Báo cáo toán học: "Pattern avoidance classes and subpermutations" pdf

Pattern avoidance classes and subpermutations M. D. Atkinson Department of Computer Science University of Otago, New Zealand mike@cs.otago.ac.nz M. M. Murphy and N. Ruˇskuc School of Mathematics and Statistics University of St Andrews, Scotland, KY16 9SS nik@mcs.st-and.ac.uk and max@mcs.st-and.ac.uk Submitted: Oct 6, 2005; Accepted: Nov 10, 2005; Published: Nov 15, 2005 Mathematics Subject Classifications: 05A15, 05A16 Abstract Pattern avoidance classes of permutations that cannot be expressed as unions of proper subclasses can be described as the set of subpermutations of a single bijection. In the case that this bijection is a permutation of the natural numbers a structure theorem is given. The structure theorem shows that the class is almost closed under direct sums or has a rational generating function. Keywords: Restricted permutations, pattern avoidance, subpermutations. 1 Introduction Classes of permutations defined by their avoiding a given set of permutation patterns have been intensively studied within the last decade. Quite often the issue has been to determine the number of permutations of each length in the class. In order to do this it is necessary to derive structural properties of the permutations in the class starting from the avoided set. However, there are very few general techniques for obtaining such structural information. This paper is a contribution towards a general structure theory. We begin from the point of view that pattern-avoidance classes can be expressed as unions of atomic classes (those that have no non-trivial expression as a union). We shall show that these atomic classes are precisely the classes that arise as the set of restrictions of some injection from one ordered set to another. In general the order types of these two sets provide some information about the atomic class. The major part of our paper is a the electronic journal of combinatorics 12 (2005), #R60 1 characterisation of such injections and classes in the simplest case: when the order types are those of the natural numbers. In the remainder of this section we review the terminology of pattern avoidance classes. Most of this terminology is standard in the subject except for the notion of a natural class. We shall see a number of conditions on pattern avoidance classes that are equivalent to their being atomic and we shall exhibit examples of atomic and non-atomic classes. These conditions and examples motivate the notion of a natural class whose elementary properties we explore in Section 2. Section 3 contains our main result: a characterisation of natural classes, and Section 4 gives some further examples. We need a small number of definitions concerned with permutations and sets of permuta- tions. For our purposes a permutation is just an arrangement of the numbers 1, 2, ,n for some n, and we shall write these as lists of numbers (sometimes with separating com- mas to avoid notational confusion). We shall often need to consider arrangements of other sets of numbers and we shall refer to these as sequences; so, unless stated otherwise, a sequence will mean a list of distinct numbers. Two finite sequences of the same length α = a 1 a 2 a 3 ··· and β = b 1 b 2 b 3 ··· are said to be order isomorphic (denoted as α ∼ = β) if for all i, j we have a i <a j if and only if b i <b j . Any sequence defines a unique order isomorphic permutation; for example 7496 ∼ = 3142. A sequence α is said to be involved in a sequence β (denoted as α  β)ifα is order isomorphic to a subsequence of β. Usually, involvement is defined between permutations; for example 1324  146325 because of the subsequence 1435. It is easily seen that the involvement relation is a partial order on the set of all (finite) permutations. We study it in terms of its order ideals which we call closed sets; see [8] for some similar definitions. A closed set X of permutations has the defining property that if α ∈ X and δ  α then δ ∈ X. Closed sets are most frequently specified by their basis: the set of permutations that are minimal subject to not lying in the closed set. Once the basis B is given the closed set is simply {σ | β  σ for all β ∈ B} and we shall denote it by A(B). Closed sets arise in the context of limited capability sorting machines such as networks of stacks, queues and deques with a point of input and a similar output. Here the basis con- sists of minimal sequences that cannot be sorted into some desirable order. As sequences can be sorted if and only if they do not involve any basis elements, basis elements are frequently referred to as “forbidden patterns” and the set of permutations that can be sorted by such a mechanism is described as the set of all permutations that “avoid” that basis. Much of the thrust of this paper is in specifying closed sets in a different way. Suppose that A and B are sets of real numbers and let π be an injection from A to B.Then every finite subset {c 1 ,c 2 , ,c n } of A,wherec 1 <c 2 < < c n maps to a sequence the electronic journal of combinatorics 12 (2005), #R60 2 π(c 1 ) π(c 2 ) π(c n ) which is order isomorphic to some permutation. The set of permuta- tions that arise in this way is easily seen to be closed and we denote it by Sub(π : A → B). In many cases the domain and range of π are evident from the context in which case we write simply Sub(π). Also, since we may always replace B by the range of π we shall, from now on, assume that π is a bijection. Example 1.1 Let A = {1 − 1/2 i , 2 − 1/2 i | i =1, 2, } and B = {1, 2, }.Letπ be defined by: π(x)=  2i − 1ifx =1− 1/2 i 2i if x =2− 1/2 i Then it is easily seen that any finite increasing sequence of elements in A maps to an increasing sequence of odd integers followed by an increasing sequence of even integers. From this it follows readily that the permutations of Sub(π : A → B) are precisely those that consist of two increasing segments. As shown in [2] this closed set has basis {321, 3142, 2143}.NoticethatA and B have order types 2ω and ω. This particular closed set cannot be defined as Sub(π : A → B)withbothA and B having order type ω. We now give several conditions on a closed set equivalent to it being expressible as Sub(π : A → B). Theorem 1.2 The following conditions on a closed set X are equivalent: 1. X = Sub(π : A → B) for some sets A, B and bijection π. 2. X cannot be expressed as a union of two proper closed subsets. 3. For every α, β ∈ X there exists γ ∈ X such that α  γ and β  γ. 4. X contains permutations γ 1  γ 2 ··· such that, for every α ∈ X, we have α  γ n for some n. Proof: 1 ⇒ 2. Suppose X = Sub(π : A → B) and yet there exist proper closed subsets Y,Z of X such that X = Y ∪Z. Then there exist permutations ρ ∈ X \ Y and σ ∈ X \Z. Therefore we can find subsequences r 1 <r 2 < ··· and s 1 <s 2 < ··· of A which are mapped by π to subsequences order isomorphic to ρ and σ. The union of {r 1 ,r 2 , } with {s 1 ,s 2 , } defines a sequence t 1 <t 2 < ··· that is mapped by π to a subsequence order isomorphic to a permutation τ ∈ X. Obviously, ρ  τ and σ  τ. However τ belongs to at least one of Y or Z,sayτ ∈ Y .SinceY is closed we have ρ ∈ Y , a contradiction. the electronic journal of combinatorics 12 (2005), #R60 3 2 ⇒ 3. Suppose that there exist α, β ∈ X with the property that no permutation of X involves both of them. Put Y = {γ ∈ X | α  γ} Z = {γ ∈ X | β  γ} Then Y and Z are proper closed subsets of X whose union is X (since any γ ∈ X \(Y ∪Z) would involve both α and β). 3 ⇒ 4. If θ, φ are two permutations in X we know that there exists a permutation of X that involves both. Temporarily we shall use the notation θ ∨ φ to denote one of these permutations. Now let β 1 ,β 2 , be any listing of the permutations of X. We define a sequence of permutations of X as follows: γ 1 = β 1 and, for i ≥ 2, γ i = γ i−1 ∨β i . Obviously, γ 1  γ 2 ··· and, for each permutation β n ∈ X, β n  γ n . 4 ⇒ 1. In the sequence γ 1  γ 2 ··· we remove duplicates (if any) and we insert suitable permutations so that we have one of every length. This gives a sequence of permutations α 1  α 2 ··· such that 1. |α i | = i, 2. α i ∈ X, 3. for all σ ∈ X there exists some α i with σ  α i Now we shall inductively define, for each i,setsA i ,B i and bijections π i : A i → B i with the following properties: 1. |A i | = |B i | = i 2. π i is order isomorphic to α i 3. A i−1 ⊂ A i and B i−1 ⊂ B i 4. π i | A i−1 = π i−1 Once these sets have been constructed we can complete the proof by setting A =  i A i and B =  i B i . Then we define π : A → B for any a ∈ A by finding some A i for which a ∈ A i and setting π(a)=π i (a); by the last two properties π is well-defined. The second property guarantees that X = Sub(π : A → B). To carry out the construction we shall define A i ,B i as subsets of the open interval (0, 1). We begin by setting A 1 = B 1 = {1/2} and π 1 (1/2) = 1/2. Suppose now that A i ,B i ,π i have been constructed for i =1, 2 ,n. The permutation α n+1 is constructed from α n by the insertion of a new element t at position s in α n ; the position numbers of all the elements of α n which are greater than or equal to s have to be increased by 1 and those values which are greater than or equal to t have also to be incremented by 1. the electronic journal of combinatorics 12 (2005), #R60 4 We reflect this insertion in the definition of A n+1 ,B n+1 and π n+1 .ThesetA n+1 is formed by augmenting A n with another number a whose value lies between its (s − 1) th and s th elements (if s = 1 we take a between 0 and the minimal element of A n ; while if s = n we take a between the maximal element and 1). Similarly B n+1 is formed by augmenting B n with a number b whose value lies between its (t − 1) th and t th elements. Then we define π n+1 so that it agrees with π n on the elements of A n and has π n+1 (a)=b. Because of this result we call closed sets of the form Sub(π : A → B) atomic on the grounds that they cannot be decomposed as a proper union of two closed subsets. Expressing a given closed set as a union of atomic sets is often very useful in discovering structural information. Example 1.3 (See [2]) A(321, 2143) = A(321, 2143, 3142) ∪A(321, 2143, 2413) Given an arbitrary closed subset one might hope to find its properties by first expressing it as a union of atomic sets, and then discovering properties of the bijection π associated with each atomic subset. Many difficulties impede this approach. It may happen that a closed set cannot be expressed as a finite union of atomic subsets. Moreover an atomic closed set may have a defining bijection π whose domain and range have high ordinal type; in that case one might be hopeful that properties of these ordinals (in particular, limit points) might imply properties of X = Sub(π : A → B). Despite this hope it seems sensible to begin the systematic study of atomic sets by looking at the case where the ordinal type of both A and B is that of the natural numbers N. 2 Natural classes and sum-complete classes A natural class is a closed set of the form Sub(π : N → N). In other words, starting from a permutation π of the natural numbers, we form all the finite subsequences of π(1),π(2), and define a natural class as consisting of the permutations order isomorphic to these subsequences. From now on we shall use the notation Sub(π) (suppressing a notational reference to the domain and range of π) in the following circumstances 1. when π is an infinite permutation with N as its domain and range, 2. when π is a finite permutation (in which case the domain and range are {1, 2, ,n} where n is the length of π). Example 2.1 Let π be defined by: π =13265410987 Then Sub(π) is easily seen to be the set of all layered permutations as defined in [5]. the electronic journal of combinatorics 12 (2005), #R60 5 If α = a 1 a 2 ···a m and β = b 1 b 2 ··· are sequences (in particular, permutations) then their sum α ⊕ β is defined to be the permutation γδ where the segments γ and δ are rearrangements of 1, 2, ,m and m +1,m+2, respectively, and α ∼ = γ and β ∼ = δ. Notice that we do not require that β be a finite permutation. If a permutation can be expressed as α ⊕ β (with neither summand empty) we say that it is decomposable; otherwise it is said to be indecomposable. We also extend the sum notation to sets by defining, for any two sets of permutations X and Y , X ⊕ Y = {σ ⊕ τ | σ ∈ X, τ ∈ Y } AsetX of permutations is said to be sum-complete if for all α, β ∈ X,wehaveα⊕β ∈ X. Sum-completeness and decomposability are linked by the following result, proved in [3]. Lemma 2.2 Let X be a closed set with basis B. Then X is sum-complete if and only if B contains only indecomposable permutations. We shall see that natural classes and sum-complete closed sets are closely connected. The first hint of this connection is the following result which, in particular, shows that every sum-complete closed set is a natural class. Proposition 2.3 Let γ be any (finite) permutation and S any sum-complete closed set. Then Sub(γ) ⊕ S is a natural class. Proof: Let β 1 ,β 2 , be any listing of the permutations of S. Consider the sequence of permutations γ  γ ⊕ β 1  γ ⊕ β 1 ⊕ β 2  γ ⊕ β 1 ⊕ β 2 ⊕ β 3 ··· Since S is sum-complete all these permutations lie in Sub(γ) ⊕ S. On the other hand it is clear that every permutation of Sub(γ) ⊕ S is involved in some term of the sequence. Hence Sub(γ)⊕S satisfies condition 4 of Theorem 1.2, and hence is atomic. Furthermore, the proof of (4⇒1) in Theorem 1.2 tells us how to express Sub(γ) ⊕S in the form Sub(π : A → B). Following this recipe, it is easy to see that both A and B are (isomorphic to) N, and we have a natural class, as required. Notice that the proof of this result makes no assumption on the listing of the elements of S. That means that the infinite permutation π for which Sub(γ) ⊕ S = Sub(π)isvery far from being unique. In the remainder of the paper we shall be exploring a partial converse of Proposition 2.3. Our main theorem will show that every finitely based natural class X does have the form of the proposition unless π and X have a very particular form. the electronic journal of combinatorics 12 (2005), #R60 6 3 A characterisation of natural classes This section is devoted to the proof of the following theorem. Theorem 3.1 Let X be a finitely based natural class. Then either 1. X = Sub(γ) ⊕ S where γ is a finite permutation and S is a sum-complete closed class determined uniquely by X,or 2. X = Sub(π) where π is unique and ultimately periodic in the sense that there exist integers N and P>0 such that, for all n ≥ N, π(n + P )=π(n)+P . The proof of the theorem will show precisely how X determines S in the first alternative. It will also, in the case of the second alternative, prove that X is enumerated by a rational generating function. Before embarking on a series of lemmas that lead up to the proof of Theorem 3.1 we shall define some notation that will be in force for the rest of this section. We shall let X = Sub(π)whereπ is a permutation of N. The basis of X will be denoted by B and we let b denote the length of a longest permutation in B. The permutations of B have a decomposition into sum components; the set of final components in such decompositions will be denoted by C. We shall use the notation A(C) for the closed set of all permutations that avoid the permutations of C. This is a slight extension of the notation we defined in Section 1 because C might not be the basis of A(C)(C might contain some non-minimal elements outside A(C)). This causes no technical difficulties. Obviously, as every permutation that avoids the permutations of C also avoids the permutations of B,wehaveA(C) ⊆ X. By Lemma 2.2 A(C) is sum-complete; it is, as we shall see, the sum-complete class S occurring in the statement of Theorem 3.1. From time to time we shall illustrate our proof with diagrams that display permutations. These diagrams are plots in the (x, y) plane. A permutation p 1 ,p 2 , (which maps i to p i ) will be represented by a set of points whose coordinates are (i, p i ). As a first use of such diagrams we have Figure 1 which illustrates the sum operation and the two alternatives in Theorem 3.1. Lemma 3.2 There exists an integer k such that, for all d>k, Sub(π(d),π(d +1), )=A(C) Proof: For each γ ∈ C thereisabasiselementofX of the form β γ ⊕ γ.Everysuch β γ is a permutation of X and so we can choose a particular subsequence S(β γ )ofπ with S(β γ ) ∼ = β.Lett be the maximal value occurring in all such S(β γ )(asγ ranges over C) and let u be the right-most position of π where an element of some S(β γ ) occurs. the electronic journal of combinatorics 12 (2005), #R60 7 etc etc ad inf. Figure 1: The sum of 132 and 4231 is 132 7564, as plotted on the left. Every finitely based natural class is defined by a finite permutation summed with a sum-complete class (centre), or is eventually periodic (right). There exists an integer k>usuch that all terms π(k +1),π(k +2), exceed t.Note that the order type of N is used in establishing the existence of k. Among the terms π(k +1),π(k +2), there can be no subsequence order isomorphic to an element of C. This proves that Sub(π(d),π(d +1), ) ⊆A(C) for all d>k.ItalsoprovesthatA(C) is non-empty. Now let θ ∈A(C). Since the permutation 1 lies in A(C)andA(C) is sum-complete we have 1, 2, ,d− 1 ⊕ θ ∈A(C). Therefore π has a subsequence order isomorphic to this permutation and that implies that π(d),π(d +1), has a subsequence order isomorphic to θ which completes the proof. Corollary 3.3 Either X = Sub(γ) ⊕A(C) for some finite permutation γ,orπ has finitely many components and the last component (which is necessarily infinite) involves an element of C. Proof: Let π = π 1 ⊕ π 2 ⊕··· be the sum decomposition of π. Lemma 3.2 tells us, in particular, that there is a maximal position k where a subsequence order isomorphic to an element of C can begin. Suppose this position occurs in the sum component π r .Ifπ r is not the final component of π then we have Sub(π) = Sub(π 1 ⊕···⊕π r ) ⊕ Sub(π r+1 ⊕···). However γ = π 1 ⊕···⊕π r is finite and Sub(π r+1 ⊕···)=A(C) by the lemma. The first alternative of this corollary leads to the first alternative of Theorem 3.1 because of the following uniqueness result. Proposition 3.4 If X = Sub(γ 1 )⊕S 1 = Sub(γ 2 )⊕S 2 where γ 1 ,γ 2 are finite permutations and S 1 ,S 2 are sum-complete then S 1 = S 2 . the electronic journal of combinatorics 12 (2005), #R60 8 Proof: Let σ 1 ∈ S 1 . Then, as S 1 contains every permutation of the form ι m = 12 m, S 1 also contains ι t ⊕ σ 1 where t = |γ 2 |. But this permutation belongs to Sub(γ 2 ) ⊕ S 2 and so can be expressed as γ  ⊕ σ 2 where γ   γ 2 .Sinceι t ⊕ σ 1 = γ  ⊕ σ 2 and |γ  |≤|ι t | we have σ 1  σ 2 . Thisprovesthatσ 1 ∈ S 2 and therefore S 1 ⊆ S 2 .The result now follows by symmetry. In the remainder of the proof of Theorem 3.1 we shall assume that the second alternative of Corollary 3.3 holds and work towards proving the second alternative of the theorem. In particular, there exists a greatest position k in π where a subsequence isomorphic to a permutation in C can begin, and this position occurs in the final (infinite) sum component π z of π. Next we prepare the ground for two arguments that occur later in the proof and which depend upon the indecomposability of π z . Suppose that r is any position in π z . We define a pair of sequences U(r)=u 1 u 2 ··· and V (r)=v 1 v 2 ··· by the following rules: 1. v i is the position among the terms of π up to and including position u i−1 (when i =1takeu 0 = r) where the greatest element occurs: π(v i )=max{π(h) | h ≤ u i−1 }. 2. u i is the rightmost position in π where a term not exceeding π(v i ) occurs: u i =max{h | π(h) ≤ π(v i )}. Figure 2 depicts these points and the next lemma assures us that the figure accurately represents the relative positions of the marked points. Lemma 3.5 The relative positions and sizes of the terms π(u i ) and π(v j ) are described by the following inequalities: v 1 <v 2 <u 1 <v 3 <u 2 <v 4 <u 3 < ··· π(u 1 ) <π(v 1 ) <π(u 2 ) <π(v 2 ) <π(u 3 ) <π(v 3 ) < ··· Proof: (I) From the definition of v i we have v i ≤ u i−1 , and from the definition of u i we have and π(v i ) ≥ π(u i ). Note that we cannot have u i = u i−1 , because then every term of π to the left of this position would be less than or equal to π(v i ), and every term to the right would be greater than π(v i ), contradicting the assumption that π(v i ) belongs to the final component of π. Hence we have v i ≤ u i−1 <u i and π(v i ) >π(u i ). (II) By the definition of v i+1 ,wehavev i+1 ≤ u i and π(v i+1 ) ≥ π(v i ). We cannot have v i+1 <v i , because π(v i ) is the maximal value of π on the interval [1,u i−1 ]. Also, we cannot have v i+1 = v i , because that would imply u i+1 = u i , which is proved impossible as the electronic journal of combinatorics 12 (2005), #R60 9 π(v 1 ) π(r) π(v 2 ) π(u 1 ) π(v 3 ) π(u 2 ) π(v 4 ) π(u 3 ) etc Figure 2: The terms of π as mapped out by π(u i )andπ(v i ). All terms lie in the shaded boxes. in (I). Finally, we cannot have v i+1 = u i because π(u i ) <π(v i ) by (I). We conclude that v i <v i+1 <u i and π(v i ) <π(v i+1 ). (III) As in (I), we have u i+1 >u i and π(u i+1 ) <π(v i+1 ). Moreover, u i+1 >u i immediately implies that π(u i+1 ) >π(v i ). (IV) As in (II), we have v i+2 <u i+1 and π(v i+2 ) >π(v i+1 ). Moreover, v i+2 >u i for otherwisewewouldhaveπ(v i+2 ) ≤ π(v i+1 ). Summarising (I)–(IV), we have v i <v i+1 <u i <v i+2 <u i+1 and π(u i ) <π(v i ) < π(u i+1 ) <π(v i+1 ) <π(v i+2 ) for every i =1, 2, , which is enough to prove the lemma. Our first use of the sequences U(r)andV (r) and the above lemma occurs immediately. We have seen (Lemma 3.2) that there is a rightmost position in π where subsequences order isomorphic to permutations in C can begin. Now we prove that there is a rightmost position by which they have all ended. Lemma 3.6 There exists a position  of π such that no subsequence of π that is order isomorphic to an element of C terminates after position . Proof: Consider the sequences U(k),V(k) and refer to Figure 2 with r = k, in partic- ular to the edge-connected strip of boxes that begins with the box B 1 bounded by π(v 1 ) and π(k). Let S be a subsequence of π isomorphic to a permutation γ ∈ C. By definition of k, S cannot start to the right of π(k). In fact, since γ is indecomposable, S must start in B 1 ,andthetermsofS must lie in a contiguous segment of boxes. Therefore, as |S|≤b, S cannot extend beyond position u b/2 . In view of this lemma we may define  as the last position of π that is part of a subsequence isomorphic to an element of C. Now we define the sequences U(),V() (and, re-using notation, call them u 1 ,u 2 , and v 1 ,v 2 , ). The defining property of  implies that π(1), ,π() is the only subsequence of π with this order isomorphism type. For any subsequence of π order isomorphic to π(1), ,π() the electronic journal of combinatorics 12 (2005), #R60 10 [...]... π(ui + 1) · · · π(ui+1 ) We divide these terms into two sets L = {j | ui < j ≤ ui+1 and π(j) < π(vi+1 )} and U = {j | ui < j ≤ ui+1 and π(j) > π(vi+1 )} and we shall show that both |L| and |U| are at most (b − 1)2 Each bound is proved in the same way and we give the details for |L| only Figure 3 depicts the locations of L and U within π Consider a maximal increasing subsequence π(j1 )π(j2 ) · · · π(jm... Conjecture of Wilf and Stanley for all layered patterns, o Journal of Combinatorial Theory, Series A 85 (1999), 96–104 [6] P Cameron: “Combinatorics”, Cambridge University Press, First Edition (1994) [7] M M Murphy: “Restricted Permutations, Antichains, Atomic Classes and Stack Sorting”, Ph.D Thesis, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Scotland, UK (2002) [8] N Ray, J West: Posets of matrices and permutations... two conditions But now note that the three conditions depend only on the ti and the automaton M and not on E(σ(i)) Therefore the sequence t1 , t2 , is ultimately periodic So, for some P > 0 and N we have tj = tj+P for all j ≥ N Let α = E(σ(N)) and let β be the unique word such that E(σ(N + P )) = αβ Then E(σ(N +hP )) = αβ h and τ (s0 , αβ h ) = tN for all h ≥ 0 This proves that αβ ∗ ⊆ {E(σ(i)) | i... subsequence of length more than b − 1 and, by the well known result of Erd˝s and Szekeres (see [6]), we conclude that o |L| ≤ (b − 1)2 The proof that |U| ≤ (b − 1)2 is similar but it uses π(ui+1 ) and σ(i) instead of π(vi+1 ) and σ (i) We now define an encoding of permutations of X If ξ = x1 x2 · · · xn ∈ X then we encode it as E(ξ) = e1 e2 · · · en where ek = |{i | 1 ≤ i ≤ k and xi ≥ xk }| If a term of π... sequence of states ti = τ (s0 , E(σ(i))), i = 1, 2, and aim to show that it is periodic By definition and by Lemma 3.7 σ(i + 1) = θφ where (a) θ is a sequence order isomorphic to σ(i) (b) φ = a1 a2 · · · an satisfies an < max(θ) and θφ ∈ X (c) φ is maximal with these properties We shall express these conditions in terms of the automaton M From (a), (b) and the definition of E we have E(σ(i + 1)) = E(σ(i))b1... = m and |β| = n Consider the encoding of π itself: E(π) = e1 e2 · · · This is just the limit of its prefixes E(σ(1)), E(σ(2)), It is also the limit of E(σ(N)), E(σ(N + P )), E(σ(N +2P )), Hence, by Lemma 3.11, E(π) is ultimately periodic with ej+n = ej for all j ≥ m Consider an arbitrary π(j) with j ≥ m We have π(j) = lj + rj + 1 where lj = |{i | i ≤ j and π(i) < π(j)}| and rj = |{i | i > j and. .. π(i) < π(j)}| Obviously, lj = j − ej The number rj can be obtained from E(π) as follows Define two sequences ν (j) = (n0 , n1 , ) and θ(j) = (h0 , h1 , ) by n0 = 0 and h0 = ej and ni+1 = ni + 1 if ej+i+1 > hi ni otherwise hi+1 = hi if ej+i+1 > hi hi + 1 otherwise and the electronic journal of combinatorics 12 (2005), #R60 15 An easy inductive argument shows that ni is equal to the number of terms... replacing the first and last of these terms by increasing pairs (see Figure 4) To show that βn ∈ X we can argue as follows Write π as π = U0 U1 l1 U2 l2 U3 l3 , where U0 , U2 , U4 , are the twins, U1 , U3 , U5 , are the remaining (unexpanded) left maxima, and l1 , l2 , l3 , are the remaining terms Suppose βn embeds into π The two twins of βn must correspond to two twins, say U2p and U2q , of π... decomposable, and can be embedded into π by embedding each of its components and keeping them sufficiently apart If j is one of 1, 2, 4n − 1 or 4n then one of the twins of βn becomes a singleton Suppose, for the sake of argument, that j = 4n (the other cases are treated analogously) Then we can embed βn \ {βn (4n)} by mapping 2 and 3 onto U0 , all the other left maxima of βn into U1 , U2 , respectively, and. .. E(σ(i))b1 b2 · · · bn where w = b1 b2 · · · bn is a word in the alphabet A and τ (ti , w) = ti+1 By definition, bj is the number of terms of θφ up to and including aj that exceed or equal aj To capture the condition an < max(θ) we need to define another sequence c0 c1 c2 · · · cn where c0 = 0 and cj is the number of terms up to and including aj that exceed max(θ); of course, all such terms are among . Pattern avoidance classes and subpermutations M. D. Atkinson Department of Computer Science University of Otago, New Zealand mike@cs.otago.ac.nz M. M. Murphy and N. Ruˇskuc School of Mathematics and. u i+1 and π(j) <π(v i+1 )} and U = {j | u i <j≤ u i+1 and π(j) >π(v i+1 )} and we shall show that both |L| and |U| are at most (b − 1) 2 . Each bound is proved in the same way and we. Permutations, Antichains, Atomic Classes and Stack Sorting”, Ph.D. Thesis, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Scotland, UK (2002). [8] N. Ray, J. West: Posets of matrices and permutations with forbidden