while you connect It becomes a shared activity, like watching television, rather than an individual one Esther Dyson, 20 02 The Experience Can Be as Important as the Knowledge Gained The experience of engaging know l e d g e is often equally as important to the knowledge seeker as the actual enhancement and/or application... modifications tailored to each user.) By reducing the time-to-market of those innovations the initiative could maximize the time they can be competitive in the marketplace In a pilot project ending in 20 01, German industry and the German government committed the equivalent of about US$30 million to a national project, coordinated by the Fraunhofer Institute, to explore ways to speed up the effective... government by closely aligning the expertise required (at all organizational levels) with a strategic plan for service delivery Giving customers what they want has been key, and so has recognition that transformation is an ongoing process With cost-savings and benefits to the customer in terms of timeliness and trusted information, Michigan.gov delivers everything from fishing licenses and camping ground... the World Wide Web, including the Semantic Web; and, the next generation of knowledgesharing tools These advances will enable knowledge sharing to achieve the accelerated ease of use necessary for true transformation to be achieved In theory there is no difference between theory and practice In practice there is Jan L.A van de Snepscheut Achieving Amenity in Knowledge Sharing This less-than-re vo l u... levels of government and re c o g n i zes “knowledge communities” as the key to moving forw a rd The framework is building upon the earlier success of its e-En voy’s Knowledge Ne t w o rk Launched in late 20 00, the Know l e d g e Network has achieved a significant milestone in delivering real-time know l e d g e sharing between government departments Efficiencies are not just being d e l i ve red in terms... digital devices and/or computing devices carried or imbedded in clothing Pervasive computing will include sensing and recognition technologies that can deal with many inputs, including data, acoustics, 20 Tr a n s f o rm ing e-Kn owled ge image, motion and gestures, light, heat, moisture, and pressure New kinds of unobtrusive interfaces between the physical and virtual world will be deployed to support... Australian National Office for the Information Economy is leading the i n t roduction of integrated gove r n m e n t s e rvice delive ry After launching a comprehensive Government Online Strategy in early 20 00, it is now concerned with m oving to the next phase of online services development The issue is no longer about establishing gove r n m e n t agency presence online but in delivering a return on investment . e-Knowledge 1 2 Players in the e-Knowledge Industry Adapted from: Patrick McElroy, A New Paradigm for Acquiring, Managing, and Distributing Content in Higher Education Institutions, 20 02. What is. is e-Knowledge? Tr a n s f o r ming e-Knowledge 2 2 P e r vasive Ambient Enviro n m e n t s What is e-Knowledge? Tr a n s f o r ming e-Knowledge 2 3 F u t u re Experiences Almost everyone will. To do this, we will need to focus more on context and narrative than on content. Dave Snowden, 20 02 Knowledge Management T h r ough Five Lenses T h e re can be many lenses through which to discern