Ideas of Quantum Chemistry P55 ppt

506 10. Correlation of the Electronic Motions • The nucleus–electron case: When one of the particles is a nucleus of charge Z then μ 1andweget  ∂ψ ∂r  r=0 =−Zψ(r =0) Thus the correct wave function for the electron in the vicinity of a nucleus should have an expansion ψ =const(1 −Zr a1 +···),wherer a1 is the dis- tance from the nucleus Letusseehowitiswiththe1s function for the hydrogen-like atom (the nucleus has charge Z) expanded in a Taylor series in the neighbourhood of r =0. We have 1s =N exp(−Zr) = N(1 −Zr +···) It works. The correlation cusp conditionshows that the wavefunction is not differentiable at r =0. 10.2 THE HYLLERAAS FUNCTION In 1929, two years after the birth of quantum chemistry, a paper by Hylleraas 9 ap- peared, where, for the ground state of the helium atom, a trial variational function, containing the interelectronic distance explicitly, was applied. This was a brilliant idea, since it showed that already a small number of terms provide very good re- sults. Even though no fundamental difficulties were encountered for larger atoms, the enormous numerical problems were prohibitive for atoms with larger numbers of electrons. In this case, the progress made from the nineteen twenties to the end of the twentieth century is exemplified by transition from two- to ten-electron systems. 10.3 THE HYLLERAAS CI METHOD In this method, 10 we exploit the Hylleraas idea in such a way that the electronic wave function is expressed as a linear combinations of Slater determinants, and in front of each determinant  i (1 2 3N)we insert, next to the variational co- efficient c i , correlational factors with some powers (vu) of the interelectronic 9 E.A. Hylleraas, Zeit. Phys. 54 (1929) 347. Egil Andersen Hylleraas arrived in 1926 in Göttingen, to collaborate with Max Born. His professional experience was related to crystallography and to the optical properties of quartz. When one of the employees fell ill, Born told Hylleraas to continue his work on the helium atom in the context of the newly developed quantum mechanics. The helium atom problem had already been attacked by Albrecht Unsöld in 1927 using first order perturbation theory, but Unsöld obtained the ionization potential equal to 20.41 eV, while the experimental value was equal to 24.59 eV. In the reported calculations (done on a recently installed calculator) Hylleraas obtained a value of 24.47 eV (cf. contemporary accuracy, p. 134). 10 CI, Configuration Interaction. 10.4 The harmonic helium atom 507 distances (r mn between electron m and electron n,etc.): ψ =  i c i ˆ A  r v i mn r u i kl  i (1 2 3N)   (10.9) where ˆ A denotes an antisymmetrization operator (see Appendix U, p. 1023). If v i =u i =0 we have the CI expansion: ψ =  i c i  i (we will discuss it on p. 525). If v i =0, we include a variationally proper treatment of the appropriate distance r mn , i.e. correlation of the motions of the electrons m and n, etc. The antisymmetriza- tion operator ensures fulfilment of the requirement for symmetry of the wave func- tion with respect to the exchange of the arbitrary two electrons. The method de- scribed was independently proposed in 1971 by Wiesław Wo´znicki 11 and by Sims and Hagstrom. 12 The method of correlational factors has a nice feature, in that even a short expansion should give a very good total energy for the system, since we combine the power of the CI method with the great success of the explicitly correlated approaches. Unfortunately, the method has also a serious drawback. To make practical calculations, it is necessary to evaluate the integrals occurring in the variational method, and they are very difficult to calculate. It is enough to realize that, in the matrix element of the Hamiltonian containing two terms of the above expansion, we may find, e.g., a term 1/r 12 (from the Hamiltonian) and r 13 (from the factor in front of the determinant), as well as the product of 6 spinorbitals de- scribing the electrons 1, 2, 3. Such integrals have to be computed and the existing algorithms are inefficient. 10.4 THE HARMONIC HELIUM ATOM An unpleasant feature of the electron correlation is that we deal either with intu- itive concepts or, if our colleagues want to help us, they bring wave functions with formulae as long as the distance from Cracow to Warsaw (or longer 13 ) and say: look,thisiswhatreally happens. It would be good to analyze such formulae term by term, but this does not make sense, because there are too many terms. Even the helium atom, when we write down the formula for its ground-state wave func- tion, becomes a mysterious object. Correlation of motion of whatever seems to be so difficult to grasp mathematically that we easily give up. A group of scientists published a paper in 1993 which aroused enthusiasm. 14 They obtained a rigorous solution of the Schrödinger equation (described in Chapter 4, p. 188), the only exact solution which has been obtained so far for correlational problems. 11 W. Wo ´znicki, in “Theory of Electronic Shells in Atoms and Molecules” (ed. A. Yutsis), Mintis, Vilnius, 1971, p. 103. 12 J.S. Sims, S.A. Hagstrom, Phys. Rev. A4 (1971) 908. This method is known as a Hylleraas–CI. 13 This is a very conservative estimate. Let us calculate – half jokingly. Writing down a single Slater determinant would easily take 10 cm. The current world record amounts to several billion such deter- minants in the CI expansion. Say, three billion. Now let us calculate: 10 cm ×3 ×10 9 =3 ×10 10 cm = 3 ×10 8 m = 3×10 5 km = 300000 km. So, this not Warsaw to Cracow, but Earth to Moon. 14 S. Kais, D.R. Herschbach, N.C. Handy, C.W. Murray, G.J. Laming, J. Chem. Phys. 99 (1993) 417. 508 10. Correlation of the Electronic Motions Note that the exact wave function (its spatial part 15 )isageminal (i.e. two- electron function). ψ(r 1  r 2 ) =N  1 + 1 2 r 12  e − 1 4 (r 2 1 +r 2 2 )  (10.10) Let me be naive. Do we have two harmonic springs here? Yes, we do. Then, let us treat them first as independent oscillators and take the product of the ground- state functions of both oscillators: exp[− 1 4 (r 2 1 + r 2 2 )]. Well, it would be good to account for the cusp condition ψ = φ(r 1  r 2 )[1 + 1 2 r 12 +···]and take care of it even in a naive way. Let us just implement the crucial correlation factor (1+ 1 2 r 12 ), the simplest that satisfies the cusp condition (see p. 505). It turns out, that such a recipe leads to a rigorous wave function. 16 From (10.10) we see that for r 1 =r 2 =const (in such a case both electrons move on the surface of the sphere), the larger value of the function (and eo ipso of the probability) is obtained for larger r 12 . This means that, it is most probable that the electrons prefer to occupy opposite sides of a nucleus. This is a practical manifes- tation of the existence of the Coulomb hole around electrons, i.e. the region of the reduced probability of finding a second electron: the electrons simply repel each other. They cannot move apart to infinity since both are held by the nucleus. The only thing they can do is to be close to the nucleus and to avoid each other – this is what we observe in (10.10). 10.5 JAMES–COOLIDGE AND KOŁOS–WOLNIEWICZ FUNCTIONS One-electron problems are the simplest. For systems with two electrons 17 we can apply certain mathematical tricks which allow very accurate results. We are going to talk about such calculations in a moment. Kołos and Wolniewicz applied the Ritz variational method (see Chapter 5) to the hydrogen molecule with the following trial function:  = 1 √ 2  α(1)β(2) −α(2)β(1)  M  i c i   i (1 2) + i (2 1)   (10.11)  i (1 2) =exp  −Aξ 1 − ¯ Aξ 2  ξ n i 1 η k i 1 ξ m i 2 η l i 2  2r 12 R  μ i ·  exp  Bη 1 + ¯ Bη 2  +(−1) k i +l i exp  −Bη 1 − ¯ Bη 2   15 For one- and two-electron systems the wave function is aproductof the spatial and spin factors. A normalized spin factor for two-electron systems, 1 √ 2 {α(1)β(2) −β(1)α(2)}, guarantees that the state in question is a singlet (see Appendix Q, p. 1006). Since we will only manipulate the spatial part of the wave function, the spin is the default. Since the total wave function has to be antisymmetric, and the spin function is antisymmetric, the spatial function should be symmetric and it is. 16 As a matter of fact, only for a single force constant. Nevertheless, the unusual simplicity of that analytic formula is most surprising. 17 For a larger number of electrons it is much more difficult. 10.5 James–Coolidge and Kołos–Wolniewicz functions 509 where the elliptic coordinates of the electrons with index j =1 2aregivenby: ξ j = r aj +r bj R  (10.12) η j = r aj −r bj R  (10.13) R denotes the internuclear distance, r aj and r bj are nucleus–electron distances (the nuclei are labelled by ab), r 12 is the (crucial to the method) interelectronic dis- tance, c i , A, ¯ A, B, ¯ B are variational parameters, and n, k, l, m are integers. The simplified form of this function with A = ¯ A and B = ¯ B = 0 is the James– Coolidge 18 function, thanks to which the later authors enjoyed the most accurate result for the hydrogen molecule in 27 years. Kołos and Roothaan, 19 and later on, Kołos and Wolniewicz 20 as well as Kołos and Rychlewski and others 21 applied longer and longer expansions (com- puter technology was improving fast) up to M of the order of thousands. The results obtained exceeded the ac- curacy of experiments, although the lat- ter represented one of the most accurate spectroscopic measurements ever done. Owing to the great precision of these calculations it was proved that quan- tum mechanics, and in particular the Schrödinger equation, describe the real- ity with remarkable accuracy, Tables 10.1 and 10.2. As can be seen from Tables 10.1 and 10.2, there was a competition be- tween theoreticians and the experimen- tal laboratory of Herzberg. When, in 1964, Kołos and Wolniewicz obtained Włodzimierz Kołos (1928– 1996), Polish chemist, pro- fessor at the Warsaw Univer- sity. His calculations on small molecules (with Roothaan, Wolniewicz, Rychlewski) took into account all known ef- fects and were of unprece- dented accuracy in quantum chemistry. The Department of Chemistry of Warsaw Uni- versity and the Polish Chem- ical Society established the Włodzimierz Kołos Medal ac- companying a Lecture (the first lecturers were: Roald Hoffmann, Richard Bader and Paul von Ragué Schleyer). In the Ochota quarter in Warsaw there is a Włodzimierz Kołos Street. Lutosław Wolniewicz (born 1927), Polish physi- cist, professor at the Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toru ´ n. 36117.3 cm −1 (Table 10.1, bold face) for the dissociation energy of the hydro- gen molecule, quantum chemists held their breath. The experimental result of Herzberg and Monfils, obtained four years earlier (Table 10.1, bold face), was 18 H.M. James, A.S.Coolidge, J. Chem. Phys. 1 (1933) 825. Hubert M. James in the sixties was professor at Purdue University (USA). 19 W. Kołos, C.C.J. Roothaan, Rev. Modern Phys. 32 (1960) 205. 20 For the first time in quantum chemical calculations relativistic corrections and corrections resulting from quantum electrodynamics were included. This accuracy is equivalentto hitting, from Earth, an ob- ject on the Moon the size of a car. These results are cited in nearly all textbooks on quantum chemistry to demonstrate that the theoretical calculations have a solid background. 21 The description of these calculations is given in the review article by Kołos cited in Table 10.1. 510 10. Correlation of the Electronic Motions Table 10.1. Dissociation energy of H 2 in the ground state (in cm −1 ). Comparison of the results of theoretical calculations and experimental measurements. The references to the cited works can be found in the paper by W. Kołos, Pol. J. Chem. 67 (1993) 553. Bold numbers are used to indicate the values connected with the Herzberg–Kołos–Wolniewicz controversy Year Author Experiment Theory 1926 Witmer 35000 1927 Heitler–London 23100 a) 1933 James–Coolidge 36104 a) 1935 Beutler 36116 ±6 1960 Kołos–Roothaan 36113.5 a) 1960 Herzberg–Monfils 36113.6 ±0.6 1964 Kołos–Wolniewicz 36117.3 a) 1968 Kołos–Wolniewicz 36117.4 a) 1970 Herzberg 36118.3 c) 1970 Stwalley 361186 ±05 1975 Kołos–Wolniewicz 36118.0 1978 Kołos–Rychlewski 36118.12 b) 1978 Bishop–Cheung 36117.92 1983 Wolniewicz 36118.01 1986 Kołos–Szalewicz–Monkhorst 36118.088 1991 McCormack–Eyler 3611826 ±020 1992 Balakrishnan–Smith–Stoicheff 3611811 ±008 1992 Kołos–Rychlewski 36118.049 a) Obtained from calculated binding energy by subtracting the energy of zero vibrations. b) Obtained by treating the improvement of the binding energy as an additive correction to the dissoci- ation energy. c) Upper bound. Table 10.2. Ionization energy of H 2 (in cm −1 ). See the caption for Table 10.1 Year Author Experiment Theory 1934 Richardson 124569.2 1933 James–Coolidge 124438 1938 Beutler–Jünger 124429±13 1969 Jeziorski–Kołos 124417.3 1969 Takezawa 124417±2 1970 Takezawa 1244174 ±06 1972 Herzberg–Jungen 1244172 ±04 1978 Kołos–Rychlewski 124417.44 1986 Jungen–Herzberg 1244175 ±01 1986/7 Eyler–Short–Pipkin 12441742 ±015 1987 Glab–Hessler 12441761 ±007 1989 McCormack–Gilligan– Comaggia–Eyler 124417.524±0.015 1990 Jungen–Dabrowski– Herzberg–Vervloet 124417501 ±0015 1992 Gilligan–Eyler 124417507 ±0018 1992 Jungen–Dabrowski– Herzberg–Vervloct 124417484 ±0017 1992 Eyler et al. 124417507 ±0012 1992 Kołos–Rychlewski 124417.471 10.5 James–Coolidge and Kołos–Wolniewicz functions 511 higher and this seemed to contradict the variational principle (Chapter 5) a foun- dation of quantum mechanics. There were only three possibilities: • the theoretical result is wrong, • the experimental result is wrong, • quantum mechanics has internal inconsistency. Kołos and Wolniewicz increased the accuracy of their calculations in 1968 and excluded the first possibility. It soon turned out that the problem lay in the accuracy of the experiment. 22 When Herzberg increased the accuracy, he ob- tained 36118.3 cm −1 as the dissociation energy (Table 10.1, bold face), which was then consistent with the variational prin- ciple. Nowadays, these results are recog- nized in the world as the most reliable source of information on small mole- cules. For example, Kołos and Wol- Gerhard Herzberg (1904–1999), Canadian chemist of German origin professor at the Na- tional Research Council and at the University of Saskatche- wan in Saskatoon and the University of Ottawa. The great- est spectroscopist of the XX century. Herzberg laid the foundations of molecular spec- troscopy, is author of the fun- damental monograph on this subject, received a Nobel prize in 1971 “ for his contribution to knowledge of the elec- tronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals ”. niewicz’s results for the H 2 molecule were used to estimate the hydrogen con- centration on Jupiter. 10.5.1 NEUTRINO MASS Calculations like those above required unique software, especially in the context of the non-adiabatic effects included. Additional gains appeared unexpectedly, when Kołos and others 23 initiated work aiming at explaining whether the electronic neu- trino has a non-zero mass or not. 24 In order to interpret the expensive experiments, 22 At that time Herzberg was hosting them in Canada and treated them to a home made fruit liquor, the latter event was considered by his coworkers to be absolutely exceptional. This is probably the best time to give the recipe for this exquisite drink which is known in the circles of quantum chemists as “kolosovka”. Pour a pint of pure spirits into a beaker. Hang an orange on a piece of gauze directly over the meniscus. Cover tightly and wait for two weeks. Then throw the orange away – there is nothing of value left in it, and turn your attention to the spirits. It should contain now all the flavours from orange. Next, slowly pour some spring water until the liquid becomes cloudy and some spirits to make it clear again. Propose a toast to the future of quantum chemistry! 23 W. Kołos, B. Jeziorski, H.J. Monkhorst, K. Szalewicz, Int. J. Quantum Chem. S19 (1986) 421. 24 Neutrinos are stable fermions of spin 1 2 . Three types of neutrinos exist(each has its own antiparticle): electronic, muonic and taonic. The neutrinos are created in the weak interactions (e.g., in β-decay) and do not participate either in the strong, or in electromagnetic interactions. The latter feature expresses itself in an incredible ability to penetrate matter (e.g., crossing the Earth almost as through a vacuum). The existence of the electronic neutrino was postulated in 1930 by Wolfgang Pauli and discovered in 1956 by F. Reines and C.L. Cowan; the muonic neutrino was discovered in 1962 by L. Lederman, M. Schwartz and J. Steinberger. 512 10. Correlation of the Electronic Motions Alexandr Alexandrovich Fried- mann (1888–1925), Russian mathematician and physicist, in his article in Zeit. Phys .10 (1922) 377 proved on the ba- sis of Einstein’s general the- ory of relativity, that the cur- vature of the Universe must change, which became the basis of cosmological models of the expanding Universe. During World War I, Friedman was a pilot in the Russian army and made bombing raids over my beloved Przemy ´ sl. In one of his letters he asked his friend cheerfully, the em- inent Russian mathematician Steklov, for advice about the integration of equations he derived to describe the trajec- tories of his bombs. Later, in a letter to Steklov of February 28, 1915 he wrote: “ Recently I had an opportunity to verify my theory during a flight over Przemy ´ sl, the bombs fell ex- actly in the places predicted by the theory. To get the final proof of my theory I intend to test it in flights during next few days .” More information in: http:// www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac. uk/~history/Mathematicians/ Friedmann.html precise calculations were required for the β-decay of the tritium molecule as a function of the neutrino mass. The emission of the antineutrino (ν)inthe process of β-decay: T 2 →HeT + +e +ν should have consequences for the fi- nal quantum states of the HeT + mole- cule. To enable evaluation of the neu- trino mass by the experimentalists Kołos et al. performed precise calculations of all possible final states of HeT + and pre- sented them as a function of the hypo- thetical mass of the neutrino. There is such a large number of neutrinos in the Universe that, if its mass exceeded a cer- tain value, even a very small threshold valueoftheorderof1eV, 25 themassof the Universe would exceed the critical Edwin Powell Hubble (1889– 1953), American astronomer, explorer of galaxies, found in 1929, that the distance between galaxies is propor- tional to the infrared shift in their spectrum caused by the Doppler effect, which is consequently interpreted as expansion of the Universe. A surprise from recent astro- nomical studies is that the ex- pansion is faster and faster (for reasons unknown). value predicted by Alexandr Friedmann in his cosmological theory (based on the general theory of relativity of Einstein). This would mean that the currently oc- curring expansion of the Universe (dis- covered by Hubble) would finally stop and its collapse would follow. If the neu- trino mass would turn out to be too small, then the Universe would continue its expansion. Thus, quantum chemical calculations for the HeT + molecule may turn out to be helpful in predicting our fate (unfortunately, being crushed or frozen). So far, the estimate of neutrino mass gives a value smaller than 1 eV, which indicates the Universe expansion. 26 25 The mass of the elementary particle is given in the form of its energetic equivalent mc 2 . 26 At this moment there are other candidates for contributing significantly to the mass of the Universe, mainly the mysterious “dark matter”. This constitutes the major part of the mass of the Universe. We know veeeery little. Recently it turned out that neutrinos undergo what are called oscillations, e.g., an electronic neu- trino travels from the Sun and on its way spontaneously changes to a muonic neutrino. The oscillations indicate that the mass of the neutrino is nonzero. According to current estimations, it is much smaller, however, than the accuracy of the tritium experiments. 10.6 Method of exponentially correlated Gaussian functions 513 10.6 METHOD OF EXPONENTIALLY CORRELATED GAUSSIAN FUNCTIONS In 1960, Boys 27 and Singer 28 noticed that the functions which are products of Gaussian orbitals and correlational factors of Gaussian type, exp(−br 2 ij ),where r ij is the distance between electron i and electron j, generate relatively simple in- tegrals in the quantum chemical calculations. A product of two Gaussian orbitals (with positions shown by the vectors AB) and of an exponential correlation factor is called an exponentially correlated Gaussian geminal: 29 geminal g(r i  r j ;A Ba 1 a 2 b)=Ne −a 1 (r i −A) 2 e −a 2 (r j −B) 2 e −br 2 ij  A geminal is an analogue of an orbital, which is a one-electron function. Here is a two-electron one. A single geminal is very rarely used in computations, 30 we apply hundreds or even thousands of Gaussian geminals. When we want to find out what are the optimal positions AB and the optimal exponents a and b in these thousands of geminals, it turns out that nothing sure is known about them, the AB positions are scattered chaotically, 31 and in the a>0andb>0 exponents, there is no regularity either. Nevertheless, the above formula for a single Gaussian geminal looks like if it suggested b>0. 10.7 COULOMB HOLE (“CORRELATION HOLE”) It is always good to count “on fingers” to make sure that everything is all right. Let us see how a single Gaussian geminal describes the correlation of the electronic motion. Let us begin with the helium atom with the nucleus in the position A = B =0. The geminal takes the form: g He =Ne −a 1 r 2 1 e −a 1 r 2 2 e −br 2 12  (10.14) where N is a normalization factor. Let us assume 32 that electron 1 is at (x 1 y 1  z 1 ) = (1 0 0). Where in such situation does electron 2 prefer to be? We will find out (Fig. 10.2) from the position of electron 2 for which g He assumes the largest value. Just to get an idea, let us try to restrict the motion of electron 2. For instance, let us demand that it moves only on the sphere of radius equal to 1 centred at the nucleus. So we insert r 1 = r 2 = 1 Then, g He = constexp[−br 2 12 ] and we will easily find out what electron 2 likes most. With b>0 the latter factor tells us that 27 S.F. Boys, Proc. Royal Soc. A 258 (1960) 402. 28 K. Singer, Proc. Royal Soc. A 258 (1960) 412. 29 This is an attempt to go beyond the two-electron systems with the characteristic (for these systems) approach of James, Coolidge, Hylleraas, Kołos, Wolniewicz and others. 30 Ludwik Adamowicz introduced an idea of the minimal basis of the Gaussian geminals (equal to the number of the electron pairs) and applied to the LiH and HF molecules, L. Adamowicz, A.J. Sadlej, J. Chem. Phys. 69 (1978) 3992. 31 The methods in which those positions are selected at random scored a great success. 32 We use atomic units. 514 10. Correlation of the Electronic Motions Fig. 10.2. Illustration of the correlation and . anticorrelation of the electrons in the helium atom. Figs. (a) and (b) present the machinery of the “anticorrelation” connected with the geminal g He = N exp[−r 2 1 ]exp[−r 2 2 ]exp[−2r 2 12 ] In Fig. (a) electron 1 has a position (0 0 0),whileFig.(b) corresponds to electron 1 being at point (1 0 0) (cutting off the top parts of the plots is caused by graphical limitations, not by the physics of the problem). It can be seen that electron 2 holds on to elec- tron 1, i.e. it behaves in a completely unphysical manner (since electrons repel each other). Figs. (c) and (d) show how electron 2 will respond to such two positions of electron 1, if the wave function is described by the geminal g He = N exp[−r 2 1 ]exp[−r 2 2 ][1 −exp[−2r 2 12 ]] In Fig. (c) we see that elec- tron 2 runs away “with all its strength” (the hollow in the middle) from electron 1 placed at (0 00). We have correlation. Similarly, Fig. (d), if electron 1 is in point (1 0 0), then it causes a slight de- pression for electron 2 in this position. Again we do have correlation. However, the graphs (c) and (d) differ widely. This is understandable since the nucleus is all the time at the point (0 0 0). Figs. (e), (f) correspond to the same displacements of electron 1, but this time the correlation function is equal to ψ(r 1  r 2 ) =(1 + 1 2 r 12 ) exp[−(r 2 1 +r 2 2 )], i.e. is similar to the wave function of the harmonic helium atom. It can be seen (particularly in Fig. (e)) that there is a correlation, although much less visible than in the previous examples. To amplify (artificially) the correlation effect Figs. (g), (h) show the same as Figs. (e), (f) but for the function ψ(r 1  r 2 ) =(1 +25r 12 ) exp[−(r 2 1 +r 2 2 )], which (unlike Figs. (e), (f)) does not satisfy the correlation cusp condition. what electron 2 likes best is just to sit on electron 1! Is it what the correlation is supposed to mean that one electron sits on the other? Here we have rather an anticorrelation. Something is going wrong. According to this analysis we should rather take the geminal of the form, e.g.: g He =Ne −a 1 r 2 1 e −a 1 r 2 2  1 −e −br 2 12   10.7 Coulomb hole (“correlation hole”) 515 Fig. 10.2. Continued. Now everything is qualitatively in order. When the interelectronic distance in- creases, the value of the g He function also increases, which means that such a situ- ation is more probable than that corresponding to a short distance. If the electrons become too agitated and begin to think that it would be better when their distance gets very long, they would be called to order by the factors exp[−a 1 r 2 1 ]exp[−a 1 r 2 2 ]. Indeed, in such a case, the distance between the nucleus and at least one of the electrons is long and the probability of such a situation is quenched by one or both exponential factors. For large r 12 distances, the factor [1 − exp[−br 2 12 ]] is practically equal to 1. This means that for large interelectronic distances g He is practically equal to N exp[−a 1 r 2 1 ]exp[−a 1 r 2 2 ], i.e. to the product of the orbitals (no correlation of motions at long interelectronic distances, and rightly so). Around electron 1 there is a region of low probability of finding electron 2. This region is called the Coulomb hole. The Gaussian geminals do not satisfy the correlation cusp condition (p. 505), because of factor exp(−br 2 ij ). It is required (for simplicity we write r ij = r)that ( ∂g ∂r ) r=0 = 1 2 g(r =0) whereas the left-hand side is equal to 0, while the right-hand side 1 2 N exp[−a 1 (r i − A) 2 ]exp[−a 2 (r j − B) 2 ] is not equal to zero. This is not a . Rychlewski) took into account all known ef- fects and were of unprece- dented accuracy in quantum chemistry. The Department of Chemistry of Warsaw Uni- versity and the Polish Chem- ical Society. the future of quantum chemistry! 23 W. Kołos, B. Jeziorski, H.J. Monkhorst, K. Szalewicz, Int. J. Quantum Chem. S19 (1986) 421. 24 Neutrinos are stable fermions of spin 1 2 . Three types of neutrinos. treatment of the appropriate distance r mn , i.e. correlation of the motions of the electrons m and n, etc. The antisymmetriza- tion operator ensures fulfilment of the requirement for symmetry of the