GIS Methodologies for Developing Conservation Strategies Part 9 pps

F IG. 15.7 Multiple species gap analysis: summary of Protected area data gap category (w- hם pם) for all twenty-one species F IG. 15.8 Multiple species gap analysis: summary of Unprotected area data gap cate- gory (wמ hם pמ) for all twenty-one species A GIS Method for Conservation Decision Making 195 F IG. 15.9 Multiple species gap analysis: summary of Negotiation area category (wמ hמ pם) for all twenty-one species twenty-one of the hundreds of vertebrate species in Costa Rica. Likewise, these areas may be negotiable for wildlife conservation, but possibly not negotiable for other reasons for which parks are created. Developed areas are indicated in figure 15.10. Note the extent to which the Developed areas and the park system border each other. This level of information is useful in identifying priorities for buffers to protect existing parks from the encroachment of human activity and in selecting additional park lands less likely to suffer from development pressures. An additional multiple species gap analysis was performed for five of the twenty-one species. This process was performed to compare gap analysis results obtained from the examination of twenty-one species to a multiple species gap analysis using a smaller set of potential indicator species. The species that were selected were determined by patterns of habitat utilization, geographic distribu- tion throughout the country, and frequency of observations (compared to species utilizing similar habitat). The collared peccary was selected as one of the five species in order to represent those species that utilize undisturbed forest habitat as well as habitat in the more fragmented landscape. The white-faced capuchin was selected as the species to represent the four primate species that utilize undisturbed forest. The crocodile was selected to represent those species associ- ated with rivers, forested lowlands, and wetlands. The jaguar was selected to represent the species that utilize extensive interior forests. The quetzal was selected to represent the species found in montane forests. The five-species gap analysis was performed by combining all polygons that had the collared peccary, white-faced capuchin, crocodile, jaguar, or quetzal present, either alone or in combination. This set of polygons was intersected with the habitat and protected area map layers to identify Conservation gaps. The results of the five-species gap analysis were compared visually and numerically to the multiple species gap analysis that utilized all twenty-one species. The visual comparison is presented in figure 15.11. The gray polygons indicate Con- servation gaps identified by both of the multiple species gap analyses. The black polygons indicate Conservation gaps that were identified by the twenty-one spe- cies gap analysis, but were missed by the five-species analysis. Three of the five largest Conservation gaps were successfully identified by using only five species, but two of the largest Conservation gaps were missed. Of the two that were missed, one was used only by scarlet macaws and the other was used by margays, green macaws, great curassows, and giant anteaters. In general, the five-species gap analysis identified some, but not all, of the Conservation gap pattern in the landscape. The numerical analysis measured the number of Conservation gap polygons that were identified by both multiple species gap analyses. The five-species gap F IG. 15.10 Multiple species gap analysis: summary of Developed area category (wמ hמ pמ) for all twenty-one species F IG. 15.11 Conservation gap (wם hם pמ) results from gap analysis performed for five species compared to gap analysis performed for twenty-one species. Areas indi- cated in gray were identified by both analyses, and areas indicated in black were missed in the five-species analysis. analysis was successful in identifying 57 percent of the Conservation gaps identi- fied in the twenty-one species gap analysis. The ability to use the five species to identify the Conservation gaps associated only with the other sixteen species was lower, with 39 percent of those Conservation gap polygons identified. If this set of indicator species were to be used instead of the larger set of wildlife data, the benefits in reduced data collection would need to be offset by the cost of reduced information content ranging from 40 to 50 percent. In some countries or regions, such a level of reduced information content may be acceptable. This would particulary be the case in countries where there are few protected areas and where information to develop conservation strategies is needed rapidly. References Carr, M. H., J. D. Lambert, and P. D. Zwick. 1994. Mapping of biological corridor potential in Central America. In A. Vega, ed., Conservation corridors in the Central American region, 383–93. Gainesville, Fla.: Tropical Research and Development. Harris, L. D. and K. Atkins. 1991. Faunal movement corridors in Florida. In W. E. Hudson, ed., Landscape linkages and biodiversity, 117–38. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. Jackson, L. L. 1992. The role of ecological restoration in conservation biology. In P. L. Fiedler and S. K. Jain, eds., Conservation biology, 433–51. New York: Chapman and Hall. Janzen, D. F. H. 1988. Tropical ecological and biocultural restoration. Science 239: 243–44. Jones, J. R. 1992. Environmental issues and policies in Costa Rica: Control of deforestation. Policy Studies Journal 20: 679–94. Leonard, H. J. 1987. Natural resources and economic development in Central America: A regional environmental profile. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books. Parker, W. 1990. A proposal to reintroduce the red wolf to the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. In Proceedings, First Annual Southern Appalachian Man and the Biosphere Conference, 53. Norris, Tenn.: Tennessee Valley Authority. Scott, J. M., F. Davis, B. Csuti, B. Butterfield, R. Noss, S. Caicco, H. Anderson, J. Ulliman, F. D’Erchia, and C. Groves. 1990. Gap analysis: Protecting biodiversity using geographic information systems. A handbook prepared for a workshop held at the University of Idaho, Moscow. 198 Savitsky and Lacher 16 Using the Gap Analysis Model for Sustainable Development and Natural Resources Management in Developing Countries Thomas E. Lacher Jr. The USAID-sponsored case study on gap analysis presented in this volume was conceived as a model for application toward conservation and development issues in other countries and regions. The likelihood that any collaborative, multidisciplinary, GIS-based research is conducted in a developing tropical coun- try is contingent on many practical, logistical, intellectual, and philosophical factors. For each case, these factors need to de defined, understood, and resolved to the satisfaction of the collaborators. There will always be issues idiosyncratic to a special situation, but there are some common factors that can be presented and discussed. Tools for the Effective Implementation of International Conservation Efforts Conducting research requires access to the necessary tools. For application of GIS to international conservation efforts, these tools are hardware, software, data, and technicians (see figure 3.1). At present, costs are low enough for hardware purchases that most developing countries can maintain PC-based systems for running GIS software. For some less developed countries, costs for many soft- ware packages still remain high, but many corporations provide low-cost or free 200 Thomas E. Lacher Jr. software to LDCs. The IDRISI software was created as part of a nonprofit research project at Clark University as a low-cost solution for the international implemen- tation of GIS and image analysis research and project management. The Environ- mental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (ESRI), makers of ARC/INFO and Arc- View, also has a program for software distribution to government agencies and nongovernmental organizations in developing countries. Conservation Interna- tional has developed a low-cost GIS package called CI-SIG that is available in Spanish and Portuguese. Hardware and software costs, once prohibitive, are now rarely an obstacle in most developing countries for conducting sophisticated GIS- based research. Data costs were high in the past primarily because they were controlled by the governments and corporations of developed countries; therefore, few developing countries could gain access to the information even when the soft- ware and hardware were available. But these costs also have decreased (although the cost frequently depends on the type of sensor and the age of the data). Governments also often place restrictions on who can purchase the data at low cost. Currently, U.S. Government and Affiliate Users (USGAU) is the purchasing group with unrestricted rights to reproduce and distribute, within the USGAU, all unenhanced TM data purchased by USGAU for noncommercial uses, either from the National Satellite Land Remote Sensing Data Archive (NSLRSDA) or the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT). USGAU is broadly defined to include U.S. government agencies, U.S. government contractors, researchers involved with the U.S. Global Change Research Program or one of its interna- tional counterparts, and any other entities signing a cooperative agreement for the use of Landsat data for noncommercial purposes with the United States government. Effective in April 1994, NSLRSDA adopted a new distribution policy for Landsat data and now distributes all Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS) data to all customers with no restrictions. EOSAT, the previous vendor for MSS, relinquished all rights to these data as of February 1993. The distribution policy effective October 1, 1995 (table 16.1) was slightly modified in October 1996, giving USGAU access to all unenhanced TM data purchased by USGAU. In addition, all TM data in the National Satellite Land Remote Sensing Data Archive are now available to USGAU at the cost of $425 per scene with an additional cost per scene ranging from $70 to $1,800 for the more recent data. An institution in a developing country can presently acquire hardware, soft- ware, and data for even large-scale projects with a relatively small amount of money, if the appropriate cooperative agreements are in place. The highest costs remain those of personnel. The effective management of a GIS requires a highly trained and dedicated technician. Many developing countries have only a hand- ful of trained technicians, and these are frequently severely overworked. The lack of sufficiently trained people is still the biggest problem in developing countries. Cooperative programs in education and training should provide the mechanism Using the Gap Analysis Model 201 for addressing this need, although institutional support for salaries for full- time technicians, once trained, is critical. Finding—and keeping—competent staff requires a long-term commitment and is necessary if an agency or organization wishes to pursue GIS-based research and resource management. Providing a decent salary is not the only obligation an organization must meet in order to conduct GIS research. The “brain drain” continues to be a problem in many developing countries. The quality of the work environment is frequently a more important reason than salary for emigration of professionals to developed countries. When an organization invests in training and hiring a GIS technician, it must also provide an unhurried and relaxed work environment that includes the freedom to pursue interests in research and publication. The lack of opportunities for professional development and the assignment of an excessive number of tasks will lead to dissatisfaction and, in many cases, burnout or loss of the technician. Therefore the total investment package must include training, salary, professional development, and a superior and competitive work environ- ment. Once the hardware, software, data, and staff are in place, project planning and implementation begins. Local, National, Regional, and Global Efforts The feasibility of carrying out a project is strongly linked to the technical com- plexity inherent in the study. The technical complexity of conservation and development activities frequently is contingent upon scale. Larger-scale projects are also more logistically complex because they require more cooperation among agencies and organizations within a country, and eventually between or among countries. We define the scale of conservation and development projects as being either local, national, regional, or global. T ABLE 16.1 Landsat MSS and TM Distribution Responsibilities, Effective October 1, 1995 (available TM data are unenhanced) TM July 16, 1982 Sept. 27, 1985 1 Year from Present MSS to to to Customer All data 10 Years from Present 1 Year from Present Present Public NSLRSDA NSLRSDA EOSAT EOSAT USGAU NSLRSDA NSLRSDA NSLRSDA EOSAT note: Dates are on a sliding scale from Present. July 16, 1982, was the launch date of Landsat 4; September 27, 1985, was the signing date of the NOAA / EOSAT contract. (EOSATסthe Earth Observation Satellite Company; NSLRSDAסthe National Satellite Land Remote Sensing Data Archive; and USGAUסthe U.S. Government and Affiliated Users). 202 Thomas E. Lacher Jr. Loc al Efforts These are small-scale projects often focused on a specific practical issue such as management of a watershed or planning of a development activity. Conservation activities related to the protection of small fragments of rare habitat or remnant populations of a rare or endangered species also are local in scale. These activities are frequently based in specific government agencies or are subcontracted to universities or consulting firms. The projects presented in chapters 7 to 10 are examples of local efforts. The hardware and technical requirements are such that many developing tropical countries are capable of doing high-quality GIS work at the local level. National Efforts These are efforts that focus on some management or policy issue of national importance, such as the development of a national conservation plan, the man- agement of threatened or endangered species, or the planning of demographic shifts or development activities at the national scale. National efforts are not necessarily border-to-border projects; in larger nations they more frequently cover large geographical areas such as the eastern seaboard of the United States or the Amazon Basin of Brazil. These projects usually are based in government agencies and frequently involve some level of international collaboration. Inter- national collaboration is frequently tied to the financing of these projects by an international aid agency. More affluent developing nations frequently have the capability to do independent work at this level. Among the major obstacles to conducting national efforts are data costs, storage capacity of the hardware, processing power, competent staff, and data collection. As hardware and data costs decline, developing countries are increasingly more able to conduct coun- try-level studies. The gap analysis research presented in this book is an example of a national effort with international technical collaboration and the funding of a foreign aid agency (USAID). Another example of a national effort is the series of projects on priority areas for conservation carried out by Conservation Interna- tional in collaboration with a variety of nongovernmental organizations (Tangley 1992). There have been two other national-level priority areas projects to date— Papua New Guinea and the northeastern Atlantic Forest of Brazil. Reg ional Eff orts Large management and conservation projects can span several countries in a relatively homogeneous region. The Paseo Pantera project in Central America is one example (Carr, Lambert, and Zwick 1994; also, see chapter 11 of the present volume). The project coordinated by Conservation International on conservation priorities for the Amazon Basin is another (Tangley 1992). These projects are international in scope, though frequently the cultures and/or languages are similar or shared. Often one nation tends to dominate because of superior tech- Using the Gap Analysis Model 203 nology and better access to funding, and collaboration is often strained because of this. International aid agencies will rarely disburse funds equally among all participating nations. The logistics of carrying out regional projects are compli- cated, and these efforts occasionally fail, often because of the participation of one key country is lacking. Regional efforts will likely prove to be the most important in the future, as the emphasis of conservation activities shifts from the management of single species to the integrated management of landscapes (Lacher et al. 1995; Lacher and Calvo-Alvarado 1995; Noss and Cooperrider 1994). Few countries contain an entire ecosystem, and transboundary or multinational collaborations will become increasingly common. As difficult as regional efforts are, conservationists must begin to develop the infrastructure for these studies. Glo bal Efforts Global projects address worldwide concerns such as modeling future climate in response to global warming or modeling the circulation of the world’s oceans (Committee on Environment and Natural Resources Research of the National Science and Technology Council 1995; Sanderson 1994). The primary difficulty in these projects is handling and manipulating large and complex data sets rather than the collaboration of countries. For example, difficulty is encountered in reconciling disparate classification schemes or translating data acoss various spatial scales of measurement. Indeed, these analyses are so complex that the research effort is often dominated by one wealthy country. Global efforts often involve less international collaboration than much smaller-scale efforts, espe- cially when the data are collected by remote sensors, as with much global change research. Conservation and Development in the Tropics and the Role of International Cooperation Most large-scale development activities in the tropics are driven either by devel- oped countries, multilateral lending agencies, or multinational corporations. An example is the Tropical Forestry Action Plan (WRI 1985). Funding for the original plan was provided by the developed world and therefore the countries affected did not control the funds; the research priorities were criticized by some as reflecting a developed world bias (WRI 1990). Most world leaders agree that future development should be sustainable and that conservation of the world’s biodiversity is a priority (New Partners Working Group 1994), but few clear mechanisms have been established for the transfer of technology to guarantee inclusion of informed scientific decisions in the political process. 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Fonseca, G A B da 198 5 The vanishing Brazilian Atlantic forest Biological Conservation 34: 17–34 Francis, D R 199 4 IMF and World Bank 50th birthday bash: Critics crash party Christian Science Monitor, October 3, 199 4, 4 Franklin, J F 199 3 Preserving biodiversity: Species, ecosystems, or landscapes? Ecological Applications 3: 202–205 ´ Gamez, R 199 4 Wild biodiversity as a resource for intellectual and... (12) $9, 900 (12) $4 ,97 0 (12) $6, 490 (12 $1, 395 (12) inquire (12) inquire (12) inquire (12) $5 ,99 5– $9, 995 with options inquire (12) $2, 895 (12) $4, 495 (12) quantity pricing (12) quantity pricing (12) quantity pricing (12) Kernel 12 Kernel 6 XR5.M (12) XR5.M (6) 12 8 12 8 $2, 795 (12) $99 5 (12) $5, 095 (12) $2, 595 (12) Geotronics AB Leica AG Leica Navigation and Positioning Division Magellan Systems Motorola... (Scott et al 199 3; Mann 199 5) or country (Powell et al 199 5; USAID case study in this book) They therefore focus on fragments of many ecosystems rather than on a complete analysis of one ecosystem If ecosystem management for more effective conservation is a goal of gap analysis, then future efforts should focus on the regional study of a focal ecosystem We propose an eight-step protocol for this process... International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), UNEP, and WWF World Conservation Union (IUCN), United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), World Wildlife Fund 199 1 Caring for the earth: A strategy for sustainable living Gland, Switzerland: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), UNEP, and WWF Lacher, T E Jr and J Calvo-Alvarado 199 5 The AMISCONDE... Analysis Model 2 09 Schwartzman, S 198 6 Bankrolling disasters Washington, D.C.: Sierra Club Tangley, L 199 2 Computers and conservation priorities: Mapping biodiversity Washington, D.C.: Conservation International Vega, A., ed 199 4 Conservation corridors in the Central American region Gainesville, Fla: Tropical Research and Development Walsh, J 198 6 World Bank pressed on environmental reforms Science 234:... Development 198 7 Our common future Oxford: Oxford University Press World Resources Institute (WRI) 198 5 Tropical forests: A call to action Vols 1–3 Washington, D.C.: WRI ——— 199 0 Taking stock: The Tropical Forestry Action Plan after five years Washington, D.C.: WRI World Resources Institute (WRI), the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) 199 2 Global biodiversity... S., T E Lacher Jr., M P Zamore, T D Potts, and G W Burnett 199 6 Parrot (Psittacidae) conservation in the Lesser Antilles with some comparisons to the Puerto Rican efforts Biological Conservation 77: 1 59 67 Committee on Environment and Natural Resources Research of the National Science and Technology Council 199 5 Our changing planet: The FY 199 5 U.S Global Change Research Program Washington, D.C.: National... unplanned, uncoordinated development (Francis 199 4) The World Bank recently instituted a number of environmental reforms in response to public pressure (Walsh 198 6; Holden 198 7) Informed, strategic planning is a powerful tool when done correctly Developing and developed nations together share responsibility for incorporating environmental issues, and in particular conservation planning, into local, regional, . Atlantic forest. Biological Conservation 34: 17–34. Francis, D. R. 199 4. IMF and World Bank 50th birthday bash: Critics crash party. Christian Science Monitor, October 3, 199 4, 4. Franklin, J. F. 199 3 discussed. Tools for the Effective Implementation of International Conservation Efforts Conducting research requires access to the necessary tools. For application of GIS to international conservation efforts,. and Zwick 199 4; also, see chapter 11 of the present volume). The project coordinated by Conservation International on conservation priorities for the Amazon Basin is another (Tangley 199 2). These