PRESENTPASTPAST PARTICIPLE
shakeshookshaken
take tooktaken
forgetforgotforgotten
getgotgotten
givegavegiven
forgiveforgaveforgiven
forsakeforsookforsaken
hidehidhidden
rideroderidden
writewrotewritten
freezefrozefrozen
stealstolestolen
SAME PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE FORMS
PRESENTPASTPAST PARTICIPLE
comecamecome
overcomeovercameovercome
runranrun
In English, as in many other languages, the essential verb to be is also highly irregular:
SUBJECTPRESENTPASTPAST PARTICIPLE
Iamwashave been
youarewerehave been
he, she, itiswashas been
wearewerehave been
theyarewerehave been
Trang 2H e l p i n g Ve r b s
Helping verbs (also called auxiliary verbs) are essential to clear communication They enable us to indicate
exactly when an action took place or will take place and suggest very specific meanings, such as the subject’sability to perform an action or intention to do something Helping verbs are used to form the future (e.g.,
will call) and conditional tenses:
Future:I will call you tomorrow with the results.
Conditional: If the results were promising, Jamal would have requested another.
The following table lists the helping verbs, their forms, and their meanings Review this table carefully;a helping verb can often significantly change the meaning of a sentence.
PRESENT
AND FUTUREPASTMEANINGEXAMPLES
will, shallwouldintention She will meet us at the hotel.They said they would call first.
cancouldability I can be there in ten minutes.
Rose could only find one glove.
may, might, could, mightpermission May I tag along?
can, could Could we get together after the meeting?
shouldshould have recommendation We should leave before the snow starts.
past participle They should have known better.
must, have (to)had (to)necessity I must go to the dentist.I had to draw two models.
shouldshould have expectation They should be on the next train
past participle They should have been on that train.
may, mightmight have possibility They may be lost
past participle They might have gotten lost.
S u b j u n c t i v e M o o d
The subjunctive mood is one of the verb forms that is often forgotten in conversation and is therefore oftenneglected in writing Like helping verbs, the subjunctive is used to express a specific meaning, indicating
–V E R B F O R M S–
Trang 3something that is wished for or that is contrary to fact It is formed by using were instead of was as in the
fol-lowing examples:
If she were a little more experienced, she would get the promotion (She is not a little more
experienced.)
If I were rich, I would travel the world (Unfortunately, I am not rich.)
If you were in my shoes, you wouldn’t say such a thing (You are not in my shoes.)Tr o u b l e s o m e Ve r b sThree verb pairs are particularly troublesome:lie / laysit / setrise / raise
The key to knowing which verb to use is remembering which verb takes an object In each pair, one verb
is transitive—an object receives the action—whereas the other is intransitive—the subject itself receives or
performs the action For example, lie is intransitive; the subject of the sentence performs the action on itself:
I will lie down The transitive verb laid, on the other hand, is an action that the subject of the sentence
per-forms upon an object: He lay the baby down in the crib In the following examples, the subjects are in bold
and the objects are underlined:
lie:to rest or recline (intransitive—subject only)
lay:to put or place (transitive—needs an object)
I will lie down for a while.
Will you please lay the papers on the table.
sit:to rest (intransitive—subject only)
set:to put or place (transitive—needs an object)
Why don’t we sit down and talk this over?
He will set the record straight.
rise:to go up (intransitive—subject only)
raise:to move something up (transitive—needs an object)
The sun will rise at 5:48 A.M tomorrow.
He raised the rent to $750 per month.
Trang 4The basic forms of these verbs can also be a bit tricky The following table shows how each verb is conjugated.
PRESENTPRESENT PARTICIPLE PASTPAST PARTICIPLE
(WITH AM, IS, AND ARE)(WITH HAVE, HAS, AND HAD)
lie, lieslyinglaylain
lay, layslayinglaidlaid
sit, sitssittingsatsat
set, setssettingsetset
rise, risesrisingroserisen
raise, raisesraisingraisedraised
G e r u n d s a n d I n f i n i t i v e s
Gerunds look like verbs because they end in -ing, but they actually function as nouns in sentences:
Tracy loves camping.
Here, the action (verb) Tracy performs is loves The thing (noun) she enjoys is camping In the follow-ing sentence, however, campfollow-ing is the action Tracy performs, so it is functionfollow-ing as a verb, not as a gerund:
Tracy is camping in the Pine Barrens next week.
Words ending in -ing can also function as adjectives:
Some of our camping gear needs to be replaced before our trip.
This means is that you cannot count on word endings to determine a word’s part of speech; you mustlook instead at how the word is functioning in the sentence.
Infinitives are the base (unconjugated) form of the verb preceded by to: to be, to delay, to manage, and
so on They are often part of a verb chain, but they are not the main verb (main action) of a sentence:
Priya likes to write poems.
In this example, likes is the main verb; what Priya likes (the action she likes to take) is to write poems.
–V E R B F O R M S–
Trang 5When to Use Infinitives and Gerunds
In many situations, you may be uncertain whether to use an infinitive or a gerund Which is correct: I like to
swim or I like swimming? In this case, both are correct; like, hate, and other verbs that express preference can
be followed by either a gerund or infinitive But other verbs can only be followed by one or the other Hereare a few helpful guidelines:
■ Always use a gerund after a preposition:
Keza thought that by taking the train, she would save money and time.Noriel was afraid of offending her host.
■ Always use a gerund after the following verbs:
admitdislikepractice
appreciateenjoyput off
avoidescapequit
cannot helpfinishrecallconsiderimagineresist
delaykeeprisk
denymisssuggest
discusspostponetolerate
We should discuss buying a new computer.I am going to quit smoking.
■ In general, use an infinitive after these verbs:
agreedecideneedrefuse
askexpectofferventure
begfailplanwant
botherhopepretendwish
claimmanagepromise
Aswad promises to be back by noon.Fatima failed to keep her promise.
■ When a noun or pronoun immediately follows these verbs, use an infinitive:
advisecommandforceremindwant
allowconvinceneedrequirewarn
askencourageordertell
cause expectpersuadeurge
I would like you to reconsider my offer.
The committee needs Tom to organize this event.
Trang 7A familiarity with common prefixes, suffixes, and word roots can dramatically improve your ability to deter-mine the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary words The following tables list common prefixes, suffixes, andword roots; their meanings; an example of a word with that prefix, suffix, or word root; the meaning of thatword; and a sentence that demonstrates the meaning of that word Refer to this chapter often to refresh yourmemory and improve your vocabulary.
P r e f i xe s
A prefix is a syllable added to the beginning of a word to change or add to its meaning The following table
Trang 8PREFIXMEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
uni-oneunify (v)to form into a singleThe new leader was ableunit; to uniteto unify the three factions into
one strong political party.
mono-onemonologuea long speech by I was very moved by the
(n)one person or monologue in Scene III.
performer
bi-twobisect (v)to divide into twoIf you bisect a square, you will equal partsget two rectangles of equal
size.
duo-twoduality (n)having two sides The novel explores the duality or partsof good and evil in humans.
tri-threetriangle (n)a figure having In an isosceles triangle, two of three anglesthe three angles are the same
size.
quadri-fourquadruped (n)an animal with fourSome quadrupeds evolved
feetinto bipeds.
tetra-fourtetralogy (n)series of four related“Time Zone” was the fourth artistic worksand final work in Classman’s
tetralogy.
quint-fivequintuplets (n)five offspring born Each quintuplet weighed less at one timethan four pounds at birth.
pent-fivepentameter (n)a line of verse Most of Shakespeare’s sonnets (poetry) with fiveare written in iambic
metrical feetpentameter.
multi-manymultifacetedhaving many sidesThis is a multifaceted issue,
(adj)and we must examine each
side carefully.
poly-manypolyglot (n)one who speaks or It is no wonder he is a understands several polyglot; he has lived in eight languagesdifferent countries.
–P R E F I X E S , S U F F I X E S , A N D W O R D R O O T S–
Trang 9PREFIXMEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
omni-allomniscientknowing allDr Perez seems omniscient;
(adj)she knows what all of us are
thinking in class.
micro-smallmicrocosm (n)little or miniature Some people say that Brooklyn world; something Heights, the Brooklyn district representing somethingacross the river from the Wall else on a very small Street area, is a microcosm of
scaleManhattan.
mini-smallminority (n)small group within a John voted for Bridget, but he larger groupwas in the minority; most
peo-ple voted for Elaine.
macro-largemacrocosm (n)the large scale world Any change to the macrocosmor universe; any greatwill eventually effect the
wholemicrocosm.
ante-beforeanticipate (v)to give advance His decades of experience thought to; foresee;enabled him to anticipate the
expectproblem.
pre-beforeprecede (v)to come before inThe appetizers preceded the time or ordermain course.
post-afterpostscript (n)message added after His postscript was almost as the close of a letterlong as his letter!
inter-betweenintervene (v)to come betweenRomeo, trying to make peace,intervened in the fight betweenTybalt and Mercutio.
inter-togetherinteract (v)to act upon or The psychologist took notes as influence each othershe watched the children
interact.
intra-withinintravenouswithin or into a veinShe could not eat and had to
(adj)be fed intravenously for three
days.
intro-into, withinintrovert (n)a person whose Unlike his flamboyant sister, attention is largelyquiet Zeke was a real directed inward, towardintrovert.
himself or herself; a shyor withdrawn person
Trang 10PREFIXMEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
in-in, intoinduct (v)to bring in (to a group)She was inducted into thehonor society.
ex-out, fromexpel (v)to drive out or awayLet us expel the invaders!
circum-aroundcircumscribe (v)to draw a line around; She carefully circumscribedto mark the limits ofthe space that would become
her office.
sub-undersubvert (v)to bring about the His attempt to subvert my destruction of,authority will cost him his job.overthrow; to undermine
super-above, oversupervisor (n)one who watches overAlex refused the promotion tosupervisor because he did notfeel comfortable being hisfriends’ boss.
con-with, togetherconsensus (n)general agreementAfter hours of debate, the groupfinally reached a consensusand selected a candidate.
non-notnonviable (adj)not able to live The farmer explained that the or surviveseedling was nonviable.
in-notinvariable (adj)not changingThe weather here is invariable—always sunny and warm.
un-not, againstunmindful (adj)not conscious For better or worse, he is or aware of; forgetfulunmindful of office politics.
contra-againstcontradict (v)to state that (what is I know we do not have to agree said) is untrue; to stateon everything, but she
the opposite of contradicts everything I say.
anti-against, antipode (n)exact or direct North is the antipode of south.
oppositeopposite
counter-against, counter-working againstComplaining is counter-opposingproductive (adj)productionproductive.
dis-away, dispel (v)to drive awayTo dispel rumors that I wasquitting, I scheduled a seriesof meetings for the next threemonths.
–P R E F I X E S , S U F F I X E S , A N D W O R D R O O T S–
Trang 11PREFIX MEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
dis-not, opposite ofdisorderly (adj)not having order; Two people were hurt when the messy, untidy,crowd became disorderlyuncontrolled, orduring the protest.unruly
mis-wrong, illmisuse (v)to use wronglyShe misused her authoritywhen she reassigned Charlie toa new team.
mal-bad, wrong maltreat (v)to treat badlyAfter the dog saved his life, he or wronglyswore he would never maltreat
another animal.
mal-illmalaise (n)feeling of discomfortThe malaise many women feel or illnessduring the first few months of
pregnancy is called morning
sickness.
pseudo-false, fakepseudonym (n)false or fake nameMark Twain is a pseudonym forSamuel Clemens.
auto-by oneself automaton (n)a robot; a person The workers on the assembly or by itselfwho seems to actline looked like automatons.
mechanically andwithout thinking
co-together with,cohesive (adj)having a tendencyThough they came from
jointlyto bond or stickdifferent backgrounds, they
together; unitedhave formed a remarkablycohesive team.
Trang 12S u f f i xe s
A suffix is a syllable added to the end of a word to change or add to its meaning The following table lists some
of the most common suffixes in the English language They are grouped together by similar meanings.
SUFFIXMEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
-ento cause broaden (v)to make more Traveling around the world will
to becomebroad; to widenbroaden your understanding of
other cultures.
-ateto cause resuscitate (v)to bring or comeThanks to a generous gift from
to beback to life oran alumnus, we were able to
consciousness;resuscitate the study-abroad
to reviveprogram.
-ify/-fyto make or electrify (v)to charge with The singer electrified the
cause to beelectricityaudience with her
performance.
-izeto make, alphabetize (v)to put in alphabetical Please alphabetize these files
to giveorderfor me.
-alcapable of, practical (adj)suitable for use;He has years of practical,suitable forinvolving activity,on-the-job experience.
as distinct from studyor theory
-ialpertaining tocommercial of or engaged Commercial vehicles must(adj)in commercehave special license plates.
-icpertaining toaristocratic of or pertaining Though he was never rich or (adj)to the aristocracypowerful, he has very
aristocratic manners.
-lyresembling, tenderly (adv)done with tenderness;He held the newborn babyhaving thegently, delicately, andtenderly in his arms.
qualities oflovingly
-lyin the mannerboldly (adv)in a bold mannerDespite his fear, he stepped
of boldly onto the stage.
-fulfull ofmeaningfulsignificant; When Robert walked into the (adj)full of meaningroom with Annette, she cast
me a meaningful glance.–P R E F I X E S , S U F F I X E S , A N D W O R D R O O T S–
Trang 13SUFFIXMEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
-ous, -osefull ofhumorous (adj)full of humor; funnyHis humorous speech madethe evening go by quickly.
-ivehaving the descriptive (adj)giving a descriptionThe letter was so descriptive
quality ofthat I could picture every place
he had been.
-lesslacking, painless (adj)without pain; The doctor assured me that it
free ofnot causing painis a painless procedure.
-ishhaving the childish (adj)like a child; unsuitableHe did not get the job because quality offor a grown personof his childish behavior during
the interview.
-ance/quality or tolerance (n)willingness or ability He has a high level of -encestate ofto tolerate a person tolerance for rudeness.
or thing
-acyquality or indeterminacy state or quality of The indeterminacy of his statestate of(n)being undetermined ment made it impossible to tell
(without defined limits) which side he was on.or vague
-tionact, state, completion (n)the act of completing; The second siren signaled the or condition ofthe state of beingcompletion of the fire drill.
completed or finished
-or/-erone who does narrator (n)one who tells the story; A first-person narrator isor performs thegives an account ofusually not objective.action of
-atrium/place forarboretum a garden devoted They built a deck with an
-orium(n)primarily to trees arboretum for their bonsai tree
and shrubscollection.
-aryplace for, sanctuary (n)a sacred place; refugeWith three noisy roommates,
pertaining toEllen frequently sought the
quiet sanctuary of the library.
-cidekillpesticide (n)substance for killingThis pesticide is also
insectsdangerous for humans.
Trang 14SUFFIXMEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
-ismquality, state, optimism (n)belief that things Her optimism makes people or condition will turn out for the want to be around her.
of; doctrine ofbest; tendency to takea hopeful view of things
-ityquality ormorality (n)state or quality He argued that the basic state ofof being moralmorality of civilized societies
has not changed much overthe centuries.
-itisinflammation tonsillitis (n)inflammation and Her tonsillitis was so severe
ofinfection of thethat doctors had to remove her
tonsilstonsils immediately.
-mentact or judgment (n)ability to judge or He exercised good judgmentcondition ofmake decisions wisely; by keeping his mouth shut
act of judgingduring the meeting.
-ologythe study ofzoology (n)the scientific study She took a summer job at the of animal lifezoo because of her strong
interest in zoology.
C o m m o n L a t i n Wo r d R o o t s
Many words in the English language derive from Latin The following table shows the original Latin wordsthat are used to create various English words The Latin words serve as roots, providing the core meaning ofthe words; prefixes, suffixes, and other alterations give each word its distinct meaning The word roots arelisted in alphabetical order.
ROOTMEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
amareto loveamorous (adj)readily showingShe told him to stop his or feeling loveamorous advances, as she
was already engaged.
audireto hearaudience (n)assembled group of The audience was stunned listeners or spectators;when the game show host people within hearingslapped the contestant.–P R E F I X E S , S U F F I X E S , A N D W O R D R O O T S–
Trang 15ROOTMEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
bellumwarbelligerentinclined to fight; The citizens feared that their hostile, aggressivebelligerent leader would start
an unjust war.
capereto takecaptivate (v)to capture the fancy ofThe story captivated me fromthe beginning; I could not putthe book down.
dicereto say, speakdictate (v)to state or order; She began to dictate her notes to say what needs tointo the microphone.
be written down
ducoto leadconduct (v)to lead or guide He conducted a detailed tour (thorough)of the building.
equusequalequilibrium (n)a state of balanceI have finally achieved anequilibrium between workand leisure.
facereto make manufacture (v)to make or produceThe clothes are manufactured
or dohere in this factory.
lucereto lightlucid (adj)very clearNo one could possibly havemisunderstood such a lucidexplanation.
manushandmanicure (n)cosmetic treatment To take care of her long finger-of the fingernailsnails, she gets a manicure
every week.
mediusmiddlemedian (adj)middle point; middle The median household income in a set of numbersin this wealthy neighborhood is
$89,000.
mittereto sendtransmit (v)to send acrossThe message was transmittedover the intercom.
omnisall; everyomnipresent present everywhereThat top-40 song is
(adj)omnipresent; everywhere I go,
I hear it playing.
plicareto foldapplication (n)putting one thing on His loan application was another; making adenied because of his poor formal requestcredit history.
Trang 16ROOTMEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
ponere/to placeposition (n)the place a person Although he is only 22, he
positumor thing occupiesholds a very powerful position
in the company.
protareto carry transport (v)to carry acrossThe goods will be transportedby boat.
quarereto ask or inquiry (n)act of inquiry, The inquiry lasted several
questioninvestigation,months but yielded no new
or questioninginformation.
scribereto writescribe (n)person who makes The scribe had developed copies of writingsthick calluses on his fingers
from years of writing.
sentireto feelsentient (adj)capable of feelingNo sentient beings should beused for medical research.
specereto look at spectacle (n)striking or impressiveThe debate was quite a
sightspectacle—you should have
seen the candidates attack oneanother.
spirareto breatherespiration (n)the act of breathingHis respiration was steady, buthe remained unconscious.
tendereto stretchextend (v)to make longer; Please extend the deadline by stretch outtwo weeks so we can complete
the project properly.
verbumwordverbatim (adv)word for wordThe student failed because shehad copied an article verbatiminstead of writing her ownessay.
C o m m o n G r e e k Wo r d R o o t s
Many other English words are derived from the ancient Greek language The following table shows the Greekwords that are used to create various English words The Greek words serve as roots, providing the core mean-ing of the words; prefixes, suffixes, and other alterations give each word its distinct meanmean-ing The word rootsare listed in alphabetical order.
–P R E F I X E S , S U F F I X E S , A N D W O R D R O O T S–
Trang 17ROOTMEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
bioslifebiology (n)the science ofHe is majoring in biology and living organismsplans to go to medical school.
chronostimechronological arranged in the order The story is confusing because (adj)in which things she did not put the events in
occurredchronological order.
dermaskindermatology (n)branch of medical She has decided to studyscience dealing withdermatology because she has the skin and itsalways been plagued by
diseasesrashes.
gamosmarriage, polygamy (n)the practice or custom Throughout history, certain
unionof having more thancultures have practiced
one spouse or matepolygamy, but it is uncommon
at a timetoday.
genosrace, sex, genocide (n)deliberate extermination The recent genocide in Bosnia kindof one race of peoplehas created a sharp increase in
the number of orphanedchildren.
geoearthgeography (n)the study of the Earth’s The geography of this region surface; the surface ormade it difficult for the different topographical featurestribes to interact.
of a place
grapheinto writecalligraphy (n)beautiful or elegant She used calligraphy when handwritingshe addressed the wedding
invitations.
kratesmember of democrat (n)one who believes in I have always been a
a groupor advocates democ-democrat, but I refuse to join racy as a principlethe Democratic Party.
of government
kryptoshidden, cryptic (adj)concealing meaning;He left such a cryptic message
secretpuzzlingon my answering machine that
I don’t know what he wanted.
metronto measuremetronome (n)device with a pendulum She used a metronome to that beats at a deter-help her keep the proper pace mined rate to measure as she played the song.time/rhythm
Trang 18ROOTMEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
morpheformpolymorphous having many formsMost mythologies have a
(adj)polymorphous figure, a “shape
shifter” who can be both ani-mal and human.
pathossuffering, pathetic (adj)arousing feelings Willy Loman is a complexfeelingof pity or sadnesscharacter who is both pathetic
and heroic.
philoslovingxenophile (n)a person who is Alex is a xenophile; I doubt he attracted to foreignwill ever come back to the peoples, cultures,States.
or customs
phobosfearxenophobe (n)person who fears Don’t expect Len to go on the or hates foreignerstrip; he is a xenophobe.or strange cultures
or customs
photoslightphotobiotic living or thriving only Plants are photobiotic and will (adj)in the presence of lightdie without light.
podosfootpodiatrist (n)an expert in diagnosis The podiatrist saw that the and treatment of ingrown toenail had become ailments of the humaninfected.
foot
psuedeinto deceivepseudonym (n)false nameWas George Eliot a pseudo-nym for Mary Ann Evans?
pyrfirepyromaniac (n)one who has a The warehouse fire was not an compulsion to setaccident; it was set by a things on firepyromaniac.
somabodypsychoso-of or involving both In a psychosomatic illness, matic (adj)the mind and bodyphysical symptoms are caused
by emotional distress.–P R E F I X E S , S U F F I X E S , A N D W O R D R O O T S–
Trang 19ROOTMEANINGEXAMPLEDEFINITIONSENTENCE
teledistanttelescope (n)optical instrument for While Galileo did not invent the making distant objectstelescope, he was the first to appear larger and use it to study the planets and nearer when viewed stars.
through the lens
thermeheatthermos (n)insulated jug or bottle The thermos kept my coffee that keeps liquidshot all afternoon.
hot or cold