Chemistry part 39, Julia Burdge,2e (2009) pptx

SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION A-5 Using the rule that x can be neglected if the initial acid concentration divided by the Ka is greater than 100, we find that in this case x cannot be neglected (0.0150/7.1 X 10 - 4 = 21). Successive approximation involves first neglecting x with respect to initial acid concentration and solving for x: x2 2 _ _ _ _ = X = 7.10 X 10- 4 0.0150 - x 0.0150 x 2 = (0.0150)(7.10 X 10- 4 ) = 1.07 X 10 - 5 x = ~ 1.07 X 10 5 = 0.00326 M We then solve for x again, this time using the calculated value of x on the bottom of the fraction: x 2 2 0.0150 - x 0.0150 ~ 0.00326 = 7.10 X 10- 4 x 2 = (0.0150 - 0.00326)(7.10 X 10 - 4 ) = 8.33 X 10- 6 x = ~ 8.33 X 10 - 6 = 0.00289 M Note that the calculated value of x decreased from 0.00326 to 0.00289. We now use the new calcu- lated value of x on the bottom of the fraction and solve for x again: 2 0.0150 - x 0.0150 ~ 0.00289 = 7.10 X 10- 4 x 2 = (0.0150 - 0.00289)(7.10 X 10- 4 ) = 8.60 X 10- 6 x = ~ 8.60 X 10 - 6 = 0.00293 M This time the value of x increased slightly. We use the new calculated value and solve for x again. x 2 2 0.0150 - x 0.0150 ~ 0.00293 = 7.10 X 10 - 4 x 2 = (0.0150 - 0.00293)(7.10 X 10- 4 ) = 8.57 X 10- 6 x = ~8.57 X 10 - 6 = 0.00293 M This time we find that the answer is still 0.00293 M, so there is no need to repeat the process. In general, we apply the method of successive approximation until the value of x obtained does not differ from the value obtained in the previous step. The value of x determined using successive approximation is the same value we would get if we were to use the quadratic equation. , • • THERMODYNAMIC DATA AT 1 ATM AND 25°C~:- A-6 INORGANIC SUBSTANCES Substance I1H'f (kJ / mol) aG'f (kJ/mol) S° (J/K . mol) Ag (s) 0 0 42.7 Ag+(aq) 105.9 77 .1 73.9 AgCI(s) - 127.0 -109 .7 96.1 AgBr (s) -99.5 - 95.9 107.1 Agl(s) -62.4 -66.3 114 .2 AgN0 3 (s) -1 23.1 -32.2 140.9 AI (s) 0 0 28.3 AI 3+( aq) - 524.7 - 481.2 -313 .38 AI 2 0 3 (S) - 1669.8 - 1576.4 50.99 As(s) 0 0 35.15 AsOl - (aq) -870 .3 - 635.97 -144 .77 AsH 3 (g) 171.5 H 3 As 0 4 (s) -900.4 Au (s) 0 0 47.7 AU 203(S) 80.8 163.2 125.5 AuCI (s) - 35.2 AuCI 3 (s) -118.4 B (s) 0 0 6.5 B 2 0 3 (S) - 12 63.6 - 1184 .1 54.0 H 3 B0 3 (s) - 1087.9 - 963.16 89.58 H 3 B0 3 (aq) - 1067.8 - 963.3 159.8 Ba (s) 0 0 66.9 Ba 2 +( aq) - 538.4 - 560.66 1 2. 55 B aO(s) -558.2 -52 8.4 70.3 BaC 1 2 (5) -860.1 - 810.66 125.5 BaS04 (s) -1464.4 - 1353.1 132.2 BaC0 3 (s) -12 18.8 - 1138.9 1 12 .1 Be (s) 0 0 9.5 BeO (s) -610.9 -581.58 14.1 Br 2(1) 0 0 152.3 Br(g ) 30.7 3.14 245.13 *T he thermodynamic quantities of ions are based on the reference states that 6.H f[ H +(aq)] = 0, 6.Gf[H +(aq)] = 0, and SO[ H +( aq)] = 0. INORGANIC SUBSTANCES A- ? Substance I1Hf (kJlmol) I1Gf (kJlmol) S° (J/K . mol) Br-(aq) - 120.9 -102.8 80.? HB r(g) - 36.2 -53.2 198.48 C(graphite) 0 0 5.69 C(diamond) 1.90 2.87 2.4 CO(9) - 110.5 - 137.3 197.9 CO z (9) - 393.5 -394.4 213.6 COz(aq) - 412.9 -386 .2 12 1 .3 CO~-(aq) - 676.3 - 528.1 -53.1 HC0 3 (aq) -691.1 - 587.1 94.98 H Z C0 3 (aq) -699.7 - 623.2 187.4 C5 z (9) 11 5.3 65.1 237.8 C5 z (l) 87.3 63.6 151.0 HCN(aq) 105.4 11 2. 1 128.9 CW(aq) 151.0 165.69 117.99 ( NH zhCO(s) - 333.19 -197.15 104.6 (N HzhCO(aq) - 319.2 -203.84 173.85 Ca(s) 0 0 41.6 Ca(9) 179.3 145.5 154.8 Ca2+(aq) -542 .96 -553.0 - 55.2 CaO(s) - 635.6 -604.2 39.8 Ca(OHh(s) - 986.6 - 896.8 83.4 Ca F z(s) - 1214.6 - 1161.9 68.87 CaClz(s) - 794.96 - 750.19 113.8 Ca50 4 (s) -1432.69 - 1320.3 106.69 CaC0 3 (s) -1206.9 - 1128.8 92.9 Cd(s) 0 0 51.46 Cd 2+ (aq) - 72.38 - 77.7 -6109 CdO(s) -254.6 - 225.06 54.8 CdC l z(s) -389.1 - 342.59 118.4 Cd50 4 (s) -926.17 -820.2 137.2 Cl z (9) 0 0 223.0 CI(9) 121 .7 105.7 165.2 CI - (aq) - 167.2 - 131.2 56.5 HCI(g) - 92.3 - 95.27 187.0 Co(s) 0 0 28.45 Coz + (aq) - 67.36 -51.46 155.2 CoO(s) -239.3 - 213.38 43.9 • Cr(s) 0 0 23.77 Cr 2+ (aq) -138.9 CrZ03(S) - 11 28.4 -1046 .8 81.1 7 C r O~ - (aq) - 863 .1 6 -706.26 38.49 Cr zO? - (aq) -1460 .6 -1257.29 213.8 C5(S) 0 0 82.8 (Continued) A-8 APPENDIX 2 Thermodynamic Data at 1 atm and 25 °( Substance Il Hf (kJ/mol) IlGf (kJ/mo l) S° (J/K . mol) C5(g ) 76.50 49 . 53 175.6 Cs +( aq) -247.69 -282 .0 13 3.05 CsCI (s) -442.8 -414. 4 101.2 Cu (s) 0 0 33.3 Cu +( aq) 51.88 50.2 - 26.4 • Cu 2+( aq) 64.39 64.98 -9 9.6 CuO (s) - 155.2 -127 .2 43 .5 CU20 (S) - 166.69 -146 .36 100.8 CuC I( s) -134.7 -118 .8 91 .6 CuC I 2 (s) -205.85 7 7 CuS (s) -48.5 -49 .0 66 .5 CUS0 4( S) - 769.86 -661.9 113.39 F 2 (g) 0 0 203.34 F(g ) 80.0 61.9 158 .7 naq ) -329.1 -276.48 -9 .6 HF (g) -271.6 - 270.7 173.5 Fe (s) 0 0 27.2 Fe 2 +( aq) -87.86 -8 4.9 -1 13.39 Fe 3+( aq) - 47.7 - 10.5 -293 .3 FeO (s) -272.0 -2 55.2 60.8 Fe203 (S) -822.2 -741.0 90.0 Fe ( OH h( s) - 568.19 -483.5 5 79 .5 Fe ( OH h( s) -824.25 7 7 H(g) 218.2 203.2 114.6 H 2 (g) 0 0 13 1. 0 H+(aq) 0 0 0 OW (aq) - 229.94 - 157.30 - 10.5 H 2 O(g) -241.8 - 228.6 188.7 H 2 O(l) -285.8 -237.2 69.9 H 2 0 2 (1) -187.6 - 118.1 7 Hg (l) 0 0 77 .4 Hg 2+( aq) - 164.38 HgO (s) -90.7 - 58.5 720 HgCI 2 (s) - 230.1 Hg 2 CI 2 (s) -264.9 - 210.66 196 .2 HgS (s) - 58.16 - 48 .8 77.8 HgS0 4 (s) - 704.17 Hg 2 S0 4 (S) -741 .99 - 623.92 200.75 1 2 (s) 0 0 116.7 l(g) 106.8 70.21 180.67 I- (aq) -55.9 -51.67 10 9. 37 HI(g) 25.9 1.30 206.3 K(s) 0 0 63.6 INORGANIC SUBSTANCES A-9 Sub stance A.Hf (kJ/mol) A.Gf (kJ / mol) S° (J/K . mol) iCaq) - 251.2 - 282.28 102.5 mH ( s) - 425.85 CI ( s) -435.87 - 408.3 82.68 KCI 0 3 (s) -391.20 - 289.9 142.97 KCI0 4 ( s) - 433.46 -304.18 151 .0 K Br (s) - 392.17 - 379.2 96.4 KI(s) -327.65 -322.29 104.35 KN 0 3 (s) -492.7 -393.1 132.9 Li( s) 0 0 28.0 Li(g) 159.3 126.6 138.8 Li +(aq) - 278.46 - 293.8 14.2 LiC I(s) - 408.3 - 384.0 59.30 Li 2 O(s) -595.8 ") ") LiOH(s) - 487.2 -443.9 50.2 Mg(s) 0 0 32.5 Mg(g) 150 115 148.55 Mg2+(aq) - 461.96 -456.0 -117 .99 MgO(s) -601.8 - 569.6 26.78 Mg(OHh(s) - 924.66 - 833.75 63.1 MgCI 2 (s) -6 41.8 - 592.3 89.5 MgS0 4 ( s) - 1278.2 -1 173.6 91.6 MgC0 3 (s) -1112.9 -1029.3 65.69 Mn(s) 0 0 31.76 Mn 2+ (aq) -218.8 -223.4 -83.68 Mn0 2 (S) - 520.9 -466.1 53 .1 N 2 (g) 0 0 191.5 N 3"(aq) 245.18 ") ") NH 3 (g) - 46.3 - 16.6 193.0 NH !( aq) -132.80 - 79.5 112.8 NH 4 CI(s ) -3 15.39 -203.89 94.56 NH 3 (aq) - 80.3 -26.5 11 1 .3 N 2 H 4 (1) 50.4 NO(g) 90.4 86.7 210.6 N0 2 (g) 33.85 51 .8 240.46 N 2 0 4 (g) 9.66 98.29 304 .3 N 2 °(g) 81.56 103.6 219.99 H N0 2 (aq) - 118.8 -53.6 • H N0 3 (1) - 173.2 - 79.9 155.6 N0 3" (aq) -206.57 -110.5 146.4 Na( s) 0 0 51.05 Na(g) 107.7 77.3 153.7 Na+ (aq) -239 .66 - 261.87 60.25 N a20(S) - 41 5.9 - 376.56 72.8 (Continued) A-l0 APPENDIX 2 Ther modynamic Data at 1 atm and 25 °C Substance tl.Hf (kJlmol) tl.Gf (kJlmol) S° (JIK . mol) NaCI (s) - 410.9 -384 .0 72.38 Na l( s) - 288.0 Na 2 50 4( S) -1384.49 - 1266.8 149.49 NaN0 3 (s) -466.68 -365.89 116.3 Na2C0 3( S) - 1130.9 -1047.67 135.98 J NaHC0 3 (s) -947.68 - 851.86 102.09 N i( s) 0 0 30.1 Ni 2 +( aq) - 64.0 - 46.4 -159.4 NiO (s) - 244.35 -216.3 38.58 N i( OH hC s) - 538.06 -453.1 79.5 O(g ) 249.4 230.1 160.95 0 2 (g ) 0 0 205.0 0 3 (aq ) - 12.09 16.3 110.88 03(g) 142.2 163.4 237.6 P(white) 0 0 44.0 P( red ) -18.4 13.8 29.3 pot (aq) -128407 - 1025.59 - 217.57 P 4 O lO (S) - 3012.48 PH 3 (g) 9.25 18. 2 210.0 HPO l - (aq) - 1298.7 -1094.1 - 35.98 H 2 P0 4 (aq) - 1302.48 -1135.1 89.1 Pb (s) 0 0 64.89 Pb 2 +( aq) 1 .6 - 24.3 21.3 PbO (s) - 217.86 -188.49 69.45 Pb0 2 (s) - 276.65 -218.99 76.57 PbCI 2 (s) - 359.2 - 313.97 136.4 Pb5 (s) -94.3 -92.68 91.2 Pb50 4 (s) - 918.4 -811.2 147.28 Pt (s) 0 0 41.84 PtCl l-( aq) - 516.3 -3 84.5 175.7 Rb (s) 0 0 69.45 Rb(g ) 85.8 55.8 . 170.0 Rb +( aq) - 246.4 -282.2 124.27 RbBr (s) - 389.2 -3 78.1 108.3 RbCI (s) - 435.35 -407.8 95.90 Rbl(s ) - 328 -326 118.0 5(rhombic) 0 0 31.88 5(monociinic) 0.30 0.10 32.55 50(g) 5.01 -1 9.9 221.8 50 2 (g) -296.4 -3 00.4 248. 5 50 3 (g ) - 395.2 -370.4 256.2 50 ~- (aq ) - 624 .2 5 -49 7.06 43.5 50 l-( aq) - 907.5 -741.99 1 7.1 5 ORGANIC SUBSTANCES A-l l Substance Il H¥ (kJ/mol) Il G¥ (kJlmol) S° (J / K . mol) H 2 S(g) - 20.15 -33.0 205.64 H50 3 (aq) -627.98 -527.3 132.38 H50 4 (aq) -885.75 -752.87 126.86 H 2 50 4 (1) -8 11.3 7 7 5F 6 (g) -1096.2 7 7 5i(s) 0 0 18.70 5i0 2 (s) -8 59.3 -805.0 41.84 5r(s) 0 0 54.39 5r 2 + (aq) -545.5 - 557.3 -39.33 5r CI 2 (s) -828.4 -781.15 117.1 5 5r50 4 (s) - 1444.74 - 1334.28 121.75 5rC0 3 (s) -1218.38 -1137.6 97.07 Zn(s) 0 0 41.6 Zn 2 + (aq ) - 152.4 - 147.2 - 106.48 ZnO(s) - 348.0 - 318.2 43.9 ZnCI 2 (s) - 415.89 -369.26 108.37 Zn5(s) - 202.9 -198.3 57.7 ZnS04(s) - 978.6 - 871.6 124.7 ORGANIC SUBSTANCES Substance Formula Il H¥ (kJ / mol) Il G¥ (kJlmol) S° (JIK . mol) Acetic acid(l) CH 3 COOH -484.2 - 389.45 159.8 Ace taldehyde(g) CH 3 CHO - 166.35 -139.08 264.2 Acetone(l) CH 3 COCH 3 -246.8 -153.55 198.7 Acetylene(g) C 2 H 2 226.6 209.2 200.8 Benzene(l) C 6 H 6 49.04 124.5 172.8 Butane(g) C 4 H 10 -124.7 - 15.7 310.0 Ethanol(l) C 2 H s OH - 276.98 -174.18 161.0 Ethane(g) C 2 H 6 -84.7 -32.89 229.5 Ethylene(g) C 2 H 4 52.3 68.1 219.5 Formic ac id(l) HCOOH -409.2 - 346.0 129.0 Glucose(s) C 6 H 12 0 6 - 1274.5 - 910.56 212.1 Methane(g) CH 4 -74.85 -50.8 186.2 Methanol(l) CH 3 0H - 238.7 -166 .3 126.8 Propane(g) C 3 H S -103.9 - 23.5 269.9 • 5u cr ose(s) C 12 H 22 0 11 -2221.7 - 1544.3 360.2 A absolute temperature scale. A scale based on -273.15 °C (absolute zero) being the lowest point. (11.2) absolute zero. Theoretically the lowest obtainable temperature: - 273.15°C orO K. (11.2) accuracy. The closeness of a measurement to the true or accepted value. (1.5) acid. See Arrhenius acid, Br¢nsted acid, and Lewis acid. acid ionization constant (K.). The equilibrium constant that indicates to what extent a weak acid ionizes. (16.5) actinide series. Series of elements that has partially filled Sf and/or 6d subshells. (6.9) activated complex. A transient species that forms when molecules collide in an effective collision. (14.4) activation energy (E.). The minimum amount of energy to begin a chemical reaction. (14.4) activity series. A list of metals arranged from top to bottom in order of decreasing ease of oxidation. (4.4) actual yield. The amount of product actually obtained from a reaction. (3.7) addition polymer. A large molecule that forms when small molecules known as monomers join together. (10.6) adhesion. The attractions between unlike molecules. (12.2) alcohol. A compound consisting of an alkyl group and the functional group -OH. (10.2) aldehyde. A compound containing a hydrogen atom bonded to a carbonyl group. (10.2) aliphatic. Descri bes organic molecules that do not contain the benzene ring. (10.1) alkali metal. An element from Group lA, with the exception of H (i.e., Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr). (2.4) alkaline earth metal. An element from Group 2A (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr , Ba, and Ra). (2.4) alkane. Hydrocarbons having the general formula C"H 2 ,, +2, where 11 = 1, 2, (2.6) alkyl group. A portion of a molecule that resembles an alkane. (10.2) allotrope. One of two or more distinct forms of an element. (2.6) alpha particle. A helium ion with a positive charge of + 2. (2.2) alpha ray. See alpha particle. amalgam. A substance made by combining mercury with one or more other metals. (Chapter 19, Opening Essay; 23.2) amide. An organic molecule that contains an amide group. (10.2) amine. An organic molecule that contains an amino group. (10.2) amino acid. A compound that contains both an amino group and a carboxy group. (10.2) amorphous solid. A solid that lacks a regular three-dimensional arrangement of atoms. (12.5) amphoteric. Describes an oxide that displays both acidic and basic properties. (7.7) amplitude. The vertical distance from the midline of a wave to the top of the peak or the bottom of the trough. (6.1) angular momentum quantum number (f). Describes the shape of the atomic orbital. (6.6) anion. An ion with a negative charge. (2.7) anisotropic. Dependent upon the axis of measurement. (25.3) anode. The electrode at which oxidation occurs. (19.2) antibonding molecular orbital. A molecular orbital that is higher in energy than the atomic orbitals that combined to produce it. (9.6) aromatic. Describes organic compounds that are related to benzene or that contain one or more benzene rings. (10.1) Arrhenius acid. Substance that increases H+ concentration when added to water. (2 .6 , 4.3) Arrhenius base. Substance that increases OH- concentration when added to water. (4.1, 4.3) Arrhenius equation. An equation that gives the dependence of the rate constant of a reaction . on temperature: k = Ae- E / RT . (14.4) atactic. Describes polymers in which the substituents are oriented randomly along the polymer chain. (25.2) atom. The basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical combination. (2.2) atomic mass. The mass of the atom given in atomic mass units (amu). (2.5) atomic mass unit (amu). A mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the ma ss of one carbon-12 atom. (2.5) atomic number (Z). The number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element. (2.3) atomic orbital. The wave function of an electron in an atom. (6.5) atomic radius. Metallic: One-half the distance between the nuclei in the two adjacent atoms of the same element in a metal. Covalent: One-half the distance between the nuclei of the two identical atoms in a diatomic molecule. (7.4) atomic weight. The average atomic mass. (2.5) Autbau principle. The process by which the periodic table can be built up by successively adding one proton to the nucleus and one electron to the appropriate atomic orbital. (6.8) autoionization of water. Ionization of water molecules to give H+ and OH - ions. (16.2) Avogadro's law. The volume of a sample of gas (V) is directly proportional to the number of moles (n) in the sample at constant temperature and pressure: Vex n. (11.2) Avogadro's number (N A ). The number of atoms in exactly 12 g of carbon-12: 6.022 X 10 23 . (3.4) axial. Describes the two bonds that form an axis perpendicular to the trigonal plane. (9.1) B band theory. A theory wherein atomic orbitals merge to form energy bands. (23.3) barometer. An instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. (11.1) base. See Arrhenius base, Br¢nsted base, and Lewis base. base ionization constant (K b ). The equmbrium constant that indicates to what extent a weak base ionizes. (16.6) , battery. A portable, self-contained source of electric energy consisting of galvanic cells or a series of galvanic cells. (19.6) beta particle. An electron. (2.2) beta ray. See beta particle. bimolecular. Describes a reaction in which two reactant molecules collide. (14.5) binary compound. A substance that consists of just two different elements. (2.6) blackbody radiation. The electromagnetic radiation emitted from a heated solid. (6.2) G-1 G-2 GLOSSARY body-centered cubic cell. A unit cell with one atom at the center of the cube and one atom at each of the eight comer s. (12.3) boiling point. The temperature at which vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure. (12.6) bond angle. The angle between two adjacent A - B bonds. (9.1) bond enthalpy. The enthalpy change associated with breaking a particular bond in 1 mole of gaseous molecule s. (8 .9 ) • bond order. A number ba sed on the number of electrons in bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals that indicate s, qualitatively, how stable a bond is. (9.6) bonding molecular orbital. A molecular orbital that is lower in energy than the atomic orbitals that combined to produce it. (9 .6 ) Born-Haber cycle. The cycle that relates the lattice energy of an ionic compound to quantities that can be measured. (8 .2) Boyle's law. The pressure of a fixed amount of gas at a constant temperature is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas: p ex IIV. (11.2) Bragg equation. An equation relating the wavelength of X-rays, the angle of diffraction. and the spacing between atoms in a lattic e. (12.3) breeder reactor. A nuclear reactor that produces more fi ssionable material than it consumes. (20.5) Brjjnsted acid. A substance that donates a proton (H+). (4.3, 16.1) Brjjnsted base. A substance that accepts a proton (H +). (4.3, 16.1) buffer. A solution that contains significant concentrations of both members of a conjugate pair (weak acid/conjugate ba se or weak base/conjugate acid). (17.2) c calorimetry. The measurement of heat changes. (SA) capillary action. The movement of liquid up a narrow tube as the result of adhesive forces. (12.2) carbocation. A species in which one of the carbons is surrounded by only six electron s. (10.5) carbon nanotube. A tube made of carbon atoms with dimensions on the order of nanometer s. (25.5) carboxylic acid. An organic acid that contains a carboxy group. (10.2) catalyst. A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without it se lf being consumed. (14.6) catenation. The formation of long carbon chain s. (10.1) cathode. The electrode at which reduction occurs. (19.2) cation. An ion with a positive charge. (2.7) cell potential (E cell ) ' The difference in electric potential between the cathode and the anode. (19.?) ceramics. Polymeric inorganic compounds that share the properties of hardness, strength, and high melting points. (25.2) chalcogens. Elements in Group 6A (0 , S, Se, Te, and Po ). (? A) Charles and Gay-Lussac's law. See Charles's law. Charles's law. The volume of a fixed amount of gas (\I) maintained at constant pressure is direc tl y proportional to absolute temperaulre (T): Vex T. (11.2) chelating agent. A polydentate ligand that forms complex ions with metal ions in solution. (22 .1 ) chemical change. A process in which one or mor e s ub stances are changed into one or more new substance s. (I A) chemical energy. Energy stored within the structural units (molecules or polyatomic ions) of chemical substance s. (5.1) chemical equation. Chemical symbols used to represent a chemic al reaction. (3 .3) chemical formula. Chemical symbols and numerical subscripts used to denote the composition of the s ub stance. (2 .6 ) chemical property. Any property of a substance that cannot be studied without converting the substance into so me other substance. (1 A) chemistry. The study of matter and the changes it undergoe s. (1.1) chiral. De scribes molecules with nonsuperimposable mirror image s. (lOA ) cholesteric. De scribes molecules that are parallel to each other within each layer, but where each layer is rotated with respect to the layers above and below it. (25 .3 ) cis. De scribes the isomer in which two substituents both lie on the same side of a double bond. ( lOA ) Clausius-Clapeyron equation. A linear relationship that exists between the natural log of va por pressure and the reciprocal of absolute temperature. (12.2) closed system. A system that can exchange energy ( but not mass) with the surroundings. (5.2) cohesion. The attraction between like molecule s. (12.2) colligative properties. Properties that depend on the number of solute particles in solution but do not depend on the nature of the solute particles. (13.5) collision theory. The reaction rate is directly prop0!1ional to the number of molecular collisions per second. (14A) colloid. A di spersion of particles of one substance throughout another substance. (13.7) combination reaction. A reaction in which two or more reactants combine to form a single product. (3.7) combustion analysis. An experimental determination of an empirical formula by a reaction with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. (3.5) combustion reaction. A reaction in which a substance bums in the presence of oxygen. (3 .7 ) common ion effect. The presence of a common ion suppresses the ionization of a weak acid or weak base. (17.1) composite material. A material made from two or more substances with different properties that remain separate in the bulk material. (25.2) compound. A substance composed of atoms of two or more elements chemicalJy united in fixed prop0!1ions. (1.2) concentration cell. A cell that has the same type of electrode and the same jo n in solution (at different concentrations) in the anode and cathode compartment s. (19.5) condensation. The phase transition from gas to liquid. (12.2) condensation polymer. A large molecule that forms when small molecules undergo condensation reactions. (10.6) condensation reaction. An elimination reaction in which two or more molecules become connected with the elimination of a sma ll molecule, often water. (10.6) condensed structural formula. Shows the same information as a structural formula, but in a condensed form. (10.3) conduction band. The antibonding band. (25.6) conductor. A substance through which electrons move freely. (23.3) conjugate acid. The cation that remains when a Brpnsted base accepts a proton. (16.1) conjugate base. The anion that remains when a Brpnsted acid donates a proton. (16.1) conjugate pair. The combination of a Brpnsted acid and its conjugate base (or the combination of a Brpnsted base and its conjugate acid). (16.1) constitutional isomers. Compounds with the same chemical formula but different structures. conversion factor. A fraction in which the same quantity is expressed one way in the numerator and another way in the denominator. (1 .6) coordinate covalent bond. A covalent bond in which one of the atoms donates both electrons. (8.8) coordination compound. A compound that contains coordinate covalent bonds between a metal ion (often a transition metal ion) and two or more polar molecules or ions. (22.1) coordination number. The number of atoms sun'ounding an atom in a crystal lattice. (12.3) The number of donor atoms surrounding a metal in a complex. (22. 1) copolymer. A polymer made of two or more different monomers. (10.6) corrosion. The undesirable oxidation of metals. (19.8) Coulomb's law. The force (F) between two charged objects COl and Q2) is directly proportional to the product of the two charges and inversely proportional to the distance (d) between the objects squared. (7.3) covalent bond. A shared pair of electrons. (8.3) covalent bonding. Two atoms sharing a pair of electrons. (8.3) covalent radius. Half the distance between adjacent, identical nuclei in a molecule. (7.4) critical mass. The minimum amount of fissionable material required to sustain a reaction. (20.5) critical pressure (Pc). The minimum pressure to at must be applied to liquefy a substance at its critical temperature. (12.6) critical temperature (Tc). The temperature at which the gas phase cannot be liquefied, no matter how great the applied pressure. (12.6) cross-link. A bond that forms between a functional group off the backbone of the polymer chain that interacts with another functional group of a second polymer strand creating a new covalent bond and causing the polymer to be stronger and more rigid. (25.1) crystal field splitting (11). The difference in energy between the lower and higher d-orbital energy levels. (22.3) crystalline solid. A solid that possesses rigid and long-range order; its atoms, molecules, or ions occupy specific positions. (12.3) D Dalton's law of partial pressures. The total pressure exerted by a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures exerted by each component of the mixture. (11.5) dative bond. A covalent bond in which one of the atoms donates both electrons. (8.8) de Broglie wavelength. A wavelength calculated using the following equation: A. = hlmu. (6.4) decomposition reaction. A reaction in which one reactant forms two or more products. (3.7) degenerate. Having an equal energy. (6.8) delocalized. Spread out over the molecule or part of the molecule, rather than confined between two specific atoms. (9.7) density. The ratio of mass to volume. (1.3) deposition. The phase change from gas to solid. (12.6) dextrorotatory. The term used to describe the enantiomer that rotates the plane-polarized light to the right. (22.2) diamagnetic. A species without unpaired electrons that is weakly repelled by magnetic fields. (9.6) diatomic molecule. A molecule that contains two atoms. (2.6) diffusion. The mixing of gases. (11. 6) dilution. The process of preparing a less concentrated solution from a more concentrated one. (4.5) dimensional analysis. The use of conversion factors in problem solving. (1.6) diode. An electronic device that restricts the flow of electrons in a circuit to one direction. (25.6) dipole moment (f1-). A quantitative measure of the polarity of a bond. (8.4) dipole-dipole interactions. Attractive forces that act between polar molecules. (12.1) diprotic acid. An acid with two ionizable protons. (4.3) dispersion forces. See London dispersion forces. displacement. An atom or ion in a compound is replaced by an atom of another element. (4.4) disproportionation. When an element undergoes both oxidation and reduction in the same reaction. (4.4) dissociation. The process by which an ionic compound, upon dissolution, breaks apart into its constituent ions. (4.1) donor atom. The atom that bears the unshared pair of electrons. (22.1) doping. The addition of very small quantities of an element with one more or one fewer valence electron than the natural semiconductor. (25.6) double bond. A multiple bond in which the atoms share two pairs of electrons. (8.3) dynamic equilibrium. Occurs when a forward process and reverse process are occurring at the same rate. (12.2) E effective collision. A collision that results in a reaction. (14.4) effective nuclear charge (Zeff). The actual magnitude of positive charge that is "experienced" by an electron in the atom. (7.3) effusion. The escape of a gas from a container into a vacuum. (11.6) elastomer. A material that can stretch or bend and then return to its original shape as long as the limits of its elasticity are not exceeded. (25.1 ) electricity. The movement of electrons. (4.1) electrode. A piece of conducting metal in an electrochemical cell at which either oxidation or reduction takes place. (19.2) electrolysis. The use of electric energy to drive a nonspontaneous redox reaction. (19.7) electrolyte. A substance that dissolves in water to yield a solution that conducts electricity. (4.1) electrolytic cell. An electrochemical cell used for electrolysis. (19.7) electromagnetic spectrum. Consists of radio waves, microwave radiation, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X rays, and gamma rays. (6.1) electromagnetic wave. A wave that has an electric field component and a magnetic field component. (6.1) GLOSSARY G-3 electron. A negatively charged subatomic particle found outside the nucleus of all atoms. (2.2) electron affinity (EA). The energy released (the negative of the enthalpy change, 11H) when an atom in the gas phase accepts an electron. (7.4) electron configuration. The distribution of electrons in the atomic orbitals of an atom. (6.8) electron density. The probability that an electron will be found in a particular region of an atom. (6.5) electron domain. A lone pair or a bond, regardless of whether the bond is single, double, or triple. (9.1) electron-domain geometry. The arrangement of electron domains (bonds and lone pairs) around a central atom. (9.1) electron spin quantum number (m s ). The fourth quantum number that differentiates two electrons in the same orbital. (6.6) electro negativity. The ability of an atom in a compound to draw electrons to itself. (8.4) electrophile. A region of positive or partial positive charge. (10.5) electrophiJic addition. An addition reaction that begins when an electrophile approaches a region of electron density. (10.5) electrostatic energy. The potential energy that results from the interaction of charged particles. (5.1) element. A substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. (1.2) elementary reaction. A reaction that occurs in a single collision of the reactant molecules. (14.5) elimination reaction. A reaction in which a double bond forms and a molecule such as water is removed. (10.5) emission spectrum. The light emitted, either as a continuum or in discrete lines, by a substance in an excited electronic state. (6.3) empirical formula. The chemical formula that conveys with the smallest possible whole numbers the ratio of combination of elements in a compound. (2.6) enantiomers. Molecules that are mirror images of each other but cannot be superimposed. (10.4,22.2) end point. The point at which the color of the indicator changes. (17.3) endothermic process. A process that absorbs heat. (5. ) energy. The capacity to do work or transfer heat. (5.1) enthalpy (n). A thermodynamic quantity defined by the equation H = V + pv. The change in enthalpy, I1H, is equal to the heat exchanged between the system and surroundings at constant pressure qp. (5.3) enthalpy of reaction (!1H rxn ). The difference between the enthalpy of the products and the enthalpy of the reactants. (5.3) [...]... [Xe]6s 24/ 45d106pl 6.95 Part (b) is correct in the view of contemporary quantum theory Bohr's explanation of emission and absorption line spectra appears to have universal validity Parts (a) and (c) are artifacts of Bohr's early planetary model of the hydrogen atom and are not considered to be valid today 6.97 (a) 4 (b) 6 (c) 10 (d) 1 (e) 2 6.99 Since the electrons are charged particles, the metal surface... radioactive decay series A sequence of nuclear reactions that ultimately result in the formation of a stable isotope (20.3) radioactivity The spontaneous emission of particles or radiation from unstable nuclei (2.2,20.1) Raoult's law The partial pressure of a soh'en' over a solution, Pi, is given by the vapor pressure of the pure solvent, p o, times the mole fraction of the solvent in the solution Xi... The amount of energy required to stretch or increase the surface of a liquid by a unit area (12.2) surroundings The part of the universe not included in the system (5 1 ) syndiotactic Polymers in which the substituents alternate positions along the polymer chain (25 1 ) system The specific part of the universe that is of interest to us (5 1 ) T tacticity Descri bes the relative arrangements of chiral... (S.3) thermochemistry The study of the heat associated with chemical reactions and physical processes (S l ) thermodynamics The scientific study of the interconversion of heat and other kinds of energy (S l ) thermonuclear reaction Generally refers to a fusion reaction (20.6) thermoplastic Polymers that can be melted and reshaped (2S.1) thermosetting Polymers that assume their final shape as part of the... alpha particles, or other nuclei (20.4) triple bond A multiple bond in which the atoms share three pairs of electrons (S.3) triple point The point at which all three phase boundary lines meet (12.7) triprotic acid An acid molecule with three ionizable protons (4.3) troposphere The layer of the atmosphere closest to Earth's surface (21.1 ) tyndall effect The scattering of visible light by colloidal particles... to the other parameters, P, T, and 11 (11.7) G-9 van der Waal's forces The attractive forces that hold particles together in the condensed phases that include dipole-dipole interaction (including hydrogen bonding) and dispersion forces (12 1) van ' t Hoff factor (i) The ratio of the actual number of particles in solution after dissociation to the number of formula units initially dissolved in solution... viscosity A measure of a fluid 's resistance to flow (12.2) wavelength (A) The distance between identical points on successive waves (6.1) weak acid An acid that ionizes only partially ( 16.S ) weak base A base that ionizes only partially ( 16.6) weak conjugate acid A conjugate acid of a strong base Does not react with water (16.7) weak conjugate base A conjugate base of a strong acid Does not react... of mass (4.6) greenhouse effect Describes the trapping of heat near Earth's surface by gases in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide (2 1.5 ) ground state The lowest energy state of an atom (6.3) group The elements in a vertical column of the periodic table (2.4) H half-cell One compartment of an electrochemical cell containing an electrode immersed in a solution (19.2) half-life (t112)' The... chloride dissolves, creating a partial vacuum Pressure from the atmosphere forces more water up the vertical tube 11.1157.11.117 (a) 61.2 mls (b) 4.58 X 10- 4 s (c) 328 mls The nns speed of Bi = 366 mis, (average of all Bi atoms), so these were some of the slower atoms in the sample 11.119 _0 9 kg of oxygen, 1.58 X 104 L 11.121 The fru it ripens more rapidly because the quantity (partial pressure) of ethylene... oxoanion (2.7) oxoanion A polyatomic anion that contains one or more oxygen atoms bonded to a central atom (2.7) p paramagnetic A species with unpaired electrons that are attracted by magnetic fields (9.6) partial pressure (Pi)' The pressure exerted by a component in a gas mixture (11.5) pascal (Pa) The SI unit of pressure (11.1) Pauli exclusion principle No two electrons in an atom can have the same four . more distinct forms of an element. (2.6) alpha particle. A helium ion with a positive charge of + 2. (2.2) alpha ray. See alpha particle. amalgam. A substance made by combining. of galvanic cells or a series of galvanic cells. (19.6) beta particle. An electron. (2.2) beta ray. See beta particle. bimolecular. Describes a reaction in which two reactant. properties. Properties that depend on the number of solute particles in solution but do not depend on the nature of the solute particles. (13.5) collision theory. The reaction rate is