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Ulla M. Connor et al. 90 (Morris and Schulz, 1993; Vermeire et al., 2001). Although over 200 variables have been examined with respect to their association with patient adherence, we are still no closer to a clear understanding of the factors contributing to adherence (Morris and Schulz, 1993; Vermeire et al., 2001). An additional issue with prior research is that the majority of studies have been conducted by practitioners who seek to understand how and why the patient fails to comply with orders issued by the physician (Vermeire et al., 2001). In other words, much research has privileged the provider’s perspective by focusing on the voice of medicine, rather than on the voice of the patient’s lifeworld (Mishler, 1984; Hamilton, 2001). Little research has taken the patient’s perspective into account, to try to understand what the patient’s reasons and motivations for adherence or non-adherence may be. Patients’ thoughts, attitudes, motivations, and behaviors are influenced by their social world, their thoughts about their disease and their treatment, and their relationships with others. Research that simply attempts to correlate patient or disease variables with adherence misses out on this complex, intricate aspect of human behavior. It appears that decades of research on treatment adherence, which have resulted in mixed, inconclusive findings, tell us that current methods of studying this phenomenon are inadequate. The complexity of human behavior renders an attempt to correlate hundreds of variables to adherence futile. As a result, it is becoming increasingly apparent that an in-depth examination of patients’ perspectives on adherence, with an effort to elicit their thoughts, motivations, and reasons for behavior, might provide a clearer picture which will help us to understand the issue of treatment adherence. Clearly, in spite of the numerous studies aimed at gaining a greater understanding of patient adherence, the factors that impact this behavior are still poorly understood. A logical starting point for such an endeavor is to focus on the ways in which patients acquire and make sense of information about their disease. Indeed, sources of information for patients abound, yet knowledge alone does not seem to guarantee that a patient will follow his or her physician’s advice (Hamilton, 2001). The goals of the study were to determine which sources the patients find most important in their management of their diabetes and how that knowledge translates into adherence and non-adherence with prescribed medication. We were especially interested in testing the relationship between the patients’ written comprehension of the written prescription information and its relationship to adherence as the first step in untangling the multiple variables affecting adherence. The Interdisciplinary Research Team on Health Literacy in the Indiana Center for Intercultural Communication at Indiana University-Purdue University in Indianapolis consists of linguists, communication specialists, medical doctors, a lawyer, a pharmacist, and a pharmaceutical industry Information use and treatment adherence 91 expert. The major goals of the team are to find reasons for non-adherence and adherence and translate this knowledge into better educational practice and improved written labeling and information for patients. We believe that our approach to adherence and health literacy is unique because of its interdisciplinarity, its inclusion of both quantitative and qualitative analyses, and the fact that we define health literacy broadly and include in it the ability to navigate the system both via text and talk. Literacy is one factor affecting adherence. We define health literacy broadly using the Institute of Medicine definition: “the degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions”. Thus, health literacy is much more than reading, numeracy, and medical terms. It is the complex of behaviors that relates to medication adherence, which can be especially challenging for low literate, minority and non-native speakers groups. This chapter reports on the first stage in our research. It examines how patients acquire and deal with information – verbal and written – related to their diabetes and how they construct that knowledge into understanding and practice of adherence. 2 Method In-depth interviews were conducted with 21 individuals with Type 2 diabetes. Participants were recruited by posting electronic flyers on a campus news service website at a large, urban, Midwestern university, and through a process of networking. Participants ranged from 26 to 73 years of age, with a mean age of 54.3. Six males and 15 females participated in the interviews. Eleven interviewees were Caucasian, six were Hispanic, and four were African American. Five interviews were conducted in Spanish, the interviewee’s native language; the rest were conducted in English. One interviewer conducted all of the interviews, using a semi-structured format. Patients were first asked to share the story of how they learned they had diabetes. In the second section of the interview, respondents were asked a series of questions related to the sources of information they use in managing their diabetes. Specifically, participants were asked to identify the sources of information that help them “make decisions about how to manage” their diabetes and to talk about elements of content and presentation that affected, either positively or negatively, the perceived usefulness of these various sources of information. In addition, interviewees were asked to rate the importance of the most common sources of information, using the question included in Table 1. Ulla M. Connor et al. 92 Instructions: Please rate each of these sources of information as to how useful it was to you in understanding and managing your diabetes. INFORMATION SOURCES SELF-RATING a) Print advertisements excellent good fair poor don’t know b) Television advertisements excellent good fair poor don’t know c) The internet excellent good fair poor don’t know d) News reports excellent good fair poor don’t know e) Friends and family excellent good fair poor don’t know f) Doctors excellent good fair poor don’t know g) Spoken information from the pharmacist excellent good fair poor don’t know h) Other health care providers excellent good fair poor don’t know i) Labels on prescriptions excellent good fair poor don’t know j) Written information provided by your pharmacist excellent good fair poor don’t know k) Magazine articles excellent good fair poor don’t know l) Diabetes education programs excellent good fair poor don’t know Other (specify _______) excellent good fair poor don’t know Table 1. Self-reported rating of information sources The third section of the interview checked patients’ medication adherence through self-reporting. Specifically, respondents were asked questions such as: “How many medications do you currently take?” “What exactly are the medications?” “Do you take the medication as the doctor has prescribed it?” “If no, why not”. Table 2 shows an example of an interview excerpt judged fully adherent and an example of non-adherence. Information use and treatment adherence 93 The final section of the interview schedule consisted of a series of demographic questions. All interviews were transcribed, and the Spanish interviews were translated. Example 1. An interview excerpt of full adherence I: Do you typically use the prescribed drug in the way your doctor and pharmacist recommend that you use it? R: Yes. I: What messages persuaded you to do this, to use it as they prescribed? R: Test results. I: Yours? R: Well, yeah. […] And these kinds of…when you get those test results, you see, okay, I’ve been taking everything the way the doctor said, for three months now, and suddenly everything works, versus the time you said, no I don’t need to do all this stuff, and everything was way out of whack. I (Interviewer) R (Interviewee) Example 2. An interview excerpt of non-adherence R: […] The doctor told me to check it three times a week …but this week I have not checked it. It’s also that, what happens it that the medication that I have to take, when I have to take them at night I don’t because I forget or because I’m being lazy. When the morning comes, at 7 in the morning when I take them, those that I have to take at night. Those that I have to take in the morning I take them or after breakfast. It’s that I get up a 2 or 3 in the afternoon. All this is out of control. R (Interviewee) Table 2. Examples of full-adherent and non-adherent responses 3 Results The focus of this chapter is primarily on written sources of information. A brief overview of adherent versus non-adherent interviewees’ ratings of the usefulness of various sources of information in managing diabetes is provided, followed by more detailed discussions of patients’ responses related to written information sources: advertisements, magazines, and news reports; the internet; and patient information leaflets (PILs). To explore in greater depth the relationship between information use and adherence, we divided the participants into ‘adherent’ and ‘non-adherent’ subgroups, based on the interviewees’ responses to questions about adherence (see Table 2). Ten interviewees self-reported that they followed their doctors’ directions and were diligent in taking their diabetes medication. Ulla M. Connor et al. 94 Nine reported that for a variety of reasons they did not always take their medications as prescribed or follow the advice of their doctor. Adherence levels could not be discerned from the interview transcripts for two of the participants. 3.1 Reported information sources Figure 1 details participants’ ratings of the usefulness of information sources and self-reported adherence. The ‘Importance’ bar represents the number of interviewees giving the source a rating of ‘excellent’ or ‘good’ (see Table 1). The ‘Adherence’ bar represents the number of interviewees who rated the source as highly useful who also self-reported as highly adherent. 0246810121416 f) Doctor h) OHCP l) Educ c) Web e) Frd/Fam d) News j) PIL k) Mag i) Rx Lbl g) Phar b) TV Ads a) Print Importance Adherence Figure 1. Numbers of subjects rating information source as highly important and reporting full adherence Doctors, other health-care professionals, and diabetes education programs were rated as the most useful sources of information by participants. 15 of the 21 interviewees rated their doctor as a useful information source, and of those, 9 (60%) fully adhered to their prescribed medication regimen. 13 respondents, 8 who fully adhered (62%), rated other health-care professionals Information use and treatment adherence 95 as a highly useful source of information. Of the 12 interviewees who rated educational programs as useful, 7 (58%) reported full adherence. A similar ratio (between 63-67%) can be seen among those who rated prescription labels, the internet, and pharmacists as important sources of information. It is interesting to note, however, that only 2 of the 6 (33%) interviewees who rated television advertisements as a useful source of information adhered to their prescribed medication regimen. Print ads, magazines, patient information leaflets, news reports, and friends were also associated with relatively low adherence rates (between 40-50%). Although preliminary, these findings indicate that there may be a relationship between a patients’ use of written versus verbal sources of information and adherence. Consequently, the next sections explore in more detail, using thematic analysis of patients’ own accounts and words, the role of written information sources in managing diabetes, focusing specifically on advertisements, magazines, and news reports; the internet; and patient information leaflets. 3.2 Advertisements, magazines and news reports Although advertisements, both print and television, were rated as relatively unimportant sources of information in this study (see Figure 1), several of the interviewees reported that non-advertisement print messages were a useful source of information. The average rating of the importance of magazines as a source of information was 3.24 (3.00 for adherent and 3.33 for non- adherent patients), and the average rating for news reports was 3.38 (3.10 for adherent and 3.56 for non-adherent interviewees). Several themes emerged in our analysis of patterns of use related to non-advertisement written materials. Although magazines (e.g., Diabetes Forecast, the magazine of the American Diabetes Association) and other print resources were important sources of information for some diabetics, our participants tended not to use them in isolation. Instead, they relied on print sources to supplement information from other sources. One interviewee described how he would discuss information acquired through print sources with his doctor before making decisions about managing his disease: “Like this new medication, I read about it in Time magazine, and I asked my physician about it, and he didn’t recommend it”. Those respondents who regularly read magazines and news reports did so “to keep updated on what’s going on”. They reported that print information was “most helpful because it gave me ideas on how to make modifications to my own lifestyle, eating choices, information about new possible treatments, kind of giving a little overview of things like the best time to monitor your blood sugar, things like that”. In addition, the respondents appreciated the accessibility of magazine reports on diabetes: “Magazine articles are very Ulla M. Connor et al. 96 important. It’s a big topic, now, and Newsweek did a big summary of it…it just kind ties together research and innovation and personal stories in a really accessible level”. One final noteworthy pattern related to the use of magazines and news reports as a source of information about managing diabetes is that for the most part, this medium was not one that respondents actively sought out. They read magazines if they happened upon them, but they did not intentionally seek out print material about their disease. One respondent explained, “When I’ve got a magazine that pertains to diabetes, I read it…I read a couple I found at the doctor’s office”. Similarly, another interviewee noted, “I have not [used magazines]. I haven’t ran [sic] across any. I’m not opposed to it of course, but I haven’t ran [sic] across any magazine articles or anything”. Yet another response suggested that print materials are a source of information that patients use if they come across it, but they do not actively seek it out: “I have all kinds of little magazines that I pick up in doctors’ offices or you know, other things like that. I’ve got stuff in the mail”. Given that written information was seen by our respondents as more of a passive source, rather than one they actively seek out, it may be that this source has the least impact on our participants’ disease management. Certainly the overall importance rating and the specific comments about this medium bear this out. 3.3 Internet The internet is becoming an increasingly popular source of medical information, and for several of the patients in this study, the internet has become the primary source of information about their disease. The average importance rating for the internet as a source of information was 3.14, but this mean may be misleading because of the clear divide between those respondents who relied heavily on the internet (seven interviewees rate the internet 5-‘most important’) and those who did not use it at all (eight interviewees rated it 1-‘least important’). In other words, for those patients who used the internet, it was a very important source of information. Interestingly, non-adherers rated the internet as a more important source of information than adherers. The respondents who made heavy use of the internet reported that it served a variety of functions in the management of their disease. First, the internet was viewed by many of the respondents as a wellspring of information: “the web has been huge for me…find information, diabetes care and such, know what Type 1 and Type 2 are, differences between ‘em and you know, where I fit in that…and just kinda pulling out information as much as I can”. Overall, respondents commented positively on the range of information available on the internet: “You can find out anything you want to find out on the internet. Information use and treatment adherence 97 Um, it’s wonderful. It’s the best source of information, of quick information”. While several interviewees commented favorably on the range of useful information related to diabetes management available on the web, one interviewee noted that what he likes about the internet as a source of information is that it can be easily tailored to his own needs: “I don’t eat beef or pork, so I have to learn how to eat without that, and they tell you”. In addition to using the internet to access a wide range of information and to tailor that information to the individual, several of the interviewees reported using the internet to triangulate information from various sources. One participant reported using WebMD in conjunction with the medication labels and other information provided with his prescriptions. He observed, “After I found out about WebMD, I would actually go online, look up the type of medicine and I would read the information there in addition to what the pharmacy gave me along with the prescriptions themselves”. Another respondent shared an incident in which he used the internet to help him make a decision about a doctor’s recommendation: “They tried to prescribe Avandia, which was a new thing a couple years ago, and I researched it on the internet”. Another theme worth noting related to the use of the internet as a source of information is the diverse patterns related to the timing of internet use. One common pattern reported is the patient who did not turn to the internet initially upon diagnosis, instead relying on other sources, and turning to the internet later: “I did eventually do some research on the world wide web, but at first, I mostly just went with information I got from the doctor”. In contrast, another common pattern is patients who immediately turned to the internet, and after they had acquired a satisfactory understanding of their disease, internet use abated: “In the beginning, I looked up stuff, to get different books and things like that on the diabetes and stuff, diabetic cookbooks and things like that”. A final pattern related to internet use worth noting is that individuals tended to end up with one or two ‘favorite’ sites that they return to repeatedly. One respondent described his favorite site: “Doctor Weil-you know, the health guy…He’s like an old hippy doctor who… [is] homeopathic, you know, holistic. He’s got books out, he’s all over, he’s got a website, tells you what to eat, what kind of supplements to take”. Another noted that he did not use the internet at first, but now “I have two sources there that I got to”. It appears that, for those who did rely on the internet, they found it quite useful, in terms of gathering general information about diabetes, supplementing information from their doctors, medication labels or other sources, and obtaining practical advice such as what to eat. Given the variety of uses of the internet cited by our participants, this source may serve to shape patients’ perceptions of both severity of diabetes and benefits of Ulla M. Connor et al. 98 treatment, and may also provide specific cues to action, such as dietary advice. 3.4 Patient information leaflet Another source of information discussed at some length in the interviews is the patient information leaflet (PIL) that accompanies prescription medications. Participants rated this as a moderately important source of information, with non-adherent interviewees rating it as slightly more important than adherent respondents. In recent years the PIL has been recognized by researchers, particularly in linguistics, as a potentially valuable source of information to patients regarding their prescriptions. Accordingly, this research (Johnson et al., 1986; Rowe, 1995; Gustafsson et al., 2005) has focused on the premise that patient understanding of this written information may be a key mitigating factor in whether or not a patient adheres to his or her given medications regimen. Some of this research has focused simply on readability (Mallet and Spruill, 1988; Kitching, 1990), while other research has been concerned with deeper levels of language and discourse of the written information (Askehave and Zethsen, 2003; Clerehan et al., 2005). Further, this research, as well as research by Connor et al. (2008) indicates that the PIL contains information that is difficult to understand, relying on language that is not part of individuals’ everyday lexicon. Our participants’ responses to the usefulness of the PIL reflected these findings. Patient Information Leaflet comprehension was checked as follows: Interviewees were shown an actual PIL, either in English or in Spanish, for Lisinopril, a common diabetes drug (see Figure 2). Then interviewees were asked a series of questions related to the content of the PIL. The interviewees’ comprehension was rated as ‘none’, ‘some’ or ‘advanced’ using the following criteria: No comprehension indicated that the patient could not locate the requested information at all. Average comprehension indicated that the patient was able to retrieve some of the requested information, but not by reading the entire PIL and locating relevant sections of the PIL. Advanced Comprehension indicated that the patient retrieved the relevant information from the right section and answered all questions accurately (i.e., listed the exact side effects mentioned). This comprehension check provided the following results: 5 of 21 interviewees had no comprehension whatsoever of the PIL; of those 3 adhered. 12 had some comprehension; of these, 5 adhered. 4 had advanced comprehension, but only 2 adhered. This suggests that being able to read the PIL is not a guarantee of adherence. Future data gathering and analyses need to look at the relationships between reading skills and health management. Information use and treatment adherence 99 [...]... understand how individuals manage chronic conditions, such as diabetes, and how to improve disease management in order to effect more positive outcomes for patients References Askehave, I and K.K Zethsen (2003) Communication barriers in public discourse: The patient package insert, Document Design (4) 1: 2241 Becker, M.H (19 85) Patient adherence to prescribed therapies, Medical Care (23) 5: 53 9 -55 5 Bower,... Bower, A.B and V.A Taylor (2003) Increasing intention to comply with pharmaceutical product instructions: An exploratory study investigating the roles of frame and plain language, Journal of Health Communication (8) 2: 1 45- 156 Clerehan, R., R Buchbinder and J Moodie (20 05) A linguistic framework for assessing the quality of written patient information: Its use in assessing methotrexate information for rheumatoid... non-compliance In Tannen, D and J.E Alatis (eds) Round Table on Languages and Linguistics Linguistics, Language, and the Real World: Discourse and Beyond, Washington D.C.: Georgetown Press: 147-1 65 Johnson, M.W., W.E Mitch, J Sherwood, L Lopes, A Schmidt and H Hartley (1986) The impact of a drug information sheet on the understanding and attitude of patients about drugs, JAMA ( 256 ) 19: 2722-2724 Kitching,... Ablex Morris, L.S and R.M Schulz (1992) Patient Compliance – An overview, Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics (17): 283-2 95 Morris, L.S and R.M Schultz (1993) Medication compliance: The patient’s perspective, Clinical Therapeutics ( 15) 3: 59 3-606 Roter, D.L and J.A Hall (1994) Strategies for enhancing patient adherence to medical recommendations, JAMA (271) 1: 80 Rowe, H.M (19 95) Patient package... (2007) Self-reported medication adherence and cardiovascular events in patients with stable coronary heart disease, Archives of Internal Medicine (167): 1798-1803 Gustafsson, J., S Kälvemark, G Nilsson and L.G Nilsson (20 05) Patient information leaflets – Patients’ comprehension of information about interactions and contraindications, Pharmacy World and Science (27): 35- 40 Hamilton, H.E (2001) Patient’s... Kinney and J.M Koehler (2008) Patient-directed medicine labelling: Text differences between the United States and Spain, Communication and Medicine (5) 2: 117-132 Dunbar, J (1998) Predictors of patient adherence: Patient characteristics In Shumaker, S.A., J.K Ockene, E.B Schron and W.L McBee (eds) The Handbook of Health Behavior Change, New York: Springer Publications: 348-360 Information use and treatment... Dunbar-Jacob, J and E Schlenk (2001) Patient adherence to treatment regimen In Baum, A., T.A Reveson and J.E Singer (eds) Handbook of Health Psychology, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum: 57 1 -58 0 Frankel, R.M and H.B Beckman (1989) Conversation and compliance with medical recommendations: An application of micro-analysis in medicine, Rethinking Communication (2): 60-74 Gehi, A.K., S Ali, B Na and M.A Whooley... 1 Introduction Recent years have seen a steady increase in health care information intended to inform and advise the general public about ways to increase their health and level of well-being Numerous documents exist on ‘how to stop smoking’, ‘how to manage and conquer depression’, ‘how to fight breast cancer’, etc., and such information is readily accessible from the pharmacy, the GP’s office, the... between subject and object – the axis of desire The relation between helper and opponent – the axis of power The relation between sender and receiver – the axis of knowledge Among others, Wang and Roberts (20 05) show that Greimas’ method has great potential for depicting characters’ narrative positions as well as links among these positions and this is what we intend to make use of However, before we apply... Many researchers have argued (see e.g., Johnson 1999; Aarva and Tampere 2006; Hall 2006; Larsen and Manderson 2008) that this is a natural outcome of a widespread patient empowerment trend that encourages people to “…gain control over decisions and actions that influence their health” (WHO 1998 ID: 121, 21 (cited in Hvas and Thesen, 2002: 53 65) ) As the meaning of the word ‘empowerment’ suggests, “to . 1 45- 156 . Clerehan, R., R. Buchbinder and J. Moodie (20 05) A linguistic framework for assessing the quality of written patient information: Its use in assessing methotrexate information for. wellspring of information: “the web has been huge for me…find information, diabetes care and such, know what Type 1 and Type 2 are, differences between ‘em and you know, where I fit in that and just. Care (23) 5: 53 9 -55 5. Bower, A.B. and V.A. Taylor (2003) Increasing intention to comply with pharmaceutical product instructions: An exploratory study investigating the roles of frame and plain