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344 DICTION I Usage: The verbs wake, waken, awake, and awaken are alike in meaning but differentiated in usage. Each has transitive and intransitive senses, but awake is used large- ly intransitively and waken transitively. In the passive voice, awaken and waken are the more frequent: / was awakened (or wakened) by his call. In figurative usage, awake and awaken are the more prevalent: He awoke to the danger; his suspicions were awakened. Wake is fre- quently used with up; the others do not take a preposi- tion. The preferred past participle of wake is waked, not woke or woken: When I had waked him, I discovered that the danger was past. The preferred past participle of awake is awaked, not awoke: He had awaked several times earlier in the night. wake 2 (wak) n. 1. The visible track of turbulence left by something moving through the water: the wake of a ship. 2. The track or course left behind anything that has passed: "Every revolutionary law has naturally left in its wake defection, resentment, and counterrevolutionary sentiment." (C. Wright Mills). —in the wake of. 1. Following directly upon. 2. In the aftermath of; as a con- sequence of. [Probably Middle Low German wake, from Old Norse vok, a hole or crack in ice. See wegw- in Appendix.*] Informative introductions to special dictionaries and refer- ence works in general can be found in The Basic Guide to Research Sources, edited by Robert O'Brien and Joanne Sod- erman (New American Library, 1975), Reference Readiness: A Manual for Librarians and Students, second edition (Linnet Books, 1977), or A Guide to Library Research Methods, by Thomas Mann (Oxford University Press, 1987). Here we are interested only in one kind of special dictionary: the thesaurus or dictionary of synonyms. Syno- IMPROVING YOUR VOCABULARY: DICTIONARIES 345 may be inferred from other evidence, weg- 2 refers to a list of Indo-European roots contained in an appendix following the word list. (Indo-European is the name given to the mother lan- guage of English and most other Western languages, as well as of many in the Near East and India. That language does not exist in any written record. However, linguists can reconstruct many of its words or word elements, collectively called roots, from evidence in languages descended from Indo-European.) Usage A discussion of how the word and its various forms are actual- ly used by contemporary speakers. The discussion is illustrated by typical cases, printed in italics. "Main entry of wake 2 Wake 2 , a homograph of wake 1 , is a different word with a differ- ent meaning. Quoted citation Rather than a typical example, this is an actual employment of the word, attributed to a specific writer. It is an example of the kind of citation from which the dictionary maker works. Collecting hundreds or thousands of such specific examples of a word, he or she frames the definition. Idiom using the word. nyms are words in the same language having much the same meaning. True, or identical, synonyms have exactly the same definition and usually are simply alternative names for the same object. In sailboats, for instance, mizzen and jigger sig- nify the same sail and are true synonyms. Most synonyms, however, are less than exact. For example,/?**/ and friend over- lap to a considerable degree, but are not exactly coextensive: any pal is a friend, but not any friend is a pal. In listing syn- onyms a thesaurus necessarily obscures this distinction 34<> DICTION between exact and near synonyms. To distinguish all shades of meaning would result in a vast work of many volumes, too expensive to buy and too cumbersome to use. Roget's is probably the best known thesaurus. (The word comes from Greek and means "treasure.") It was first pub- lished in 1852 by Mark Peter Roget, an American physician and professor, and entitled A Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, Classified and Arranged so as to Facilitate the Ex- pression of Ideas and Assist in Literary Composition. Roget devised a system of grouping words in numbered and sub- divided categories of ideas. Users searching for terms mean- ing, say, "friendship" could look under the appropriate cat- egory. To make his book usable from the other direction— that is, from word to category—Roget also included an al- phabetized index of words, each keyed to its category by the appropriate number. Early in the twentieth century C. O. S. Mawson simplified Roget's scheme. Neither Roget nor the- saurus is copyrighted, and a number of Roget's are currently available—some revisions of Roget's original work, others of Mawson's modification, and still others consisting of alpha- betical listings without Roget's categories. Besides the various Roget's, there are other thesauri on the market: The Random House Thesaurus (Random House); Webster's Collegiate Thesaurus (G. & C. Merriam Company); Webster's New World Thesaurus, edited by Charlton Laird (World Publishing Company); and Webster's II Thesaurus (Simon and Schuster). (Like Roget, the name Webster is not copyrighted and is used by competing companies.) The limitations of most thesauri are revealed in the direc- tions given in one edition of Roget: Turning to No. 866 (the sense required) we read through the varied list of synonyms and select the most appropriate expression. [Italics added] That matter of selection is critical, and a thesaurus does not offer much help. For example, among the synonyms listed in IMPROVING YOUR VOCABULARY: DICTIONARIES 347 one Roget under the category seclusion/exclusion are solitude, isolation, loneliness, and aloofness. They are merely listed as alternates with no distinctions drawn, but, except in a very loose sense, these words are not synonymous and may not be interchanged indiscriminately. Solitude means physical apart- ness, out of the sight and sound of others, a condition not necessarily undesirable; in fact, solitude may be used with positive connotations, as in "She enjoys solitude." Loneliness, on the other hand, has a more subjective significance, relating to the feeling of being apart; it does not necessarily imply physical separation—one can be lonely in a crowd of Christ- mas shoppers—and it would never be given a positive sense. Isolation stresses physical separation, out of connection and communication with others, and is often used when that sep- aration is not desired. Aloofness, finally, is self-chosen sepa- ration, a deliberate withdrawal from others, which may sug- gest a sense of superiority, though it does not have to. To use these "synonyms" effectively you need to know considerably more about them than a thesaurus is likely to tell you. With many words—those in this example, for in- stance—a good abridged dictionary is more helpful. That is not to say that a thesaurus is a waste of money. Used wisely it can improve your working vocabulary. It may remind you of a word you have forgotten, or acquaint you with a new one. But before you employ that new word learn more about it. A more useful source of synonyms is a work published by the G. & C. Merriam Company: Webster's Dictionary of Syn- onyms. It discusses meaning at greater length than does the typical thesaurus. For example, Webster's Collegiate Thesau- rus uses about one inch of a column for solitude, the Dictionary of Synonyms spends more than seven inches, care- fully distinguishing solitude from isolation, loneliness, and so on. PART VI Description and Narration CHAPTER 30 Description Description is about sensory experience—how something looks, sounds, tastes. Mostly it is about visual experience, but description also deals with other kinds of perception. The fol- lowing passage, for example, uses sounds to describe the be- ginning of an act of revolutionary violence in China: Five shots went off in a nearby street: three together, another, still another. . . . The silence returned, but it no longer seemed to be the same. Suddenly it was filled by the clatter of horses' hoofs, hurried, coming nearer and nearer. And, like the vertical laceration of light- ning after a prolonged thunder, while they still saw nothing, a tu- mult suddenly filled the street, composed of mingled cries, shots, furious whinnyings, the falling of bodies; then, as the subsiding clamor was heavily choking under the indestructible silence, there rose a cry as of a dog howling lugubriously, cut short: a man with his throat slashed. Andre Malraux Whatever sense it appeals to, descriptive writing is of two broad kinds: objective and subjective. In objective description the writer sets aside those aspects of the perception unique to himself and concentrates on describing the percept (that is, what is perceived) in itself. In subjective (also called impres- sionistic) description a writer projects his or her feelings into 352 DESCRIPTION AND NARRATION the percept. Objective description says, "This is how the thing is"; subjective, "This is how the thing seems to one particular consciousness." Neither kind of description is more "honest." Both are (or can be) true, but they are true in different ways. The truth of objective description lies in its relationship to fact; that of subjective in relationship to feeling or evaluation. The first kind of truth is more easily checked. We can generally decide which of two passages more accurately describes, say, a downtown office building. Subjective description, on the other hand, is "true" because it presents a valuable response, not because it makes an accurate report. If we do not agree with how a writer feels about something, we cannot say that the description is false. We can say only that it is not true for us—that is, that we do not share his or her feelings. Nor are these two approaches hard-and-fast categories into which any piece of descriptive writing must fall. Most de- scriptions involve both, in varying degrees. Generally, how- ever, one mode will dominate and fix the focus. In scientific and legal writing, for instance, objectivity is desirable. In per- sonal writing subjectivity is more likely. But in both kinds, success hinges on three things: (1) details that are sharply defined images, appealing to one or another of the senses; (2) details that are selected according to a guid- ing principle; (3) details that are clearly organized. Objective Description Selection of Detail In objective description the principle which guides selection is the thing itself. The writer must ask: Which details are es- sential to seeing and understanding this object, event, person, experience? Which are accidental and of lesser importance? Essential details should make up the bulk of the description, those of secondary importance being included as the writer has space. The following description of a freshwater fish by an eigh- DESCRIPTION 353 teenth-century naturalist exemplifies the selection of essential detail: The loach, in its general aspect, has a pellucid appearance: its back is mottled with irregular collections of small black dots, not reach- ing much below the linea lateralis, as are the back and tail fins: a black line runs from each eye down to the nose; its belly is of a silvery white; the upper jaw projects beyond the lower, and is sur- rounded with six feelers, three on each side; its pectoral fins are large, its ventral much smaller; the fin behind its anus small; its dorsal fin large, containing eight spines; its tail, where it joins the tail-fin, remarkably broad, without any taperness, so as to be char- acteristic of this genus; the tail-fin is broad, and square at the end. From the breadth and muscular strength of the tail, it appears to be an active nimble fish. Gilbert white White focuses on those features that enable us to recognize a loach: size and shape of tail and fins, number of feelers on each side of the jaw, and so on. Scientific description like this is a kind of definition, differentiating an entity from others similar to it. Organization of Details Objective description, especially the visual kind, often begins with a brief comprehensive view. It then analyzes this image and presents each part in detail, following an organization inherent in the object. Here, for instance, is a description of a lake in Maine: In shape the lake resembles a gently curving S, its long axis lying almost due north-south. The shoreline is ringed by rocks of all sizes, from huge boulders to tiny pebbles—the detritus of the Ice Age. Beyond the rocks the forest comes almost to the water's edge. Mostly pine and hemlock, it contains a few hardwoods—maple, oak, birch. Here and there an old pine, its roots washed nearly clean of support, leans crazily over the water, seeming about to topple at any instant. But it never does; trees fall this way for years. 354 DESCRIPTION AND NARRATION First we view the lake in its entirety, as a hawk might see it. Then we focus down and move progressively closer to shore. We see the rocks immediately at the water's edge, then the forest, then the various kinds of trees, and finally the old pine leaning over the water. The description, in short, is organized: it moves from general to particular, and it divides the visual experience of the lake into three parts—the lake as a whole, the shoreline, and the forest around. To effect these changes in viewpoint, the writer does not waste time directing us. He does not say, "As we leave the bird's-eye view and come down for a closer look, we observe that the shoreline is ringed with rocks." It is awkward and wordy to turn tour guide. It is better to move about the object implicitly without holding the reader by the hand. Doing this usually requires an impersonal and omniscient point of view: impersonal in the sense that the writer does not refer to him- self or herself; omniscient in that nothing is hidden, and he or she can range with complete freedom—above, below, around the object, inside and out. Readers will follow if the writer has clearly organized what they are supposed to see. But he or she must organize. Writers of good description do not just "see." They analyze what they see and give it a pattern. Taking a perception apart in order to put it together can be seen in the following sentence by Joseph Conrad, which describes a coastal view. The angle of vision does not change as it did in the description of the lake, but there is a principle of organization: Beyond the sea wall there curves for miles in a vast and regular sweep the barren beach of shingle, with the village of Brenzett standing out darkly across the water, a spire in a clump of trees; and still further out the perpendicular column of a lighthouse, look- ing in the distance no bigger than a lead pencil, marks the vanishing point of the land. Our view shifts from near to distant. Our eyes move outward through a series of receding planes: the sea wall, the beach, DESCRIPTION 355 the village with its spire and trees across the water, and the lighthouse in the offing. Diction in Objective Description In objective description words are chosen for exactness of denotation, not for forcefulness of connotation. Factual pre- cision is what is most desired. Gilbert White (page 254) says "six feelers, three on each side," not "several feelers." He carefully differentiates fins by concise technical names: "pec- toral," "ventral," "dorsal." Scientific description like this is not easy to write. Given enough time to observe and the training to know what to look for, anyone can compose a reasonably accurate description of a fish. But it requires more care to compose a description that is accurate and at the same time forceful, interesting prose. It is worth studying White's paragraph to observe how he or- ganizes it and gives it vitality and movement by the short, direct clauses, constructed with just enough variety to avoid monotony. Subjective Description When describing objectively, the writer is a kind of camera, recording precisely and impersonally. When writing subjec- tively, he or she is no longer an impartial observer, but rather enters into what is perceived. Point of view—in most cases— becomes personal; and words have overtones of value and feeling that color the perception. These evaluations and feelings are as much a part of the description as the object itself. In fact, more: they determine selection and organization. Sometimes writers state impres- sions directly, as in this paragraph about an Englishwoman's reactions to the citizens of Moscow: I wandered about in the morning and looked at the streets and people. All my visit I looked and looked at the people. They seem [...]... than tell us the truth he sees in the story; he must manifest that truth in the characters and the action Characters and action are the essential elements of any story Also important, but not as essential, is the setting, the place where the action occurs Characters are usually people— sometimes actual people, as in history books or newspaper stories, sometimes imaginary ones, as in novels Occasionally... achieved To describe a process you must analyze its stages The analysis will determine how you organize the description In a simple case, such as baking a cake, the process has obvious, prescribed steps; the writer needs only to observe and record them accurately On the other hand, complicated and abstract processes—for instance, how a law comes into being as an act of Congress—require more study and thought... writer seems to disappear, hidden completely behind his characters We know an author exists because a story implies a storyteller But that presence must be guessed; one never actually observes it Nonetheless the presence is there Even if not explicitly seen as an "I," the writer exists as a voice, heard in the tone of the story His words and sentence patterns imply a wide range of tones: irony, amusement,... than older, sophisticated ones In the discussions of the various punctuation marks that follow, we shall try—as far as it is practical—to distinguish among rules, conventions, and unconventional but possible uses At times the distinctions may seem a bit confusing It is no good, however, making up easy rules about how to handle punctuation Such directions may be clear, but they do not describe what... chiefs and kings, different religious beliefs, high spirits, revenge Ruth Benedict The colon divides this sentence into its two principal parts: the introductory generalization and the list of specific reasons The commas within the list mark each single reason The period closes the total statement Less often punctuation marks stress an important word or phrase: In 1 291 , with the capture of the last great... tanned face, offers jars of green file powder, unground all-spice, pickled onions in vinegar Carts and trucks flank the sidewalk; one walks through crates of curled parsley, scallions piled with ice, 358 DESCRIPTION AND NARRATION wagonloads of spinach with tender mauve stalks, moist baskets of crisp kale; sacks of white onions in oyster-white fishnet, pink onions in sacks of old rose; piles of eggplant... famous moment in which Raleigh asked to see the axe The headsman was reluctant to show it "I prithee, let me see it," said Raleigh, and he asked, "Dost thou think that I am afraid of it?" Running his finger along the edge he mused, "This is sharp medicine, but it is a sound cure for all diseases." There was some fussing about the way he should have his head on the block Somebody insisted that it should... in New Orleans): The booths are Sicilian, hung with red peppers, draped with garlic, piled with fruit, trayed with vegetables, fresh and dried herbs A huge man, fat as Silenus, daintily binds bunches for soup, while his wife quarters cabbages, ties smaller bundles of thyme, parsley, green onions, small hot peppers and sweet pimentos to season gumbos Another Italian with white moustache, smiling fiercely... DESCRIPTION 3 59 The final sentence sums up the scene and states the impression directly, as to the modifiers "neatly," "clean," "gay," but on the whole the images create the sense of middle-class fulfillment Any ugliness is excluded If the lawn were disfigured by crabgrass, if weeds leered among the flowers, the facts are discreetly omitted Very different are the details—and the impression—in this account... clauses ("The sun had already set, and the air was growing chilly") is a convention and not a rule, and the convention is sometimes ignored, especially if the clauses are short and uncomplicated And occasionally a comma or other mark is used unconventionally because a writer wants to establish an unusual stress or rhythm (like the commas in the sentences by Bishop and Fleming) But while punctuation as . American physician and professor, and entitled A Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases, Classified and Arranged so as to Facilitate the Ex- pression of Ideas and Assist in Literary Composition work, others of Mawson&apos ;s modification, and still others consisting of alpha- betical listings without Roget&apos ;s categories. Besides the various Roget&apos ;s, there are other thesauri on. seclusion/exclusion are solitude, isolation, loneliness, and aloofness. They are merely listed as alternates with no distinctions drawn, but, except in a very loose sense, these words are not synonymous and