Appendix 3: Punctuation A Full stop (.), question mark (?) and exclamation mark (!) A sentence ends with one of these punctuation marks. Full stop: It's cold today. The office was closed. Please be careful Question mark: Who's that? Did you see the show? Could you wait, please? Exclamation mark: Oh, no! I don't believe it! In the US a full stop is called a 'period'. B Semi-colon (;) We can use a semi-colon between two separate statements which are linked in meaning. Melanie is a very kind person; she visits David in hospital every day. We could also use a full stop here. C Colon (:) We can use a colon before an explanation or before a list. Vicky felt nervous: she hated the dark. There wasn't much in the fridge: a couple of sausages, some butter, half a bottle of milk. D Dash (-) A dash is rather informal. It is sometimes used instead of a colon or a semi-colon. I'm having a great time - there's lots to do here. Vicky felt nervous - she hated the dark. E Comma (,) We often use a comma when we link two statements with and, but or or. Daniel was tired, and his feet were hurting. It's a really good camera, but I can't afford it. Note the two subjects in each sentence: Daniel his feet and It I. When there is only one subject, we do not use a comma. Daniel sat down and took his shoes off. We can also use a comma when a sentence has a linking word like when or although. When the office is busy, Sarah has to work late. For commas with relative clauses, see Unit 141. Sometimes a comma can separate off an adverb or a phrase. Sarah, unfortunately, has to work late. On busy days, Sarah has to work late. Here the commas separate off on busy days and unfortunately. The rules about commas are not very exact. In general, commas are more likely around longer phrases. With a short phrase there is often no comma. On busy days Sarah has to work late. Sometimes she has to work late. It is less usual to separate off something at the end of the sentence. Sarah has to work late when the office is busy. She stayed late to get the work done. We do not usually put a comma before to expressing purpose. We also use commas in a list of more than two. The last two are linked by and, often without a comma. I went out with Rachel, Vicky, Emma and Matthew. F Quotation marks (") We put direct speech in quotation marks. Laura said, 'You haven't put those shelves up yet.' 'I haven't had time,' replied Trevor. We normally use a comma to separate the direct speech from the rest of the sentence. The comma comes before the quotation mark. Quotation marks are also called 'quotes' or 'inverted commas'. Double quotation marks are sometimes used. Laura said, "You haven't put those shelves up yet." We can put quotation marks around titles. Do you watch that American comedy series called 'Roseanne'? We often use quotation marks when we mention a word or phrase. What does 'punctuation' mean? Rap music is also called 'hip hop'. G Hyphen (-) We sometimes use hyphens in these structures. Compound noun: eating ice-cream Compound expression before a noun: an oven-ready meal Noun formed from a phrasal verb: ready for take-off Noun + ing-form: interested in rock-climbing Before the last word of a compound number: a hundred and twenty-six people After some prefixes: anti-aircraft guns Letter + noun: sending an e-mail The rules about hyphens are not very exact. For example, you may see a compound noun written as phonecard, phone-card or phone card. Hyphens are not very frequent in British English, and they are used even less in American English. If you are unsure, it is usually safer to write two separate words. H Apostrophe (') Look at these examples. Today we're going for a drive in the country. Everyone is looking at Nick's car. We use an apostrophe (') in short forms, when there is a missing letter, e.g. we're (= we are). See Unit 32. We also use an apostrophe with s to form the possessive of a noun, e.g. Nick's car. See Unit 93. I Capital letters There are two capital letters (big letters) in this sentence. The boss said I could leave early. We use a capital letter at the beginning of a sentence and for the word I. We also use a capital letter to begin the names of people, places, companies, etc. Mark and Sarah New Orleans the High Street Somerset House General Motors This includes the names of books, films, magazines, etc. All the important words start with a capital letter. The Spy Who Loved Me Four Weddings and a Funeral Newsweek We also use a capital letter for days of the week, months of the year, holidays and festivals, historical times, nationalities and most abbreviations. Monday August Easter the New Year the Industrial Revolution some Italian wine the UN (= the United Nations) Appendix 5: American English The differences between British and American English are mainly matters of pronunciation and vocabulary. There are also a few spelling differences such as British centre and colour and American center and color. There are some grammatical differences. Although they are not very great, those points that are most relevant to learners of English are explained here. A Seem, look, etc Compare these examples. BRITISH AMERICAN In British English there can be a noun (e.g. Americans do not say She seemed a good pilot. pilot) after appear, feel, look, seem and sound. They use to be or like after these verbs. She seemed (to be) a good pilot. She seemed to be a good pilot. OR She seemed like a good pilot. It looks (to be) a lovely evening. It looks to be a lovely evening. OR It looks like a lovely evening. I felt a fool. I felt like a fool. B Present perfect and past simple (Units 11-15) The British use the present perfect for recent Americans can use either the present perfect or actions, and especially with just, already and yet. the past simple in these sentences. Bob has washed the dishes, look. Bob has washed the dishes, look. OR Bob washed the dishes, look. We've already eaten our lunch. We've already eaten our lunch. OR We already ate our lunch. I've just seen Elaine. I've just seen Elaine. OR I just saw Elaine. Have you corrected your work yet? Have you corrected your work yet? OR Did you correct your work yet? The British normally use the present perfect Americans normally use the past simple with with ever and never, not the past simple. ever and never, but the present perfect is possible. Have you ever played cricket? Did you ever play baseball? OR Have you ever played baseball? The child has never seen snow before. The child never saw snow before. OR The child has never seen snow before. C Shall (Unit 23D) The British use will for the future, but they can Americans do not normally use shall for the also use shall in the first person. future. I will/I shall be here tomorrow. I will be here tomorrow. We will/We shall contact you. We will contact you. The British use shall to make an offer. Americans normally use should. Shall I make the coffee? Should I make the coffee? The British can use Shall we ? for a Americans do not normally use shall in suggestion. suggestions. Shall we go for a walk? How about a walk? Would you like to take a walk? D Got and gotten Both have and have got are used in Britain and in the US. He has a lot of money./He's got a lot of money. (= He is rich.) The British do not use gotten. In the US, have gotten expresses an action. He's made a lot of money from his business He's gotten/made a lot of money from his activities. business activities. Americans also use gotten meaning 'become'. Your driving has got better. Your driving has gotten better. E Negatives and questions with have (Unit 31) In Britain there are two different structures. Americans normally use the auxiliary do. I haven't (got) enough time. I don't have enough time. OR I don't have enough time. Has Carol got a computer? Does Carol have a computer? OR Does Carol have a computer? In the past tense, did is usual in both countries. We didn't have tickets. F Emphatic do (Unit 33C) The British can use do with an imperative for Do with an imperative is less common in the emphasis. US. Have a piece of cake. Have a piece of cake. OR Do have a piece of cake. G Do for an action The British can use do to refer to an action Americans do not use do in this way. already mentioned. I don't practise as often as I should (do). I don't practice as often as I should. You'd better take your pill. ~ I already have You'd better take your pill. ~ I already have. (done). H Question tags (Unit 42) Both the British and the Americans can use question tags when talking about facts. Blackpool is in Lancashire, isn't it? Las Vegas is in Nevada, isn't it? But in general Americans use tags much less often than the British. They do not use tags to persuade or to argue. A sentence like You aren't listening to me, are you? is British but not American. But Americans often use right? and OK? as tags. I'll bring the luggage in, shall I? I'll bring the baggage in, OK? I Can't and mustn't (Unit 46C) The British use can't to say that something is Americans can also use mustn't to say that impossible. something is impossible. I rang, but there's no reply. They can't be at I called, but there's no reply. They can't be home. home./They mustn't be home. J Needn't and don't need to (Unit 48) The British can use either form. Americans do not normally use needn't. You needn't see the inspector. You don't need to see the inspector. OR You don't need to see the inspector. K Group nouns (Unit 81B) In Britain a group noun can usually take either a In the US a group noun takes a singular verb, singular or a plural verb. The crowd was getting restless. The crowd was/were getting restless. Sweden plays Germany tomorrow. Sweden plays/play Germany tomorrow. L The (Unit 86C and 87A) The British use the with a musical instrument. Americans can leave out the. / can play the piano. I can play piano/play the piano. The British say in hospital. Americans say in the hospital. My sister is still in hospital. My sister is still in the hospital. M Numbers The British use and between hundred and the Americans can leave out and. rest of the number. six hundred twenty six hundred and twenty OR six hundred and twenty N Dates There are a number of different ways of writing and saying dates, but these are the most common. BRITISH AMERICAN 23 June June 23 'the twenty-third of June' 'June twenty-third' 'June the twenty-third' The British write 23.6.98, and Americans write 6.23.98. 0 You and one (Unit 98C) The British use you for people in general, Americans use you for people in general. One is including the speaker. In more formal English unusual, they can use one. You/One can't be too careful You can't be too careful. P Somewhere and someplace (Unit 103) In informal American English, everyplace, someplace, anyplace and no place can be used as well as everywhere, somewhere, etc. Let's find somewhere to eat. Let's find somewhere/someplace to eat. Q Adjectives and adverbs (Unit 108) In informal speech we can sometimes use an adjective form instead of an adverb. Americans do this more than the British. We had some really nice weather. We had some really nice/some real nice weather. It certainly doesn't make things any easier. It certainly/sure doesn't make things any easier. R Prepositions (Units 118-126) There are some differences in prepositions. BRITISH AMERICAN round/around the village around the village towards/toward the west toward the west looking out of the window looking out the window/out of the window outside the town outside the town/outside of the town In American English there is a special use of through as a preposition of time. He'll be on the road from Tuesday to/till He'll be on the road (from) Tuesday through Friday. Friday. They will stay in Brighton until the end of They will stay in Miami through April. April. Note the prepositions after different. BRITISH AMERICAN This cup is differentfrom/to the others. This cup is different from/than the others. Compare these expressions. BRITISH AMERICAN in Bond Street on Fifth Avenue at the weekend, at weekends on the weekend, on weekends stay at home stay home a player in the team a player on the team ten minutes past four ten minutes past/after four twenty to seven twenty to/of seven write to me write me/write to me talk to someone talk to/with someone meet someone meet with someone S In case (Unit 148D) In case can have different meanings. BRITISH AMERICAN Take an umbrella in case it rains. In case you're sick, you should call the office. (= because it may rain) (= if you're sick) T Go and Americans can leave out and from this structure. I'll go and buy the tickets. I'll go buy/I'll go and buy the tickets. U The subjunctive We can use expressions like I suggest that and It's important that to talk about what we want to happen. Look at these examples. BRITISH AMERICAN Tim's parents have suggested that he gets a Tim's parents have suggested that he get a job. job/that he should get a job. It's important that everything go according to It's important that everything goes/everything plan. should go according to plan. The British normally use the present simple or Americans normally use a form called the should. (They use the subjunctive only in formal 'subjunctive', e.g. get, go. English.) V Irregular verbs In the past tense some verbs can have either an irregular t ending or the regular ed ending. These verbs are burn, learn, smell, spell, spill and spoil. The British prefer the t ending, although ed is Americans normally use the ed ending, also possible. They burnt/burned the old sofa. They burned the old sofa. You've spelt/spelled this word wrong. You've spelled this word wrong. But we say e.g. a slice of burnt toast in both British and American English. In Britain the verbs dream, lean and leap can be regular, or they can have a t ending. I dreamt/dreamed about you. I dreamed about you. These three forms ending in t have the vowel sound /e/. For example, dreamt is pronounced /dremt/, and dreamed is pronounced /dri:md/. The verb dive is regular in Britain but can be irregular in the US. Craig dived into the water. Craig dived/dove into the water. Appendix 6: Irregular verbs VERB PAST TENSE PAST/PASSIVE PARTICIPLE arise arose arisen be was, were been bear bore borne beat beat beaten become became become begin began begun bend bent bent bet bet bet betted bind bound bound bite bit bitten bit bleed bled bled blow blew blown break broke broken breed bred bred bring brought brought broadcast broadcast broadcast build built built burn burnt burnt burned burned burst burst burst buy bought bought catch caught caught choose chose chosen come came come cost cost cost creep crept crept cut cut cut deal dealt dealt dig dug dug dive dived dived dove (us) do did done draw drew drawn dream dreamt dreamt dreamed dreamed drink drank drunk drive drove driven eat ate eaten fall fell fallen feed fed fed feel felt felt fight fought fought VERB PAST TENSE PAST/PASSIVE PARTICIPLE find found found flee fled fled fly flew flown forbid forbad(e) forbidden forget forgot forgotten forgive forgave forgiven freeze froze frozen get got got gotten (us) give gave given go went gone grind ground ground grow grew grown hang hung hung have had had hear heard heard hide hid hidden hit hit hit hold held held hurt hurt hurt keep kept kept kneel knelt knelt know knew known lay laid laid lead led led lean leant leant leaned leaned leap leapt leapt leaped leaped learn learnt learnt learned learned leave left left lend lent lent let let let lie lay lain light lit lit lighted lighted lose lost lost make made made mean meant meant meet met met mow mowed mown mowed VERB PAST TENSE PAST/PASSIVE PARTICIPLE pay paid paid put put put read read read ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen run ran run say said said see saw seen seek sought sought sell sold sold send sent sent set set set sew sewed sewn sewed shake shook shaken shine shone shone shoot shot shot show showed shown showed shrink shrank shrunk shrunk shut shut shut sing sang sung sink sank sunk sit sat sat sleep slept slept slide slid slid smell smelt smelt smelled smelled speak spoke spoken speed sped sped speeded speeded spell spelt spelt spelled spelled spend spent spent spill spilt spilt spilled spilled spin spun spun spit spat spat split split split spoil spoilt spoilt spoiled spoiled spread spread spread spring sprang sprung VERB PAST TENSE PAST/PASSIVE PARTICIPLE stand stood stood steal stole stolen stick stuck stuck sting stung stung stink stank stunk stunk stride strode stridden strike struck struck swear swore sworn sweep swept swept swim swam swum swing swung swung take took taken teach taught taught tear tore torn tell told told think thought thought throw threw thrown tread trod trodden understand understood understood wake woke woken waked waked wear wore worn weave wove woven weaved weaved weep wept wept win won won wind wound wound write wrote written The verbs in this list are also irregular when they have a prefix, e.g. overtake - overtook - overtaken, foretell - foretold - foretold. A few verbs have irregular present simple forms: VERB PRESENT SIMPLE be I am; you/we/they are; he/she/it is do he/she/it does go he/she/it goes have he/she/it has say he/she/it says For burnt/burned, dreamt/dreamed, etc in British and American English see page 382. For gotten see page 378. . difficult. Note the pattern with one of. Michael Jackson is one of the most famous pop singers ever. After a superlative we can use in or of. We use in with places and with groups of people, e.g different sentence patterns with comparative and superlative forms, e.g. older than me, the sweetest man in the world. B The comparative and than We often use a phrase with than after a comparative more and more people are emigrating. The form depends on whether the comparative is with er (e.g. louder) or with more (e.g. more expensive (see Unit 110B). We can also use less and less for