Neurochemical Mechanisms in Disease P2 ppt

x Contents Neurochemistry of Autism 383 Timothy D. Folsom and S. Hossein Fatemi RNA Pathologies in Neurological Disorders 399 Kinji Ohno and Akio Masuda Neurochemistry of Endogenous Antinociception 417 Gyongyi Horvath Biology of Demyelinating Diseases 537 Danielle Pham-Dinh and Nicole Baumann Brain Protein Oxidation and Modification for Good or for Bad in Alzheimer’s Disease 585 Rukhsana Sultana and D. Allan Butterfield Oxidative Stress and Alzheimer Disease: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities 607 Siddhartha Mondragón-Rodríguez, Francisco García-Sierra, Gemma Casadesus, Hyoung-gon Lee, Robert B. Petersen, George Perry, Xiongwei Zhu, and Mark A. Smith Tau and Tauopathies 633 R. Mathew, G. Srinivas, and P. S. Mathuranath Zinc and Zinc Transport and Sequestration Proteins in the Brain in the Progression of Alzheimer;s Disease 669 Mark A. Lovell The Genetics of Alzheimer’s Disease and Parkinson’s Disease 695 Lynn M. Bekris, Chang-En Yu, Thomas D. Bird, and Debby Tsuang Nicotinic Receptors in Brain Diseases 757 Jerry A. Stitzel Lysosomal Storage Diseases 785 Gregory M. Pastores Genetic Signaling in Glioblastoma Multiforme (GBM): A Current Overview 799 Walter J. Lukiw and Frank Culicchia Index 823 Contributors Lasse K. Bak Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark, laba@farma.ku.dk Eric L. Barker Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47906, USA, barkerel@purdue.edu Nicole Baumann Laboratoire de Neurochimie, Hôpital de la Salpêtrière, F-75013 Paris, France; Université Paris 6, F-75000 Paris, France, nicole.baumann@upmc.fr Nike Beaubier Department of Pathology, Taub Center for the Study of Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA, ntb2101@columbia.edu Lynn M. Bekris Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA, lbekris@u.washington.edu Chantal Bémeur Neuroscience Research Unit, CHUM (Hôpital Saint-Luc), Department of Nutrition, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada, H2X 3J4, chan.chan@videotron.ca Thomas D. Bird Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Neurology, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA, tomnroz@u.washington.edu John P. Blass Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA; Departments of Neurology, Neurosciences, and Medicine, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10021, USA; Burke Medical Research Institute, White Plains, NY 10605, USA, jpblass@mail.med.cornell.edu Ivan Bodis-Wollner Department of Neurology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA; Department of Ophthalmology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA; Division of Movement Disorders, Department of Neurology, Parkinson’s Disease and Related Disorders xi xii Contributors Clinic, Center of Excellence NPF, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA, ivan.bodis-wollner@downstate.edu D. Allan Butterfield Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA; Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA; Center of Membrane Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA, dabcns@uky.edu Roger F. Butterworth Department of Neurology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA Eduardo Candelario-Jalil Department of Neurology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA, ecandelario-jalil@salud.unm.edu Gemma Casadesus Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA, gemma.casadesus@case.edu Arthur J.L. Cooper Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA, arthur_cooper@nymc.edu Frank Culicchia LSU Department of Neurosurgery, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA, fculic@lsuhsc.edu S. Hossein Fatemi Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA; Division of Neuroscience Research, Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA, fatem002@umn.edu Timothy D. Folsom Division of Neuroscience Research, Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA, folso013@umn.edu Afsaneh Gaillard Institut de Physiologie et Biologie Cellulaires, CNRS 6187, Université de Poitiers, 86022 Poitiers Cedex, France Francisco García-Sierra Department of Cell Biology, CINVESTAV-IPN, México City, México, fgarcia-sierra@cell.cinvestav.mx Imad Ghorayeb CNRS 5227, Université de Bordeaux II, 330776 Bordeaux Cedex, France Cheng-Xin Gong Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA, cxgong@mail.csi.cuny.edu Lianna Heidt Department of Pathology, Taub Center for the Study of Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA, heidtl@iupui.edu Gyongyi Horvath INSERM U676, Hôpital Robert Debré, F-75019 Paris, France, horvath@phys.szote.u-szeged.hu Contributors xiii Mohamed Jaber Institut de Physiologie et Biologie Cellulaires, CNRS 6187, Université de Poitiers, 86022 Poitiers Cedex, France, mohamed.jaber@unv-poitiers.fr Nael Nadif Kasri Department of Neurology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA, n.nadif@donders.ru.nl Jane Kasten-Jolly New York State Department of Health, Wadsworth Center, Albany, NY 12201, USA David A. Lawrence New York State Department of Health, Wadsworth Center, Albany, NY 12201, USA, david.lawrence@wadsworth.org Hyoung-gon Lee Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA, hyoung-gon.lee@case.edu Mark A. Lovell Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA, malove2@uky.edu Walter J. Lukiw LSU Neuroscience Center of Excellence, Louisiana State University Health Science Center, New Orleans, LA 70112, USA, wlukiw@lsuhsc.edu Akio Masuda Division of Neurogenetics, Center for Neurological Diseases and Cancer, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan, amasuda@med.nagoya-u.ac.jp R. Mathew Department of Neurology, Medical College Hospital, Thiruvananthapuram 695011, Kerala, India, robert_mathew90@yahoo.co.in P.S. Mathuranath Cognition and Behavioural Neurology Section (CBNC), Department of Neurology, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology (SCTIMST), Thiruvananthapuram 695011, Kerala, India, mathu@sctimst.ac.in Siddhartha Mondragón-Rodríguez Department of Cell Biology, CINVESTAV-IPN, México City, México, catalisis78@hotmail.com Jane A. Montgomery Neuroscience Research Unit, CHUM (Hôpital Saint-Luc), Montreal, QC, Canada, H2X 3J4, j anemontgomery@sympatico.ca Herman Moreno Department of Neurology and Physiology/Pharmacology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA, herman.moreno@downstate.edu Kinji Ohno Division of Neurogenetics, Center for Neurological Diseases and Cancer, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, Nagoya, Japan, ohnok@med.nagoya-u.ac.jp Guylène Page Groupe de Recherche sur le Vieillissement Cerebral (GReViC), EA 3808, Université de Poitiers, 86022 Poitiers Cedex, France xiv Contributors Gregory M. Pastores Neurology and Pediatrics, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA; Neurogenetics Laboratory, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA, gregory.pastores@med.nyu.edu George Perry Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA; College of Sciences, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA, george.perry@utsa.edu Robert B. Petersen Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA, rbp@case.edu Danielle Pham-Dinh U676 INSERM, University Denis Diderot, Hopital Robert Debre, 48 Bd Serurier 75019, Paris, France, danielle.pham-dinh@inserm.fr Elena M. Ribe Department of Pathology, Taub Center for the Study of Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA, elena_ribe@hotmail.com Gary A. Rosenberg Department of Neurology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Neurosciences, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA; Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA, grosenberg@salud.unm.edu Arne Schousboe Department of Neurology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA, as@farma.ku.dk Natalie R. Sealover Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47906, USA, nsealove@purdue.edu Mark A. Smith Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA, mark.smith@case.edu G. Srinivas Department of Biochemistry, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology (SCTIMST), Thiruvananthapuram 695011, Kerala, India, srinivasg@sctimst.ac.in Jerry A. Stitzel Neurology and Pediatrics, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA; Neurogenetics Laboratory, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA, stitzel@colorado.edu Rukhsana Sultana Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA; Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA Saeid Taheri Department of Neurology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA, staheri@salud.unm.edu Contributors xv Carol M. Troy Departments of Pathology and Neurology, Taub Center for the Study of Alzheimer’s Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA, cmt2@columbia.edu Debby Tsuang Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA; Mental Illness Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA, USA, dwt1@u.washington.edu Linda Van Aelst Department of Neurology, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA, vanaelst@cshl.edu Helle S. Waagepetersen Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, University of Copenhagen, DK-2100, Copenhagen, Denmark, hsw@farma.ku.dk Chang-En Yu Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA, USA; Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA, USA, changeyu@u.washington.edu Xiongwei Zhu Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, USA, xiongwei.zhu@case.edu Mechanisms Versus Diagnoses John P. Blass Abstract Science is a branch of scholarship: it provides explanations for mate- rial phenomena in terms of matter and energy. Medicine by contrast is a trade: it applies scientific knowledge but also requires nonscientific skills such as empathy. Neurochemistry is the science that deals with the molecules that make up nervous systems and with their interactions. Neurology and psychiatry are the trades of those who try to help people with diseases of the nervous system to heal. Scientists includ- ing neurochemists have the luxury of taking the time needed to probe deeply into the phenomena they study. Neurologists and psychiatrists more often face sharp con- straints on how long they can take to try to help the sick human beings for whom they care. Examples used to illustrate this distinction include psychoses and demyelinat- ing diseases. The existence of a large and often impressive body of scholarship in neurology and psychiatry can foster the illusion that these are scholarly rather than fundamentally practical activities. For convenience, modern physicians conceptual- ize the phenomena they see as discrete “diseases.” Sometimes their concepts turn out to be scientifically valid. Often, sadly, they do not. The current chapter deals with neurochemical mechanisms rather than listing abnormalities in molecules in clini- cally defined “diseases.” Neurochemical mechanisms in sick people are real-world entities that can be discovered by observation and whenever possible by experi- mentation. “Diseases” are abstractions constructed by physicians and others to help figure out what is wrong with patients and how to try to help. This chapter is on the chemistry of nervous systems of people whose actions are unusual enough to draw medical attention to them. It does not deal with such nonmaterial concepts as “free will” or “the soul,” nor with the relationship of mind to brain. This limitation is intentional and potentially powerful. A neurologist or psychiatrist armed with the array of chemicals that constitute the modern pharmacopeia can do much more than even the most sympathetic and understanding physician or other counselor who is limited to “talk therapy.” Sigmund Freud and his fellow alienists in Vienna at the turn of the last century yearned to have such medicines available. In general, the J.P. Blass (B) Dementia Research Service, Burke Medical Research Institute, White Plains, NY 10605, USA e-mails: jpblass@mail.med.cornell.edu; jbass@burke.org; jpblass@yahoo.com 1 J.P. Blass (ed.), Neurochemical Mechanisms in Disease, Advances in Neurobiology 1, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-7104-3_1, C  Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011 2 J.P. Blass Viennese-trained psychiatrists who fled to the United States were perfectly willing to use psychotropic medications, although they made sure to talk extensively to their patients as well. Even the psychoanalysts in that group held to the slogan, “There is also a brain.” Despite the disputes among “schools of psychoanalysis” that went on with talmudic intensity, the able among those practitioners never forgot that their goal was to aid the troubled individuals who came to them for help. Keywords Disease · Classification · Mechanism · Tay–Sachs disease · Psychoses Contents 1 Introduction 2 1.1 Focus of This Volume 2 1.2 Historical Background 3 1.3 Example 1: Tay–Sachs Disease 6 1.4 Example 2: Psychoses 9 1.5 Example 3: Multiple Sclerosis and Demyelination 12 1.6 Implications 13 References 14 1 Introduction 1.1 Focus of This Volume This volume of the Handbook of Neurochemistry deals with chemical mecha- nisms in the nervous systems of sick people. It is intentionally not a catalogue of neurochemical phenomena in specific diseases, as those entities are currently defined. Thus, there are no chapters on the “Neurochemistry of Depression” or “Neurochemistry of Stroke.” The choice to focus on mechanisms rather than on diseases deserves explication. 1.1.1 Contrasts Between Science and Clinical Medicine Science is primarily a scholarly endeavor; the practice of medicine is primarily a practical trade. Scientists try to find out more and more about the world, even if doing so is time-consuming. Medicine, in contrast, depends more on what is useful than on what is “true.” That includes the specialties of neurology and psychiatry. The important information for medicine is that which enables medical practicioners to decide how best to try to help individual sick people. Generally those decisions must be made within a limited amount of time in order to be useful. Even the deci- sion to do nothing is a decision that affects patient welfare. When possible, medical decisions are based on scientific information, but where the science is lacking the decisions still have to be made. Mechanisms Versus Diagnoses 3 Chemists are confident that knowledge about the molecules of which the material world consists can help human beings to understand and deal with that world. We do not doubt that molecules are real things, even if too small to be seen (at least without an electron microscope). We believe that understanding the molecules that make up the brain and how those molecules interact can help us understand our brains and therefore ourselves. Many examples prove that alterations in the molecules that make up human beings can lead to sickness, that is, to signs and symptoms that cause significant disability in patients. We recognize that individual sick people, like molecules, are real things. “Diseases,” in contrast to molecules and to individual patients, are abstractions (Kendell, 1975). The properties of molecules are determined by experimentation; the properties of diseases are determined by consensus conferences. The names and classifications of diseases are inventions of the human mind, developed for the intellectual convenience of those of us who have been trying to take care of sick people. 1.1.2 Utility of the Disease Concept Physicians have found the concept of specific “diseases” to be a useful intellec- tual construct, despite the sometimes tenuous relationship of specific diseases to underlying reality. Medical practitioners rapidly experience the truism that every patient differs significantly from every other patient. However, the concept of spe- cific “diseases” allows physicians to classify patients into groups who are likely to react in similar ways and specifically to respond to specific therapies. These intellectual constructs change as more information becomes available. Disease clas- sifications and therefore disease categories will almost certainly continue to change as biology advances. The current rapid increases in understanding the chemistry and molecular genetics of the nervous system are already changing the way dysfunc- tions of the nervous system are thought of and therefore classified. For instance, the “hereditary ataxias” presented an almost impenetrable f orest of erudition as long as differentiation among them depended on clinical signs and symptoms. Now that the responsible genes have been discovered, classification is straightforward and so is differential diagnosis (Duenas et al., 2006; Lodi et al., 2006). Both now depend on laboratory studies of the molecular genetics. Simply enumerating the chemical abnormalities in entities that are still defined by clinical rather than biological criteria is unlikely to have lasting value, as those categories become increasingly out of date and discarded. On the other hand, mech- anisms that have been defined experimentally are not likely to stay scientifically valid, although our understanding of them will, it is hoped, continue to deepen. 1.2 Historical Background People attempting t o heal the sick have almost always used the best knowledge of the universe available to them to do so. For the priests of Aesculapius in ancient 4 J.P. Blass Greece, that was a mixture of mysticism and empiricism. (Aesculapius may orig- inally have been an unusually skilled doctor, whose deification helped maintain a flow of patients to the hospital [shrine] that he founded.) Today, physicians try to use the more objective system of observations and interpretations that make up sci- ence, including the science of neurochemistry. (Of course, the “art of medicine” often still requires a certain amount of mumbo-jumbo. Many patients lack confi- dence in a diagnosis and treatment unless it is described to them in long words of Latin and Greek origin that they do not understand.) 1.2.1 Hippocratic Tradition The Hippocratic tradition dominated medical practice from ancient times through the middle ages and up to early modern times. This tradition is relatively easy to adapt to modern molecular medicine. First, it is descriptive rather than theoretical. Hippocratic physicians described the things that they could observe going wrong in their patients so clearly and accurately that we can attribute many of the illnesses they describe to agents discovered only within the last century or so. A classic example is the “Plague of Athens,” which had major effects on the war between Athens and Sparta. It is now thought to have been an outbreak of adult measles. Hippocratic physicians recognized that groups of people often had the same sorts of things going wrong with them, particularly during epidemics of what we now call infectious diseases. In fact, one of the books in the Hippocratic corpus is entitled “Epidemics.” 1.2.2 Theory of Humors The ancient and medieval tradition was also crudely chemical, although the chemistry of the time was terribly primitive compared to modern knowledge. It emphasized the theory of humors. In health, the humors were i n balance. In illness, they were out of balance. Treatment consisted in restoring balance. For instance, a person who had too much moisture needed treatments to help dry out enough to regain balance. The medieval form of this theory of humors depended heavily on the writings of Galen, who had been among other things physician to the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Our chemistry is almost infinitely more complex, but the thrust of modern mechanistic thinking has significant similarities. When a person today retains water and salt, we typically prescribe a diuretic to “dry him out.” Our more sophisticated concept of “balance of humors” is “healthy homeostasis.” 1.2.3 Sydenham’s Conceptualization of Specific Diseases The modern theory of diseases as distinct entitites was popularized in the 1600s in large part by a great English physician, Thomas Sydenham. He lived during the era of the religious wars in Europe, and his brother was one of Oliver Cromwell’s colonels. The faculty at Oxford gave Thomas the medical qualification he wanted even though he was barely literate in Latin, the language in which the medical literature of his time was written. Came the restoration of the Stuart monarchy, . G. Srinivas, and P. S. Mathuranath Zinc and Zinc Transport and Sequestration Proteins in the Brain in the Progression of Alzheimer;s Disease 669 Mark A. Lovell The Genetics of Alzheimer’s Disease. and S. Hossein Fatemi RNA Pathologies in Neurological Disorders 399 Kinji Ohno and Akio Masuda Neurochemistry of Endogenous Antinociception 417 Gyongyi Horvath Biology of Demyelinating Diseases. Disease and Parkinson’s Disease 695 Lynn M. Bekris, Chang-En Yu, Thomas D. Bird, and Debby Tsuang Nicotinic Receptors in Brain Diseases 757 Jerry A. Stitzel Lysosomal Storage Diseases 785 Gregory