Likewise, be sure to avoid double negatives.When a negative word such as no or not is added to a statement that is already negative, a double negative—and poten- tial confusion—results. Hardly and barely are also nega- tive words. Remember, one negative is all you need. I nco rrect: He doesn’t have no idea what she’s talking about. C or rect: He doesn’t have any idea what she’s talking about. He has no idea what she’s talking about. I ncorrect: I can’t hardly wait to see you. C orrect: I can hardly wait to see you. I can ’t wait to see you. Prepositional Idioms Another aspect of usage that may be covered on the GED is prepositional idioms: the specific word/preposition combinations that we use in the English language, such as take care o f and according t o . The following is a list of some of the most common prepositional idioms. Review the list carefully to be sure you are using prepositional idioms correctly. – USAGE– 60 according to afraid of anxious about apologize to (someone) apologize for (something) approve of ashamed of aware of blame (someone) for (something) bored with capable of compete with complain about composed of concentrate on concerned with congratulate on conscious of consist of depend on/upon equal to except for fond of from now on from time to time frown on/upon full of glance at (something)/ glance through (some- thing, e.g., a book) grateful to (someone) grateful for (something) in accordance with incapable of in conflict inferior to insist on/upon in the habit of in the near future interested in knowledge of next to of the opinion on top of opposite of prior to proud of regard to related to rely on/upon respect for responsible for satisfied with similar to sorry for suspicious of take care of thank (someone) for (something) tired of with regard to M ECHANICS refers to the rules that govern punctuation marks, capitalization, and spelling. Like the rules that govern usage, the rules that govern sentence mechanics help us keep our sentences and their meanings clear. Since the GED Writing Test was revised in 2002, the only spelling that is tested is homonyms, possessives, and con- tractions. Correct use of punctuation will be tested, but comma questions will generally be limited to instances where a comma is necessary to eliminate or prevent confusion. Punctuation Punctuation marks are the symbols used to separate sentences, express emotions, and show relationships between objects and ideas. Correct punctuation makes your meaning clear and adds drama and style to your sentences. Poor punctuation, on the other hand, can lead to a great deal of confusion for your readers and can send a message other than the one you intended. For example, take a look at the following two versions of the same sentence: Don’t bother Xavier. Don’t bother, Xavier. 61 CHAPTER 8 Mechanics WHEN DO you need a comma? When should you use a dash or semicolon? How do you know when something should be capitalized? These questions and more will be answered in this chapter. You will review the basic rules of mechanics so that you can answer GED questions about spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. These sentences use the same words, but have two very different meanings because of punctuation. In the first sentence, the comma indicates the speaker is telling the reader not to bother Xavier. In the second sentence, the speaker is telling Xavier not to bother. Here’s another example of how punctuation can drastically affect meaning: You should eat Zak so you can think clearly dur- ing your interview. Because this sentence is missing some essential punc- tuation, the sentence says something very different from what the author intended. The speaker isn’t telling the reader to eat Zak; rather, she’s telling Zak to eat. The sen- tence should be revised as follows: You should eat, Zak, so you can think clearly dur- ing your interview. Punctuation helps create meaning, and it also has another important function: It enables writers to express a variety of tones and emotions. For example, take a look at these two versions of the same sentence: Wait—I’m coming with you! Wait, I’m coming with you. The first sentence clearly expresses more urgency and excitement, thanks to the dash and exclamation point. The second sentence, with its comma and period, does not express emotion; the sentence is neutral. Punctuation Guidelines There are many rules for punctuation, and the better you know them, the more correctly and effectively you can punctuate your sentences. The following table lists the main punctuation marks and guidelines for when to use them. – MECHANICS– 62 YOUR PURPOSE: USE THIS PUNCTUATION: EXAMPLE: End a sentence period [.] Most sentences end in a period. Connect complete sentences semicolon [;] A semicolon can connect two (two independent clauses) sentences; it is an excellent way to show that two ideas are related. comma [,] and a conjunction Leslie is coming, but Huang is staying [and, or, nor, for, so, but, yet] home. dash [—] (less common, but Hurry up—we’re late! more dramatic) Connect items in a list comma [,] but if one or more His odd shopping list included items in that list already have a batteries, a box of envelopes, and a comma, use a semicolon [;] can of spam. The castaways included a professor, who was the group’s leader; an actress; and a millionaire and his wife. Introduce a list of three or colon [:] There are three things I want to do more items before I die: go on a cruise, go sky- diving, and surf. Colons have three functions: intro- ducing long lists, introducing quota- tions, and introducing explanations. Introduce an explanation colon [:] You know what they say about real (what follows “explains” or estate: Location is everything. “answers” what precedes) Introduce a quotation colon [:] or comma [,] She yelled, “Let’s get out of here!” (words directly spoken) He said only one word: “Shame.” Indicate a quotation quotation marks [“ ”] “To be or not to be?” is one of the most famous lines from Hamlet. Indicate a question question mark [?] What time is it? “How much longer?” he asked. Connect two words that work hyphen [-] mother-in-law, turn-of-the-century together as one object or modifier poet, French-fried potatoes Separate a word or phrase dash [—] I never lie—never. for emphasis We’re late—very late! Separate a word or phrase that commas [,] Elaine, my roommate, is from is relevant but not essential Chicago. information Her nickname as a child, her mother told me, was “Boo-boo.” Separate a word or phrase that parentheses [( )] There is an exception to every rule is relevant but secondary (including this one). information Show possession or contraction apostrophe [’] Why is Lisa’s wallet in Ben’s backpack? – MECHANICS– 63 Comma Rules Many mechanics questions will deal with commas, the most common punctuation mark within sentences. The presence and placement of commas can dramatically affect meaning and can make the difference between clarity and confusion. The previous chart lists four comma uses, but there are several others. The following is a complete list of comma rules. If you know them, then you can be sure your sentences are clear. You will also be able to tell whether a comma is needed to correct a sentence. Use a comma: 1. with a coordinating conjunction to separate two complete sentences. Note that a comma is not required if both parts of the sentence are 4 words or less. Let’s eat first, and then we will go to a movie. I’m definitely older, but I don’t think I’m much wiser. I love him and he loves me. 2. to set off introductory words, phrases, or clauses. Next year, I will stick to my New Year’s resolutions. Wow, that sure looks good! Because the game was cancelled, Jane took the kids bowling. 3. to set off a direct address, interjection, or transi- tional phrase. Well, Jeb, it looks like we will be stuck here for a while. His hair color is a little, um, unusual. My heavens, this is spicy chili! Sea horses, for example, are unusual in that the males carry the embryos. 4. between two modifiers that and could replace. He is a mean, contemptible person. (Both mean and contemptible modify person.) I ncorrect: Denny’s old, stamp collection is priceless. C orrect: Denny’s old stamp collection is priceless. (You cannot put “and” between old and stamp; old describes stamp and stamp modi- fies collection. They do not modify the same noun.) 5. to set off information that is relevant but not essential (nonrestrictive). Essential, not set off: The woman w ho wrote Happy Moon is com- ing to our local bookstore. (We need this information to know which woman we’re talking about.) Nonessential, set off by commas: The dog, lost and confused, wandered into the street. (The fact that the dog was lost and confused is not essential to the sentence.) Essential, not set off: Witnesses w ho lie under oath will be prosecuted. Nonessential, set off by commas: Leeland, who at first refused to testify, later admitted to lying under oath. 6. to separate items in a series. The price for the cruise includes breakfast, lunch, dinner, and entertainment. The recipe calls for fresh cilantro, chopped onions, diced tomatoes, and lemon juice. 7. to set off most quotations. As a general rule, short quotations are introduced by commas while long quotations (several sentences or more) are introduced by colons. All speech in dialogue should be set off by commas. “Let’s get going,” he said impatiently. Rene Descartes is famous for the words, “I think, therefore I am.” Joseph said, “Please forgive me for jumping to conclusions.” 8. to set off parts of dates, numbers, titles, and addresses. She was born on April 30, 2002. Please print 3,000 copies. Tiberio Mendola, MD, is my new doctor. Please deliver the package to me at 30 Willow Road, Trenton, NJ. 9. to prevent confusion, as in cases when a word is repeated. What it is, is a big mistake. After I, comes J. – MECHANICS– 64 Capitalization Capitalization is an important tool to help us identify (1) the beginning of a new sentence and (2) proper nouns and adjectives. Here are six rules for correct capitalization: 1. Capitalize the first word of a sentence. Please close the door. What are you trying to say? If you are quoting a full sentence within your own sentence, use a capital letter, unless you introduce the quote with that. The author notes, “A shocking three out of four students admitted to cheating.” The author notes that “a shocking three out of four students admitted to cheating.” If you have a full sentence within parentheses, that sentence should be capitalized as well (and the end punctuation mark should be within the parentheses). He was expelled for repeatedly violating the school’s code of conduct. (He was caught stealing and cheating several times.) 2. Capitalize proper nouns. A proper noun is the name of a specific person, place, or thing (as opposed to a general person, place, or thing). See the table at the bottom of this page. 3. Capitalize the days of the weeks and months of the year, but not the seasons. It was a warm spring day in May. Wednesday is the first official day of autumn. 4. Capitalize the names of countries, nationalities, geographical regions, languages, and religions. He has traveled to Brazil and Tunisia. She is half Chinese, half French. She is from the South. (But, Drive south for five miles.) We speak Spanish at home. He is a devout Catholic. – MECHANICS– 65 CAPITALIZE (SPECIFIC) DON’T CAPITALIZE (GENERAL) Jennifer Johnson (specific person) the lady Algebra 101 (specific class) my math class Main Street (specific street) on the street Frosted Flakes (specific brand) good cereal Caspian Sea (specific sea) deep sea/ocean Lincoln Memorial (specific monument) impressive memorial/monument S.S. Cole (specific ship) naval carrier Dade High School (specific school) our high school Precambrian Age (specific time period) long ago Microsoft Corporation (specific company) that company . punctuation. In the first sentence, the comma indicates the speaker is telling the reader not to bother Xavier. In the second sentence, the speaker is telling Xavier not to bother. Here’s another example. on the other hand, can lead to a great deal of confusion for your readers and can send a message other than the one you intended. For example, take a look at the following two versions of the. essential punc- tuation, the sentence says something very different from what the author intended. The speaker isn’t telling the reader to eat Zak; rather, she’s telling Zak to eat. The sen- tence should