(Joint Tribal Council v. Morton, 528 F.2d 370 [1st Cir. 1975]). Prior to the Gignoux decision, Maine Indians were considered “colonial” Indians and not the Indians of the frontier that Congress meant to protect in the Noninter- course Act. Gignoux ruled in 1975 that the statute did apply, thus making some previous land transactions illegal and making the Maine tribes “federal” Indians. Gignoux’s reputation as a trial judge spread quickly. According to one of his former law clerks, lawyers and other judges packed his courtroom during their spare time to watch Gignoux’s performance. Gignoux was serious about the fair and equitable administration of justice. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, he served the U.S. Judicial Conference. The Judicial Conference is the principal machinery through which the federal court system operates, establishing the stan- dards policies governing the federal JUDICIARY.In recognition of his efforts with the Conference, Gignoux recieved the Devitt Award in 1987. Gignoux’s work with the Judicial Confer- ence brought him national recognition, and in 1970 he was considered for a nomination to the U.S. Supreme Court. Although he w as not appointed, he did make an impression on future Court justice DAVID H. SOUTER. When Souter filled out a questionnaire in pre paration for his confirmation HEARING 20 years later, he noted a voting-rights case that he had arg ued in 1970 before Gignoux. He said, “It was one of the most gratifying events of my life, for the argument included a genuinely dialectical exchange between the great JURIST and me.” As Gignoux’s reputation grew, Chief Justice WARREN E. BURGER called on him to preside over some very political, and potentially explosive, cases. In 1973 Warren appo inted him to preside over the contempt trial of Abbie Hoffman, Bobby Seale, Jerry Rubin, Tom Hayden, David Dellinger, Rennie Davis, Lee Weiner, and John Froines. These 1960s radicals known as the Chicago Seven (even though there were eight of them) had already been tried and convicted for their participation in violent demonstrations at the 1968 Democratic National Convention, in Chicago. Following their trial, contempt charges were filed against the individuals and the ir lawyer, WILLIAM M. KUNSTLER, for their behavior in court. Gignoux found only Hoffman, Rubin, Dellinger, and their lawyer to be in contempt, but he did not impose additional sentences on the parties involved , saying that their CONVICTION and their previous time served were punish- ment enough. On June 1, 1983, after 25 years on the federal bench, Gignoux took senior (or semiretired) status, but he continued to hear cases around the country and to serve on the TEMPORARY EMERGENCY COURT OF APPEALS ,whichheardcasesfromdistrict courts on the Emergency Natural Gas Act of 1977. Gignoux’s ability to uphold both the letter and the spirit of the law, against overwhelming political and social pressures, was still very much IN EVIDENCE when, during his first year of “retirement,” he was asked to preside over the trial of U.S. district judge Alcee L. Hastings (see IMPEACHMENT [sidebar]). Hastings, who was later acquitted of CONSPIRACY to solicit a bribe and of obstruction of justice, was the first sitting U.S. judge to face criminal charges. Although pres- sured to drop the charges throughout the trial, Gignoux said that “the court is entirely persuaded that the government has submitted evidence that is sufficient to sustain a finding by the jury of guilty.” Also during the Hastings trial, Gignoux rejected one of the first serious efforts to open a federal court trial to TELEVISION coverage; Gignoux believed that he was prohibited by federal law from permitting cameras in the courtroom. Gignoux died on November 4, 1988, in Portland, Maine. Shortly before his death, the city renamed the federal courthouse there in his honor. Gignoux was acknowledged by friend and circuit judge Frank M. Coffin as an “inspiration” and as a jurist who served honorably and well “in the most demanding and delicate of trial situations.” v GILBERT, CASS Cass Gilbert was the U.S. architect responsible for the traditional style and regal proportions seen in many of the nation’s finest public buildings—including the Supreme Court Build- ing, in Washington, D.C. His remarkable body of work included FEDERAL, state, municipal, educational, and religious structures as well as facilities designed for commercial, in dustrial, and private USE. Gilbert believed strongly that architecture should serve the established poli ti- cal and social order; much of his work continues to serve its public purpose decades after its conception and completion. TRIALS WHICH PROCEED IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE LAW , THE RULES OF EVIDENCE AND THE STANDARDS OF DEMEANOR NOT ONLY REAFFIRM THE INTEGRITY AND VIABILITY OF THE JUDICIAL PROCESS , BUT ALSO SERVE TO INSURE THE ABILITY OF EACH ONE OF US TO PROTECT THE RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES WE ENJOY AS CITIZENS . —EDWARD GIGNOUX GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION 88 GILBERT, CASS Gilbert was born November 24, 1859, in Zanesville, Ohio, where his grandfather, Charles Champion Gilbert, was the first mayor. He attended school in Zanesville until the death of his father, Samuel Augustus Gilbert, in 1868. At that time, his mother, Elizabeth Fulton Wheeler, apprenticed him to an architectural firm in St. Paul, Minnesota. There he completed his education and trained as a surveyor. In 1878 Gilbert enrolled at the Massachusetts INSTITUTE of Technology, where he studied architecture for one year. Income from occasional surveying work allowed Gilbert to embark, in 1879, on the customary grand tour of Europe, undertaken by many young men of his social standing and economic means. He traveled in Eng land, France, and Italy and was exposed to many of the classic architectural styles that would later dominate his work. Upon his return to the United States, Gilbert was employed as a draftsman by the New York architectural firm of McKim, Mead, and White, where he was influenced by name partner and noted architect Stanford White. His association with this firm gave him an opportu- nity to hone his skills and to learn the business side of running an architectural enterprise. Seeing his promise, the firm sent him to St. Paul in 1881 to oversee a building project. By December 1882 Gilbert had severed ties with McKim, Mead and formed a partnership with St. Paul architect James Knox Taylor. Together, Gilbert and Taylor pursued both institutional and residential work, but they were unable to succeed financially. The business partnership dissolved. Well organized and efficient, Gilbert found that he preferred to work alone; he did not form another profes- sional partnership during his career. His architectural work from this period included the Dayton Avenue Church, St. Paul (1888); St. Martin’s by the Lake, Minneapolis (1888); and the Lightner House, St. Paul (1893). Gilbert did establish a personal partnership, on November 29, 1887, when he married Julia T. Finch. Their growing family—which ulti- mately included Emily, Elizab eth Wheeler, Julia Swift, and Cass, Jr.—added to the financial burdens of the struggling architect. To supple- ment his income from design work, Gilbert sold watercolors. He had begun painting during his European travels, and he was known locally as a talented artist. Cass Gilbert. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. ▼▼ ▼▼ Cass Gilbert 1859–1934 18501850 19001900 19251925 19501950 18751875 ❖ 1859 Born, Zanesville, Ohio 1861–65 U.S. Civil War ◆ 1868 Began apprenticeship at architectural firm in St. Paul 1879–80 Went on grand tour of Europe; studied architecture in England, France, and Italy ◆ 1896 Appointed architect for the Minnesota State Capitol 1902–07 Design and construction of U.S. Custom House in New York City ◆ 1908 Elected president of the American Institute of Architects ◆ 1910 Appointed to National Commission of Fine Arts ◆ 1914–18 World War II ◆ 1918 U.S. Treasury Annex completed 1913 Woolworth building completed 1939–45 World War II ❖ 1934 Died, Brockenhurst, England 1928–35 Design and construction of U.S. Supreme Court building ◆ 1924 U.S. Chamber of Commerce building completed GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION GILBERT, CASS 89 In 1896 Gilbert landed the job that would launch him to national prominence: He was appointed architect for the Minnesota State Capitol Building, in St. Paul. The majestic domed structure that he created was immensely popular. Both its scale and detail were consid- ered appropriate for its public purpose. His success convinced Gilbert that he was ready to compete in New York. Shortly after moving to New York, Gilbert was among those invited to submit plans for the U.S. Custom House. He won the competition, but not without controversy. Other firms involved in the competition thought Taylor, then architect of the Treasury Building, in Washington, D.C., had unfairly influenced the choice of his former partner. Despite the controversy, Gilbert was eventually awarded other commissions, including the Union Club and the West Street Building, in New York, and the Essex County Courthouse, in Newark, New Jersey. He also began to play a role in organiza- tions associated with his profession, being elected president of the American Institute of Architects in 1908. At various points in his career, he was an active member of the Architectural League of New York, Academy of Design, National Institute of Arts and Letters, Academy of Arts and Letters, Royal Institute of British Architects, Royal Institute of Canada, Architectural Society o f Liverpool, Royal Academy of Arts, and French Legion of Honor. Although Gilbert entered, and won, a number of competitions during his career, most of his work came from his professional associa- tions and his power of persuasion. His pursuit of the contract for the Woolworth Building, in New York, is just one example of his tenacious nature. HEARING that Frank W. Woolwo rth was going abroad before naming an architect for his new building, Gilbert booked passage on the same boat; he had a signed contract in hand before the boat docked. The Woolworth Building, with its tremen- dous height and inventive use of terra-cotta, was a huge success. It was the tallest building in the world and it towered over the New York skyline for almost 20 years. The building made Gilbert a celebrity and substantially increased the demand for his professional services. The Scott Memorial Fountain, Detroit (1914); Detroit Public Library (1917); Brooklyn Army Terminal (1918); St. Louis Public Library (1921); and a host of other schools, banks, libraries, museums, and municipal structures were commissioned in the years following his completion of the Woolworth Building in 1913. In 1910 Gilbert was appointed to the National Commission of Fine Arts by President WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT. He was reappointed for another term by President Woodrow Wilson in 1914. Through this association, Gilbert secured some of his most prestigious work, including the U.S. Treasury Annex (1918), Chamber of COMMERCE (1924), and, finally, the Supre me Court Building. In 1928 Chief Justice and former president William Howard Taft became chairman of the Supreme Court Building Commission, created by Cong ress to build a permanent home for the nation’s High Court. Taft remembered Gilbert’s work on the National Commission of Fine Arts and selected him to design the new Court building. The structure envisioned by Gilbert was a monumental temple of justice—one that evoked the power, authority, and solemnity of the Court. His design, which filled the square- block site, featured a neo-classical white mar ble structure with an enormous central hall housing the courtroom. Two symmetrical wings on either side of the central hall contained offices, libraries, and other Court functions. The focus of the Court chamber was an elevated bench, which looked out on seating for more than three hundred spectators. The interior layout of the building separ- ated the justices’ private areas from the public areas, and was designed to facilitate grand entrances into the courtroom. The building’s private areas contained three-room office suites, a robing room, underground parking and entrances, temperature- and humidity- controlled library and DOCUMENT storage facili- ties, and pressrooms. Gilbert’s architectural sketches were ap- proved by the commission in 1929, and construction began in 1931. The building was not completed until after Gilbert’s death in 1934; Gilbert’s son, Cass, Jr., supervised the final stages of the project. The Supreme Court Building opened its doors to the public on Monday, October 7, LET US PAY OUR ARCHITECTURAL DEBTS TO THE CREATORS OF THE PLAN OF WASHINGTON. —CASS GILBERT GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION 90 GILBERT, CASS 1935. Initially, the building was criticized for both its size and its exterior embellishment. To a large extent, the size was dictated by the site: Gilbert strove to complement the scale of the ADJACENT LIBRARY OF CONGRESS and of other buildings in the Capitol complex. Charges of wasted space in the halls and corridors, and excessive seating in the courtroom, have diminished with time. The building’s exterior embellishment featured prominent legal figures and themes and was executed by some of the finest artists and sculptors of the day. It is said that one of the toga-clad figures depicted on the building bears the likeness of the architect himself. As a space designed for hearing arguments and holding public discussion, the large court- room was also criticized for its poor acoustics. Time and improved sound technology have diminished this criticism. In the early 2000s, the Supreme Court Building is considered the pinnacle of Gilbert’s work and is one of the nation’s finest public buildings. While developing the Supreme Court Build- ing, Gilbert also continued to work in New York and across the country. Durin g this period he designed the New York Life INSURANCE Building, the U.S. Courthouse in New York City, the GEORGE WASHINGTON Memorial Bridge , and the state capitol buildings in Arkansas and West Virginia. Biographer Egerton Swartwout described Gilbert as “purposely impressive in manner and rather pompous at times.” This description could as easily be applied to the public buildings Gilbert designed. Gilbert’s work stayed true to the traditional themes that inspired him as a young man traveling in Europe. Though his Woolworth Building and other commercial structures contributed to the evolution of the modern skyscraper, Gilbert w as not a fan of the modern functional architecture that emerged in the 1920s. The turmo il of WORLD WAR I and the economic difficulties of the 1920s were said to have solidified Gilbert’s commitment to classic traditional style. Still much in demand by those who shared his architectural vision, Gilbert died suddenly May 17, 1934, on a golf holiday at Brockenhurst, England, at age seventy-five. He is buried in New York City. His personal and professional papers are housed at the Library of Congress—across the street from his Supreme Court Building. FURTHER READINGS Blodgett, Geoffrey. 2005. Cass Gilbert, Architect, Conservative at Bay. Journal of American History 72 (December) ———. 2001. Cass Gilbert: The Early Years. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society. Bluestone, Daniel M. 1988. “Detroit’s City Beautiful and the Problem of Commerce.” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 47, no. 3 (September). Gaskie, Margaret F. 1981. “The Woolworth Tower.” Architectural Record (November). Irish, Sharon Lu. “Cass Gilbert’s Career in New York, 1899– 1905.” Ann Arbor, MI: Univ. Microfilms. ———. 1989. “A Machine That Makes the Land Pay: The West Street Building in New York.” Technology and Culture 30. ———. 1973. “Mr. Woolworth’s Tower: The Skyscraper as Popular Icon.” Journal of Popular Culture. Jones, Robert Allan. 1976. Cass Gilbert, Midwestern Architect in New York. Ph.D. dissertation, Case Western Reserve Univ. McGurn, Barrett. 1982. “Slogans to Fit the Occasion.” Washington, D.C.: Supreme Court Historical Society. Murphy, P. 1981. “Minnesota’s Architectural Favorite Son.” Architecture: the AIA Journal 3. Myers, Rex C. 1976. “The Montana Club: Symbol of Elegance.” The Magazine of Western History 26, no. 4 (autumn). Thompson, Neil B. 2005. Minnesota’s State Capitol: The Art and Politics of a Public Building. Minneapolis: Minne- sota Historical Society. Tunick, Susan, and Jonathan Walters. 1982. The Wonderful World of Terra Cotta. Historic Preservation. v GILLETT, EMMA MELINDA Emma Melinda Gillett was a remarkable ATTOR- NEY who helped establish one of the first co- educational law schools in the United States. In 1896, Gillett and a colleague, ELLEN SPENCER MUSSEY , sponsored a series of lectures in Washington, D.C., for local women interested in law. Despite social pressures against women in the legal profession, Gillett and Mussey held the lectures for two years. They expan ded their curriculum and created Washington College of Law, a co-educational INSTITUTION that later became part of American University. Gillett was born July 30, 1852, in Princeton, Wisconsin. After her father, Richard J. Gillett, died in 1854, Gillett moved to Girard, Pennsyl- vania, with her mother, Sarah Ann Gillett, and family. Like Mussey, Gillett attended Lake Erie Seminary in Painesville, Ohio. Upon graduation in 1870, Gillett becam e a public school teacher. After ten years of teaching, she decided to move to Washington, D.C., to pursue a LEGAL EDUCATION and career. Her plans were thwarted by the refusal of most district law schools to admit women. Gillett overcame the obstacle by THE MAJORITY OF THE [WOMEN] PRACTITIONERS WHO ARE STICKING TO THEIR WORK AND PLODDING ON [THEIR] WAY TO SUCCESS ARE UNMARRIED . —EMMA GILLETT GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION GILLETT, EMMA MELINDA 91 enrolling at Howard University Law College, a well-known, predominantly African American institution that did accept female students. Gillett earned a law degree from Howard in 1882 and a master of law degree in 1883. She began a successful law practice in Washington, D.C., and became VICE PRESIDENT of the D.C. region of the previously all-male AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION . She also was elected president of the Women’s BAR ASSOCIATION of the DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA . Both Gillett and Mussey had been denied admission to the all-male, all-white law schools in Washington, D.C., which likely motivated the women to form the Washington College of Law. Three additional motivating factors have also been identified. First, women’s voluntary asso- ciations had experienced significant growth during the latter part of the nineteenth century. Second, opportunities for women in higher education had expanded. Third, the women’s SUFFRAGE movement had grown considerably. Gillett and Mussey established a co- educational institution, rather than a women- only law school. They believed that admitting both men and women as students, as well ashiring male faculty and administrators, were necessary to promote gender equality. Perhaps as important, Gillett and Mussey knew that admitting men as students and employing men in faculty and administrative positions were necessary to pro- mote the long-term success of the school. Fifteen years after its establishment, in fact, the number of men enrolled in the school outnumbered the number of women, due largely to the fact that two other law schools in Washington, D.C., began to admit women as students. Nevertheless, only women served as deans of the Washington College of Law until 1947. Washington College of Law earned accreditation from the American Bar Association in 1940 and became a part of American University in 1949. Gillett succeeded Mussey as dean of the law school in 1913, heading the institution for ten years. Gillett died on January 23, 1927, in Washington, D.C., at the age of 74. FURTHER READINGS Clark, Mary L. 1998. “The Founding of the Washington College of Law: The First Law School Established by Women for Women.” American Univ. Law Review 47, no. 3. “Emma Melinda Gillett.” 1927. Women Lawyers’ Journal. Available online at http://www.stanford.edu/group/ WLHP/articles/gillettobit.htm; website home page: http://www.stanford.edu (accessed July 26, 2009). “Emma M. Gillett.” History of WCL. Washington College of Law. Available online at http://www.wcl.american.edu/ history/gillett.cfm; website home page: http://www.wcl. american.edu (accessed September 4, 2009). v GILPIN, HENRY DILWORTH Henry Dilworth Gilpin served as attorney general of the United States from 1840 to 1841 under Pres ident MARTIN VAN BUREN. He was born April 14, 1801, in Lancaster, England. He and his parents, Joshua Gilpin and Mary Dilworth Gilpin, boarded a ship for the United States in 1802. The Gilpins were aristocratic and socially prominent, not a struggling immigrant family. Gilpin’s grandfather Thomas Gilpin was a manufacturer and businessman w ho had been shipping goods to U.S. harbors since colonial days. He was among those who helped to plan and execute the construction of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal (which connects the head of Chesapeake Bay with the Delaware River estuary and thereby shortens sea routes to Baltimore from the north and from Europe). Gilpin’s father, an author and poet with ▼▼ ▼▼ Emma Melinda Gillett 1852–1927 18501850 19001900 19251925 19501950 18751875 ❖ ❖ 1852 Born, Princeton, Wis. 1861–65 U.S. Civil War ◆ 1870 Graduated from Lake Erie Seminary ◆ 1883 Earned LL.B. and LL.M. from Howard University Law College ◆ 1890 Admitted to U.S. Supreme Court bar 1898 Founded Washington College of Law with Ellen Spencer Mussey 1896–98 Sponsored series of lectures for women interested in law 1914–18 World War I 1913–23 Served as president of Washington College of Law ◆ ◆ 1927 Died, Washington, D.C. 1921 Founder and first president of Women's Bar Association of D.C. 1920–21 Served as vice president of D.C. chapter of American Bar Association 1939–45 World War II GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION 92 GILPIN, HENRY DILWORTH published works in both England and the United States, dabbled in a number of artistic and business ventures in the United States. He eventually settled in Pennsylvania, where he ran a successful papermaking business. Gilpin was brought up near Philadelphia and was educated at the University of Pennsylvania. He graduated as valedictorian of his class in 1819 and began to study law with a local ATTORNEY.In 1822 he was admitted to the bar but he did not establish a practice. Instead, he went to work as an agent for the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Company. The position allowed him to travel and to pursue the literary interests encouraged by his father. From 1826 to 1832 he wrote detailed accounts of his visits to Harper’s Ferry, the Shenandoah Valley, Weyer’sCave,Natural Bridge, Lexington, Charlottesville, Fredericks- burg, Washington, D.C., and other locations in the Atlantic and southern states. His writings were collected by his father and later published in a seven-volume work called Atlantic Souvenirs (1826–1832). Gilpin’s pedigree and business interests permitted him to mix with prominent citizens wherever he trav eled. During this early period of travel, he met and married Eliza Johnson, of New Orleans. In 1826 he attended—and wrote a famous account of—President John Quincy Adams’s inaugural ball and public reception. On subsequent trips to the nation’s capital, he developed an interest in politics by writing profiles of men like HENRY CLAY, DANIEL WEBSTER, and ANDREW JACKSON. Gilpin was a great admirer of Jackson and was active in Jackson’s successful bid for the presidency in 1828. In appreciation for Gilpin’s support, Jackson named him to the board of directors of the Second National BANK OF THE UNITED STATES . The First National Ban k, located in Gilpin’s hometown of Philadelphia, was established as the nation’s centra l bank in 1816 during the financial crisis after the WAR OF 1812. It had opened in 1791 and closed in 1811 after its renewal CHARTER was successfully challenged by agricultural interests who were not served by the bank’s commercial focus. Like its predecessor, the Second National Bank had strong opposition. Jackson believed that it had become too powerful, and he wanted to diminish its influence by withdrawing FEDERAL funds and depositing the money in selected state Henry Dilworth Gilpin 1801–1860 ▼▼ ▼▼ 18001800 18751875 18501850 18251825 ❖❖ 1801 Born, Lancaster, England 1812–14 War of 1812 ◆ ◆ 1819 Graduated from University of Pa. 1822 Admitted to Pa. bar; joined Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Company 1826–32 Traveled throughout mid-Atlantic states; Atlantic Souvenirs published 1832–35 Served as U.S. attorney for the Eastern District of Pa. 1837–40 Served as solicitor of the U.S. Treasury ◆ 1841 Left public service for successful private practice 1840–41 Served as U.S. attorney general 1860 Died, Philadelphia, Pa. 1861–65 U.S. Civil War Henry D. Gilpin. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION GILPIN, HENRY DILWORTH 93 banks. The Bank War, as the debate over the bank’s role in the federal economy came to be called, was a central issue in Jackson’s second presidential campaign. Jackson’s re-election, along with the presence of his ally Gilpin on the board, ensured the bank’s DEMISE. Gilpin successfully pressed Jackson’s arguments against the INSTITUTION, and the renewal of the bank’s charter was rejected. The bank closed in 1836 when its charter expired. Gilpin’s willingness to act as Jackson’s chief spokesman at the height of the Bank War resulted in his removal from the board in the bank’s final years. To fill the void left by his removal, Gilpin renewed his interest in the PRACTICE OF LAW, and from 1832 to 1835 he served as U.S. attorney for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. He also pursued a number of land-investment and business opportunities in the Michigan Territory. Jackson named Gilpin territorial governor of Michigan in 1835, but the president’s opp- onents in Congress blocked the confirmation. It was not until President Van Buren was elected a year later that Gilpin returned to a role in the federal government. Van Buren named Gilpin to be SOLICITOR of the U.S. Treasury in 1837 and elevated him to serve as attorney general of the United States from 1840 to 1841. As in his early years, Gilpin continued to chronicle his experiences. The Gilpin Reports, published in 1837, and the Opinions of Attorneys-General of the United States, published in 1840 , record his service to the Van Buren administration. Gilpin’s term as attorney general increased the demand for his legal services, and after leaving the CABINET, he devoted the last 20 years of his life to the practice of law. He also continued to oversee development of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Company, where he rose to the positions of secretary and director. Gilpin retained a lifelong interest in politics and the DEMOCRATIC PARTY and served as a DELEGATE to the party’s national convention in 1844. Gilpin tutored his younger brother, William, in the study of the law and was instrumental in launching the latter’s political career. His brother went on to become the governor of Colorado. Gilpin died on January 29, 1860, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. FURTHER READINGS Gerdts, William H. 1983. “The American ‘Discourses’ A Survey of Lectures and Writings on American Art, 1770–1858.” American Journal of Art 15, no. 3. Gray, Ralph D. 1968. “A Tour of Virginia in 1827. Letters of Henry D. Gilpin to his Father.” Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 76, no.3 (October). Gray, Ralph D., ed. 1965. Washington in 1825: Observations by Henry D. Gilpin. Delaware Historical Society. Rimini, Robert V. 1967. Andrew Jackson and the Bank War. New York: Norton. Tobias, Clifford I. 1975. “Henry D. Gilpin: Governor in and over the Territory of Michigan.” Michigan History. ———. 1975. Henry D. Gilpin and the Bank War, A Study in Reform Politics. Cleveland, Ohio: Case Western Reserve Univ. Press. v GINGRICH, NEWTON LEROY With his election as Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives in January 1995, NEWTON LEROY GINGRICH (R-Ga.) became a powerful politician. Assuming control of the first Repub- lican majority in the House since 1952, Gingrich ruled that body during his first year with an authority not seen since the nineteenth century. The veteran congressman from Geor- gia used his new position to proclaim the arrival of an era in which his conservative agenda— including lower taxes, decentralized govern- ment, and deep cuts in social programs—would fundamentally alter the fabric of U.S. society. Since his arrival on the Washington, D.C., scene in 1979 as a brash and combative new member of Congress, Gingrich has shaped and guided Republican efforts on Capitol Hill. With an affinity for both intellectual debate and backroom deal making, this white-haired for- mer professor provided the vision, verve, and ideas that built a Republican majority. His opponents, however, ACCUSED him of posessing a lack of concern for poo r and disadvantaged persons, as well as an overly optimistic view of technology and the free market. Observ ers have described his actions in Congress as alternately brilliant and petty, leaving many to wonder whether he will be a passing footnote or a pivotal chapter in U.S. political history. Gingrich was born June 17, 1943, in Harris- burg, Pennsylvania. His parents, Newton C. McPherson and Kathleen Daugherty McPherson, were separated after only three days of MARRIAGE. Gingrich’s mother remarried three years after his birth, and her new husband, Robert Bruce Gingrich, adopted Gingrich. Gingrich’s adoptive father was a career army officer, and the family I KNOW FEW THINGS MORE STRIKING IN THE HISTORY OF HUMANKIND THAN THAT KINDLING ENTHUSIASM WHICH , SPRINGING FROM ONE INDIVIDUAL SWAYS THE CONDUCT OF IMMENSE BODIES OF MEN . —HENRY GILPIN GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION 94 GINGRICH, NEWTON LEROY moved frequently, living in Kansas, France, Germany, and Fort Benning, Georgia. In 1958 the 15-year-old Gingrich accompa- nied his family on a trip to Verdun, France, site of the bloodiest battle of WORLD WAR I. Deeply moved by the story and scene of the battle, along with a visit to rooms filled with bones of the dead, Gingrich experienced an epiphany that he later described as “the driving force which pushed me into history and politics, and molded my life.” The day after this visit, he told his family that he would run for Congress, because politicians could prevent such senseless bloodshed. At age 19, Gingrich, who was then an undergraduate at Emory University, married his former high school math teacher, Jackie Battley.Thecouplehadtwodaughters,Linda Kathleen and Jacqueline Sue. Gingrich com- pleted his bachelor of arts degree at Emory in 1965 and obtained a doctor of philosophy degree in modern history at Tulane University in 1971. A liberal, reform-minded Republican in these years, Gingrich worked for Nelson A. Rockefeller’s 1968 presidential campaign in Louisiana. Gingrich took his first college teaching job at West Georgia College, in Carrollton, Georgia, with one eye toward an eventual seat in Congress. He nevertheless became a popular teacher at West Georgia, and founded environ- mental studies and future studies programs. In 1974 and 1976, Gingrich ran for a seat in the U.S. House from Georgia’s Sixth District, a rural and suburban region on the northern outskirts of Atlanta. Still voicing moderate and even liberal positions, he was endorsed in 1974 by the liberal newspaper the Atlanta Constitu- tion. He narrowly lost both ELECTIONS.Ina move that some have called a calculated ploy to gain political office, Gingrich cast himself as a conservative for the 1978 election. In his platform he called for lower taxes and opposed the Panama Canal Treaty. He beat the Demo- cratic contender by 7,600 votes, earning a seat in the 96th Congress. Shortly after his election, Gingrich and his wife separated. He married Marianne Ginther in 1981. Newt Gingrich. CALLISTA GINGRICH, GINGRICH PRODUCTIONS Newton Leroy Gingrich 1943– ▼▼ ▼▼ 2000 1975 1950 ◆ ◆ ◆◆ ❖ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆ ◆◆ 2002 How to Win: A Battle Plan for Victory in the War on Terror published 1999 Appointed to U.S. Commission on National Security/21st Century 1986–95 Served as chair of GOPAC 1979–99 Represented Georgia in the U.S. House 1984 Window of Opportunity published; helped shape Republican party platform 1989 Elected House minority whip 1974 Made first run for Congress 1971 Earned Ph.D. from Tulane; began teaching at West Georgia College 1965 Earned B.A. from Emory University 1943 Born Newton Leroy McPherson, Harrisburg, Pa. 1939–45 World War II 1950–53 Korean War 1961–73 Vietnam War 2001 September 11 terrorist attacks 2003 Founded the Center for Health Transformation 1994 Republicans won majority in Congress ◆ 1994 Helped draft Contract with America ◆ ◆ 1995 Elected Speaker of the House, led battle for balanced budget ◆ 1996 Reprimanded and fined by House Ethics Committee for ethics violations 2008 Real Change published GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION GINGRICH, NEWTON LEROY 95 In Washington, D.C., Gingrich joined a number of Republican first-year Congress members eager to leave their mark on the political landscape. Unafraid of making ene- mies, he vigorously attacked Demo crats and sometimes his own party, criticizing it fo r a complacent acceptance of its minority status in Congress. He called instead for an aggressive effort to build a Repub lican majority, a feat he would orchestrate 16 years later. In February 1983 Gingrich began meeting regularly with other young conservatives in an organization they called the Conservative Op- portunity Society—a name designed to contrast with “liberal WELFARE state,” the favorite target for their ideological barbs. Gingrich and other young Republicans also gained notoriety for their creative use of the Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network ( C-SPAN), which broadcast live proceed- ings of the House. This group used the “special orders” period of the House, during which members of Congress may read items into the record, as a platform to denounce Democrats and advance their own views. Although they were actually reading their material before an empty House chamber, Gingrich and his collea- gues attempted to create the impression that they were making unchallenged arguments to specific Democrats. House Speaker Thomas P. (“Tip”) O’Neill Jr. (D-Mass.) responded by ordering the C-SPAN cameras to periodically pan the empty chamber. By 1984 Gingrich had developed the basic outlines of his conservative philosophy. He published his views in a book, Window of Opportunity, cowritten with his wife, Marianne, and David Drake. It remains an excellent guide to Gingrich’s thought. In it, he exhibited, in addition to a strong belief in the efficacy of the free market, a strong devotion to technology as an answer to social ills. He wrote of a “window of opportunity” represented by “breakthroughs in computers, biology, and space.” Among his futuristic propo- sals was an ambitious space program, including a lunarresearchbaseby2000. He contrasted this vision of a bright future with a “window of vulnerability” that opened onto an alternative future of Soviet expansion- ism and U.S. decline. This dystopia was to be prevented by large-scale WEAPONS programs such as Star Wars, also known as the Strategic DEFENSE Initiative, and the dismantling of welfare programs and excessive TAXATION. The seventh chapter of the book, “Why Balancing the Budget Is Vital,” foreshadowed a 1995–96 showdown between Gingrich and President BILL CLINTON over the FEDERAL BUDGET. At the 1984 Republican National Conven- tion in Dallas, Gingrich gained national atten- tion as he led a move to make the party platform more conservative, successfully insert- ing planks against tax increases and ABORTION. He won still more in fluence in 1986 when he became chair of GOPAC, a Republican POLITICAL ACTION COMMITTEE that serves as a principal source of funding for Republican candidates across the United States. The organization, which Gingrich once called “the Bell Labs of politics,” also provided the means for him to spread his conservative gospel. GOPAC has distributed printed and aud iovisual works by Gingrich to hundreds of Republican candidates. In the early and mid-1990s, it came under investigation by the FEDERAL ELECTION COMMISSION for alleged improprieties, including illegal assis- tance to Gingrich during his 1990 election campaign. Gingrich stepped down as the head of GOPAC in 1995. In 1987 Gingrich took on a major Washing- ton, D.C., figure when he accused House Speaker Jim Wright (D-Tex.) of ethics violations. Gin- grich claimed that Wright had violated House rules in his dealings with a Texas developer and in the manner by which he had profited from sales of a book. Gingrich’sfoesimmediately attacked him as an irresponsible upstart, but he remained unwavering in his attacks. As he later told a newspaper, “Ididn’tcomehereto pleasantly rise on an escalator of self-serving compromises.” Gingrich won a major coup in 1989 when the House Ethics Committee formally charged Wright with 69 ethics violations and Wright resigned from the House. That same year, Gingrich lobbied for and won (by two votes) the position of House minority whip, making him the second highest- ranking Republican in the House of Representa- tives. This victory represented an important step in his transformation from party pugilist to party leader. However, Gingrich himself soon became the object of a House Ethics Committee probe of alleged violations of House rules on outside gifts and income. The allegations focused on his earnings from two books, including Window of Opportunity. Later that year, Gingrich was investigated again by the same committee for WE MUST MAKE GOVERNMENT MORE EFFICIENT , MAKING SURE TAXPAYERS GET THEIR MONEY ’S WORTH . —NEWT GINGRICH GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION 96 GINGRICH, NEWTON LEROY improperly transferring congressional staff to work on his reelection campaigns. In both cases, the committee did not find sufficient grounds to reprimand Gingrich. Gingrich nearly suffered defeat in the elections of 1990 and 1992, winning the former CONTEST by fewer than 1,000 of the 156,000 votes cast. But these narrow victories were followed by a much wider reaching victory for both Gingrich and his party in 1994. Gingrich had done much to lay the groundwork for his 1994 win, particularly through his organization of the CONTRACT WITH AMERICA , a ten-point plan of action that was intended to give Republicans a unified front against their Democratic opponents. The con- tract called for such measures as tax breaks, a balanced budget amendment to the Constitu- tion, a presidential line-item VETO, term limits for members of Congress, get-tough proposals on crime, reduction of government regulations, welfare reform, military budget increases, and more. In September 1994 Gingrich gathered more than 300 Republican candidates for Congress to sign the contract on Capitol grounds. The big GOP win in 1994 gave the party a gain of 54 seats and majority status in the House. In January 1995 Gingrich was voted Speaker of the House. His leadership soon led to a dramatic change in House protocol. Wresting control from committee chairs by placing loyal associates—many of them first-year Re- publican Congress members—on key commit- tees, Gingrich became one of the most powerful speakers since the nineteenth century, at times virtually dictating the content of legislation. Riding the crest of publicity attached to his new positio n, Gingrich published two books, To Renew America (1995) and 1945 (1995). To Renew America was a best-selling work com- municating Gingrich’s vision for the country. It presents a thesis that cultural elites have torn down the traditional culture of U.S. society. It also contains his already familiar calls to balance the FEDERAL budget and decentralize the federal BUREAUCRACY by returning power to states and localities. The book 1945 is a “what if” novel that explores what the consequences would have been if Nazi Germany had been trium- phant in WORLD WAR II. Gingrich, eager to make his mark as Speaker, initiated a 100-day plan to enact the Contract with America into law. He passed nine of the ten items of the contract through the House, but only three—the Congressional Accountability Act (Pub. L. No. 104-1, 109 Stat. 3), the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act (Pub. L. No. 104-4, 109 Stat. 48), and the Paperwork Reduc- tion Act (Pub. L. No. 104-13, 109 Stat. 163)— were signed into law by the president. Gingrich fought especially hard for one element of the contract: a balanced budget amendment to the Constitution. After its defeat in the Senate, he organized a Republican plan to balance the federal budget in seven years. This plan included tax reductions and deep cuts in federal social programs. Most controversial were provisions requiring large cuts to such programs as MEDICARE and MEDICAID, which provide health care to elderly, disabled, and poor people. Over the course of 1995, President Clinton gradually adopted the goal of a seven-year balanced budget plan—a change of mind that symbolized the pervasive power of the Republican agenda. When President Clinton vetoed the House budget plan late in 1995, Gingrich and his Republican colleagues refused to compromise their budget priorities. As a result, the federal government was forced to shu t down nones- sential services for lack of funding. The budget showdown forced national parks , agencies, and other elements of the federal government to close their doors. Gingrich came under fire as people complained of undelivered paychecks and other problems. The impasse ended in January 1996, when Gingrich and Clinton reached a compromise that allowed provisional funding of the federal government and aban- doned the seven-year goal of balancing the budget. In 1995 Time magazine named Gingrich its Man of the Year, a fitting recognition of the Speaker’s large role in shaping the national political agenda. Such power had not translated into universal public approval for Gingrich, however, particularly given the unpopularity of the federal government shutdown. President Clinton and Congress, despite their collective ideological differences, managed to achieve a budget surplus in 1998, years ahead of expectations. The surpluses grew from $69 billion in 1998 to $122.7 billion in 1999. Nevertheless, Gingrich’s popularity dwindled during the late 1990s, due in large part to his policies and brash personality. GALE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LAW, 3RD E DITION GINGRICH, NEWTON LEROY 97 . a talented artist. Cass Gilbert. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. ▼▼ ▼▼ Cass Gilbert 1 859 –1934 1 850 1 850 19001900 19 251 9 25 1 950 1 950 18 751 8 75 ❖ 1 859 Born, Zanesville, Ohio 1861– 65 U.S. Civil War ◆ 1868 Began apprenticeship at. author and poet with ▼▼ ▼▼ Emma Melinda Gillett 1 852 –1927 1 850 1 850 19001900 19 251 9 25 1 950 1 950 18 751 8 75 ❖ ❖ 1 852 Born, Princeton, Wis. 1861– 65 U.S. Civil War ◆ 1870 Graduated from Lake Erie Seminary ◆ 1883. ▼▼ ▼▼ 18001800 18 751 8 75 1 850 1 850 18 251 8 25 ❖❖ 1801 Born, Lancaster, England 1812–14 War of 1812 ◆ ◆ 1819 Graduated from University of Pa. 1822 Admitted to Pa. bar; joined Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Company 1826–32 Traveled throughout mid-Atlantic states; Atlantic