Electric Vehicle: Batteries ppsx

Electric Vehicle: Batteries G Gutmann, Esslingen am Neckar, Germany & 2009 Elsevier B.V All rights reserved Introduction History At the beginning of the automotive century, around 1900– 1910, battery electric vehicles (BEVs), cars with steam engines, and cars with gasoline engines coexisted They were competing with respect to power, comfort, and maintenance As described by R H Schallenberg, it took the electric starter and the starting, lighting, and ignition (SLI) system (created by Charles Kettering on the demand from Henry Leyland for the 1911 Cadillac Model Thirty) to improve the comfort in use of the gasoline engine vehicle sufficiently to outperform others In addition, Ford’s Model T, in mass production since 1908, provided the way for the cheaper internal combustion engine (ICE) car; and the faster growth of infrastructure, i.e., mainly gasoline pumps, made it more convenient in use Shifting gears remained an incommodity for some years, which helped the high-torque engines of steamers, and preferably the BEVs, to survive for a while, with the smooth and easy-to-handle BEVs estimated as ladies cars, looked into by V Scharff As an example, the Detroit Electric car (Figure 1) was manufactured, by different companies, from 1907 to 1938, covering a 31-year span However, production fell off after 1914, and during the 1930s the car was on an as-ordered basis only Still, the expression ‘electric vehicle’ (EV) since then was mainly associated with the BEV From about 1960 on, together with the fuel cell R&D initiated for space power, the fuel cell electric vehicle (FC-EV) achieved more importance and occupied its place in thinking about EV Last but not least, the hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) became a contender with respect to electric driving Definition As defined by CITELEC, the Association of European Cities interested in Electric Vehicles, an EV is a vehicle where the driving torque to the wheels is delivered exclusively by one or more electric motors EDTA, the Electric Drive Transportation Association as the corresponding US organization, defines an electric drive vehicle as one where the torque is supplied to the wheels by an electric motor that is powered either solely by a battery, or an ICE using hydrogen, gasoline, or diesel, or by a fuel cell This is the case for BEV, FC-EV, and series HEV (Figure 2) What they have in common is the electric motor to provide all torque for driving performance A BEV is an EV where the electric energy to drive the motor(s) is stored in an onboard rechargeable battery A fuel cell vehicle makes use of a fuel cell as onboard energy source It can be fitted either with a fuel cell only (‘pure fuel cell vehicle’) or with a fuel cell complemented with a battery (‘hybrid fuel cell vehicle’) Figure Thomas Edison with the 1912 Detroit Electric car Source: National Museum of American History 219 220 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries MIEV applications Electric vehicle Hybrid vehicle Fuel cell vehicle In-wheel motor Fuel cell stack Engine/generator Lithium-ion batteries Inverter Fuel tank (gasoline) Fuel tank (hydrogen) Figure Collection of electric vehicles: battery electric vehicle, (series) hybrid electric vehicle, and fuel cell (hybrid) electric vehicle Source: Mitsubishi Motor Co., Press Release 2003 Recycling Technologies Figure Purpose-designed milk delivery BEV, Northampton Source: Bluebird Automotive The series HEV has an all-electric drivetrain, with a battery as one energy storage unit charged by an onboard engine-generator unit, e.g an ICE fed from a gasoline fuel tank Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (P-HEVs) offer limited range electric drive autonomy; their battery may be recharged from the grid Both the BEV and the FC-EV provide zero emission on the road The FC-EV is discussed in chapters ‘Applications – Transportation: Buses: Fuel Cells’ and ‘Light Traction: Fuel Cells’ and the P-HEV under ‘Applications – Transportation: Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Overview’ and ‘Hybrid Electric Vehicle: Plug-In Hybrids’, while the BEV will be discussed in this article Development Drivers The BEV of the early times was characterized by simplicity, along with easy and clean operation Both are selling points for the EV of today as well For example, the 1918 Detroit Electric, successor of the one shown in Figure 1, had an excellent performance in endurance runs In a company-sponsored test, a Detroit Electric ran 211.3 miles (340 km) on a single battery charge, though 80 miles between charges was the figure generally advertised The car was steered by a tiller, and the throttle was also a tiller The electric motor is directly under the passenger compartment, and batteries are located under the hood and the trunk However, quiet times in development followed from about 1920 to 1965 The arguments against the BEV were insufficient range and long recharge duration, properties for which the heavy and costly-to-replace battery was blamed for Still the BEV held its position in niches, like in milk delivery fleets (Figure 3) or in some postal services, where the BEV advantages predominate Frequent stop–start actions on fixed routes, with limited speed and the benefit of quiet performance, bear out their advantages In many cases, battery-charging stations already exist for forklift batteries, as zero emission is requested in stockrooms anyway, which makes BEV mandatory for indoor use and favorable for on-theroad service by the same vehicle Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries These niche vehicles also underwent steady improvement with respect to motors or solid-state controllers, but not necessarily in view of mass production In the first place of users’ interest was a rugged design, for long life of the vehicle Battery system development and BEV performance represent a push–pull couple, as shown by O Bitsche and G Gutmann, which has always been assessed in relation to the ICE vehicle Figure shows the commercialization goals set by the United States Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC) for EV batteries to power somewhat competitive BEVs, and the data achieved with lithium-ion systems as the most progressed traction battery Progress in the development of batteries, or, less pleasant, shortages in oil caused by political rumors in oilproducing countries induced recurring hyphens of BEV development highs, with some improvements in batteryspecific energy and cycle life High-temperature battery systems, such as Na–NiCl2, are examples for the results of such development ups Lithium-ion development represents a further step Key parameters, such as battery-specific energy density and, in first place, cost, are still far from target Rapid charging requires costly infrastructure installation and equipment In addition, reasonable mass production capability for advanced traction batteries is missing The same is true for electric motor and controls manufacturing to fit automotive production numbers However, the technical progress achieved from time to time offered the chance for a few wealthy protagonists to 221 show their consciousness to contribute to a clean environment by making use of BEV, as shown in Figures and The reason for renewed interest in EV is to make use of their potential to reduce emissions, improve efficiency, and accomplish prolonged and sustainable energy by utilization of diverse sources of (primary) energy Expectations and Requirements Range As a result of thorough development over a century by the automotive industry which produces about 5–7 million cars per year, we are accustomed to make use of the car every time, for every range required, instantaneously and under all conditions, to go from nearby shopping malls and restaurants to distant holiday locations The average requirement of people living in or near cities, e.g., in Germany, with respect to their daily driving range is shown in Figure The dotted lines indicate the range of BEV equipped with lead–acid, nickel metal hydride (Ni–MH), and lithium-ion batteries of reasonable sizes This function may vary for other countries, but, in general, approximately 90% of our mobility needs are sustained by a range of about 100 km per day Recharge on the occasion of intermediate stops could extend the range easily to most of our everyday requirements, even with Ni–MH batteries A public infrastructure, as the one proposed in the so-called Better Place project, would assist to Specific power discharge (300 W kg−1) Operating temperature range (−40 − +50 °C) Selling price @10k yr−1 ($150 kWh−1) 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 Specific energy − C/3 (150 Wh kg−1) Power density (460 W L−1) Energy density − C/3 (230 Wh L−1) Calendar life (10 years) Cycle life-80% DoD (1000 cycles) USABC EV goals Lithium-ion EV commercialization Li-ion battery technology spider chart Figure United States Advanced Battery Consortium (USABC) commercialization goals for electric vehicle (EV) batteries in relation to Li-ion battery achievements DoD, depth of discharge Source: FreedomCAR Fuel Partnership and USABC (2006) Electrochemcial Energy Storage Technical Team 222 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries Figure Violinist Sir Yehudi Menuhin with Robert Aronsson and Transformer (1976) Source: Apollo Energy System Figure Governor Schwarzenegger with CEO Elon Musk and 200-kW Tesla Roadster (2008) Source: USA Today (left), NY Times (night) achieve such a goal In principle, it seems to be the idea of limitation of minds, not the reality of how far people drive Probably, a change in minds is required for better EV acceptance rather than asking for undue vehicle performance The range is defined by the size and specific energy of the storage unit and by the efficiency of the drivetrain, or tank-to-wheel (TTW) efficiency To make the data comparable for internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) and BEV, the energy content is transferred into megajoules Another option would be the use of gasoline equivalents, which allows figuring out the quantity of alternative fuel with the same energy content, based on the lower heating value The data in Table have been evaluated by making use of the OPTIRESOURCE software created by the EU Commission JCR IES (Joint Research Center Institute for Environment and Sustainability) for a compact class car on the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) The specific energy content of liquid fuels is 44.4 M J kgÀ1 for gasoline and 45.4 M J kgÀ1 for diesel, or 34.8 M J LÀ1 for gasoline and 38.6 M J LÀ1 for diesel, respectively For the high-energy lithium-ion battery, roughly 100 Wh kgÀ1 or 0.36 M J kgÀ1 are assumed, about 1% of liquid storage systems With respect to fuel economy, there is an overcompensation of the weight burden owing to the lower energy density of the battery energy storage, by the high energy conversion efficiency of the BEV drivetrain In general, about 0.23 l of gasoline in addition is consumed per 100 kg of added vehicle load, as worked out by A Paulus The total well-to-wheel (WTW) energy chain efficiency-based carbon dioxide emission has been included Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries 223 Daily driving range 35 30 Relative frequency (%) 25 20 15 10 0 50 100 Pb 150 200 250 Driving range (km) NiMH Li-ion Figure Relative frequency of use over daily driving range, and battery electric vehicle (BEV) range projections for different batteries ă Data from Mobilitat in Deutschland 2002 Kontinuierliche Erhebung zum Verkehrsverhalten Endbericht DIW Berlin, infas, Juni 2003 Table Energy consumption and CO2 emission of a compact class vehicle as internal combustion engine vehicle (ICEV) and battery electric vehicle (BEV) Property Gasoline Diesel Battery (Li-ion) Energy consumed TTW, NEDC Gasoline equivalent W h kmÀ1 Tank energy content for 200 km Weight Efficiency TTW/WTW CO2 emission, TTW (on the road) Total CO2 emission, WTW (incl primary energy production) 5.9 L/100 km 5.9 L/100 km 570 W h kmÀ1 410 MJ 9.2 kg 15%/12% 140 g kmÀ1 164 g kmÀ1 4.1 L/100 km 5.3 L/100 km 512 Wh kmÀ1 316 MJ 7.0 kg 18%/16% 128 g kmÀ1 152 g kmÀ1 0.73 MJ kmÀ1 2.1 L/100 km 203 Wh kmÀ1 146 MJ 406 kg 63%/57%a 87 g kmÀ1b a Excluding/including battery charge efficiency Based on EU energy mix Data obtained by making use of OPTIRESOURCE software EUCAR, CONCAWE, and JRC (2007) Well-to-wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, version 2c Well-to-Wheel Analysis of the Energy Efficiency of Passenger Car Drivetrains b in Table to remember the role of primary energy mix in grid energy production for the BEV The useful power for charging is dependent on infrastructure and charge acceptance of the EV battery Table shows the comparison of electric charging station versus gasoline pump power capacity The specific energy of a battery system depends on the power capability it is designed for In general, a 2C or 3C rate is sufficient for an EV battery, in contrast to an HEV battery, which needs about a 20 C rate The dimensions and weights of passive components required to limit the resistance enhance the specific power at the expense of specific energy, as shown in the Ragone plot (Figure 10), named after D V Ragone In turn, this means that even for a 40-kWh battery, good for a >200-km range of a personal car, an 80-kW 224 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries Table Comparison of electric charging station vs gasoline pump power delivery for the 200 km range refueling (anticipating 90% battery charging energy efficiency) Refueling Recharge time Household outlets 110 V (e.g., USA, Canada, Japan) 220/240 V (Europe) House connections Fast charging stations: up to Gasoline pumps a Power delivered (kW) 30 h 1.5 15 h 4.5 h 250 45000 Heat dissipation limited Table Well-to-wheel (WTW) CO2 emission for a battery electric vehicle (BEV) with Li-ion battery, New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) EU mix À1a kg CO2 (kW h) g CO2 kmÀ1 Base vehicle E-Motor, transmission Conversion cost, charger Subtotal Vehicle battery 20 kWh, ZEBRA Total 10 000 750 250 20 000 12 000 32 000 a Considered as a rough estimate because of exchange rates and random conditions ZEBRA, Zero Emission Battery Research Activity 10 (10.8 min)a 1.36 Table Cost breakdown (in US$) for Panda Elettrica conversion vehiclea Germany France USA Japan 0.43 87 0.52 106 0.076 15 0.72 146 0.44 89 a Data obtained in the year 2002 CO2 emissions show significant improvements since then! charger would be the upper limit useful for quick charging Faster charging requires dimensions for the passive cell components that would reduce their specific energy, and need active cooling, too With the common limitations of household outlets, and without additional and costly infrastructure, overnight recharge is therefore the preferred option As an added benefit, the role of the BEV for peak shaving, or making use of excessive grid base load in low load times, should be mentioned here (vehicle-to-grid (V2G) option) The grid connection can be conductive, with connector and outlet socket, or inductive, or with both, as demonstrated by the Mitsubishi i-MiEV for household outlet and quick charging on fast charging stations Among the drawbacks of good efficiency of the BEV drivetrain is the onboard lack of thermal energy, with the exception of the high-temperature ZEBRA battery (trade name for sodium/metal chloride battery) Heating needs a lot of battery energy that is missed for range, while gasoline ICEV produces heat in excess and the diesel ICEV produces at least sufficient heat for passenger comfort in winter time Lighting is another range cutter for BEV Emissions As mentioned, WTW efficiency has to be considered for the overall carbon dioxide production in use of BEV The mix of primary energies used for grid electricity production of utilities is essential In the case of regenerative energy use, there is almost no carbon dioxide emission, while grids fed with fossil primary energies may cause BEV to exceed even gasoline cars in this respect Supplementing Table 3, the WTW carbon dioxide emission for the BEV will vary from country to country Emissions and other environmental loads, from raw material mining and manufacturing energy requirements down to recycling or regular deposition, have to be as well attributed to the battery They are subject to the ‘cradle-to-grave’ analysis Extra costs have to be considered for battery end-of-life, or are included in the battery price The lithium-ion technology has very low environmental impact in all categories, according to the SUBAT report authored by J Matheys and W Autenboer Cost Cost estimates differ vastly, as soon as it comes to BEV discussions However, it is possible to find realistic approximations: Some conversion BEVs, built in limited numbers, may have a restricted demand An assessment and scale-up for the component costs is possible as well For the drivetrain components, the costs for motor and power electronics not differ too much from the components they substitute, the ICE and transmission The battery is the most costly component, compared to other ones For the Fiat Panda Elettrica shown in Figure 17, we can make the assumptions shown in Table Battery electric vehicles are well known for their low energy costs due to the drivetrain efficiency that includes regenerative breaking, and also for high battery costs resulting from depreciation and recovery If we anticipate an energy consumption of 0.15 kWh kmÀ1, and 100 km per day traveling, the battery will have a cycle life of 1000–1300 cycles with 75% depth of discharge (DoD), corresponding to 100 000–130 000 km Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries Energy costs: 0.15 kWh kmÀ1 Â $0.2 (kWh)À1 ¼ $0.03 kmÀ1 Battery depreciation and recovery: $24 000 per 100 000 km ¼ $0.24 kmÀ1 or, for 130 000 km, $24 000 per 130 000 km ¼ $0.18 kmÀ1 Total costs will then be at least $0.18 km1 ỵ $0.03 km1 ẳ $0.21 km1 Drivetrain Requirements The drivetrain has to sustain the power Ptotal needed to drive an EV: Ptotal ẳ Pkin ỵ Pgrade ỵ Pair For series hybrids, the motor has to fulfill essentially the same requirements as in the BEV with respect to power and voltage For a detailed discussion, see Applications – Transportation: Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Overview A few basics are repeated here for convenience With respect to the technology, Japanese manufacturers prefer permanent magnet synchronous machines (PMSMs) These brushless machines are mechanically robust and provide the highest efficiency of up to 95% However, the magnet materials contain rare earths, which are limited with respect to abundance and deposit, and are mostly found in China, described in an essay by G B Haxel and coworkers With respect to mass production, AC motors are preferable Most common are asynchronous machines (ASMs) with a simple (squirrel cage) rotor Rarely used, but probably of interest due to very simple construction and cheap material, are switched reluctance machines (SRMs) Their peak efficiency is 90%, about the same as ASMs They suffer from acoustic voids, which need high-cost power electronics for compensation With their high specific power, forced cooling is mandatory for motor and controller (MCU) The BEV has a very simple drivetrain structure (Figure 8) As shown, the drivetrain consists of the battery as the electrochemical storage unit, with battery control unit (BCU) for thermal and electrical management, and the motor with motor control unit (MCU) They are connected by the power electronics, which have to work bidirectional: as an inverter in the drive mode, to convert electrical energy from the direct current (DC) battery to the multiphase alternating current (AC) form needed for motor operation, and as a controlled rectifier in the regenerative mode to convert AC electric energy from the generator operation mode to the DC current recharging the battery It consists of a DC–DC plus DC–AC converter, and the vehicle control unit (VCU) Battery + BCU = ~ Converter/inverter + VCU Power electronics Figure Battery electric vehicle (BEV) drivetrain structure ỵ Pfriction Motor Components = drag adding up the power to overcome acceleration, grading, air drag, and friction resistance, respectively The voltage for personal vehicles is about 300 V, and the power ranges from about 30 to 100 kW Buses and trucks apply higher voltages in the range of 600–750 V, and power levels of 250–300 kW The VCU has to provide the priorities in operative and failure management Assuming an average of l per 100 km for gasoline consumption, it is easy to figure out a gasoline price of about $5 LÀ1, required for the battery to be competitive Remember that gasoline price in many countries includes a substantial amount of tax for transportation In the introduction phase of BEV, a tax on transportation electricity should not be charged by governments to sustain emission reduction Anyway, the situation is much improved if we assume a battery price of $300 (kWh)À1 and a cycle life of 3000– 5000 cycles to 75% DoD The price seems to be realistic for mass-manufactured ZEBRA and high-energy lithium-ion batteries, as well as the cycle life for the latter It should be here emphasized that the development of electrical components for HEV, such as motors, battery materials, electrically actuated auxiliaries, and the like, will assist to get BEV prices down to a level acceptable for automotive conditions = 225 M 3~ Motor + MCU Differential 226 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries Specific discharge energy (Wh kg−1) Figure Alternating current (AC) Propulsion’s tzeroTM drive system with integrated, bidirectional charger, Li-ion battery assemblies, and integrated battery management systems for BMW group MINI E Source: AC Propulsion, Inc 90 80 70 High energy High power Ultrahigh power 60 50 40 30 20 10 Different systems show different performance with respect to specific energy and specific power Figure 11 makes use of the Ragone plot to compare different battery chemistries of traction relevant storage systems With the exception of specific energy (for high range) and specific power, the main requirements for traction cells, beyond low costs, are long cycle life and calendar life, low self-discharge to prevent energy loss during parking, and a temperature range to cover all working and idling conditions The shape of cells, whether cylindrical or prismatic, contributes to cost, packaging, and thermal behavior Last but not least, the scalability of cell design is also relevant for cost It allows making use of the same materials for different designs of load and size, to improve economy of scale Safety is inevitable for traction use and has to be considered on cell, module, and battery level, depending on cell chemistry (Table 5) Traction-relevant properties are shortly discussed in the following, and compiled in Table In the following section, the cell systems are described to a depth necessary for understanding their tractionrelevant properties For details, see the chapters 126–152, 153–169, 179, 180, 186 and references provided there Or D Linden’s handbook, or M Anderman’s conferences for recent developments Lead–acid battery 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Specific discharge power (W kg−1) Figure 10 Specic discharge energy vs specic discharge ă power for different NiMH cell types Reproduced from Kohler U, ă Antonius C, and Bauerlein P (2004) Advances in alkaline batteries Journal of Power Sources 127: 45–52 Power Electronics The functions of the power electronics have already been described To cut costs, it is preferable to have the power electronics, MCU, and VCU together in one single housing for ease of maintenance and cooling (Figure 9) Energy Storage System: Battery General: High-power, high-energy systems Batteries of the same chemistry can be designed for power or energy As mentioned, BEV traction batteries are of the high-energy type For reduced resistance, highpower cells contain more conductive material in relation to the active masses, and therefore gain specific power at the expense of specific energy In Figure 10, the Ragone plot is used to demonstrate different power design for one chemistry by U Kohler and coworkers ă The leadacid battery is the workhorse for most traction applications It is the cheapest system, with a reasonable price-to-performance relation Valve-regulated, adsorptive glass mat (AGM)-armed plate types are most frequently used and are common for industrial vehicles and fleets Because of the reaction mechanisms of the lead–acid cell including soluble species, they are limited in energy density, low-temperature performance, and cycle life In hybrid trucks and vehicles, bipolar cells and the UltraBattery are tested in competition with supercaps as storage systems, but not for pure BEV The UltraBattery is an internal lead– acid–supercap hybrid with a carbon electrode attached to the negative lead electrode It works without electronics and improves cycle life and power of the lead–acid battery, as examined by L T Lam and coworkers For buses, trailers have been used to carry the heavy lead–acid batteries with them Alkaline batteries (Ni–MH, Ni–Cd, Ni–Fe, Ni–Zn, Zn–air) The NiMH system has the advantage of robust electrochemistry in a sealed, maintenance-free cell It is scalable and adaptable to many applications, and can be considered as the standard battery for mature present technology The application of Ni–Cd cells has become obsolete, since the use of cadmium has been banned within the Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries 1h Discharge time: 10 h 227 Specific energy (Wh kg−1) 1000 High temperature batteries Li-ion 0.6 100 Lead−acid 10 Ni-MH DLC 0.1 10 100 1000 10 000 −1 Specific power (W kg ) Figure 11 Specific discharge energy vs specific discharge power for different traction-relevant electrochemical storage systems Table Properties of traction cells and batteries System Economic data Li-ion ZEBRA Open-circuit voltage Nominal voltage Specific energy (W h kgÀ1) Specific power (W kgÀ1) Cycle life (full cycles) Calendar life Self-discharge 2.0 V 2.0 V 35 200 100–1000 3–5 years 3%/month 1.3 V 1.2 V 60 300 1000–2500 12 years 10%/month 4.1 V 3.6 V 140 400 800–2500 >10 years 3%/month Working temp Operating temp range Safety risk Ambient 25/ ỵ 60 1C Hydrogen explosion Bunsen vent Ambient 10/ ỵ 50 1C Hydrogen re/ explosion, thermal runaway Burst disk Ambient 30/ ỵ 50 1C Electrolyte fire thermal runaway Burst disk 2.58 V 2.58 V 120 300 1300 >10 years 8%/day (thermal loss) 300 1C 40/ ỵ 50 1C Sodium re Ventilation Safety-relevant properties Ni–MH Precautions Technical performance Lead–acid Ventilation Module/ battery monitoring 80–100 Module monitoring Fire wall/battery tray Single-cell monitoring Cell price ($ (kW h)À1): present mass market Battery price ($ (kW h)À1): present mass market 150 Fire wall/ battery tray Battery monitoring 250–300 250 300–500a 300 n.a 500 450 1000 500 600 300 a COTS cells; n.a., not applicable ZEBRA, Zero Emission Battery Research Activity European Community for its toxicity Because of excellent low-temperature performance they are still in use in extreme climates Development of the well-known Ni–Fe system from Edison’s times failed as a result of iron electrode side reactions, which prevent low maintenance and sealed cell function Ni–Zn and Zn–air cell systems suffer from the solubility of the zinc electrode Mechanically rechargeable systems failed with handling problems Dendrite formation and shape change in electrochemically rechargeable cells, however, could be suppressed sufficiently to achieve a few hundred cycles with valveregulated Ni–Zn cells at 80 W h kgÀ1 High-temperature systems (Na/NiCl2, Na/S) Extensive research for cheap material batteries resulted in the development of the two high-temperature battery – T r a n s p o r t 5 4 2O LiNiO2 n - P LiMn M 3 V o - s s y s t i v y s i v i V s O L xV3O8 i Li4T 5O N ) i gS uo r m e e i L i e g a i o n - h i u m m e t a l ( lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO2), such as Li(Ni1ÀyÀz CoyMz)O2 (M ¼ Al, Mg, Mn), with improved energy density, cycle life, and lower costs as well, but with safety problems; lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4), which is cheap and offers better safety, but also has lower energy density ( À 15%) and problems to achieve cycle life; LiFePO4, with promising data but somewhat lower status of development Substituting LiC6 with the so-called ‘zero-strain’ negative host material, Li4Ti5O12, in cells with LiFePO4 positives offers an extremely long-living and safe 1.9-V cell system, presented by P Reale and coworkers Lithium-ion cells are extremely adaptable to power requirements They are scalable as well, and made in prismatic or cylindrical design This offers advantages in scaling effects for the materials used, and flexibility in size Pouch-type cells especially are adaptable, but need special care with respect to their safety precautions and management Steel as the battery container material is preferred because of its heat resistance Future systems The breakthrough of lithium-ion systems was achieved by making lithium metal less reactive at the expense of energy density Efforts are therefore continued to improve high-specific-energy lithium metal cells like lithium–sulfur or lithium–air, which promise cell-specific energies of 300–400 W h kgÀ1 and a BEV range of 300– 400 km Li–S is a 2.1-V system with thin layer electrodes and a liquid cathode, protecting the lithium metal anode, for example, with a stable phosphate glass which permits even aqueous electrolyte to be used As an alternative, LiCoO2 LiFePO t i V F L S t Lithium batteries started their success making the negative electrode safe by intercalating lithium into synthetic or natural graphite pasted on copper foil, as reviewed by M Winter and R J Brodd As the positive electrode, lithiated transition metal oxides or sulfides on aluminum foil are used The electrolyte consists of a mixture of battery grade solvents and salts with a conductivity of approximately 2–5 mS cmÀ1 at room temperature Thin, porous polyolefin films act as separators and safety elements, sometimes filled with ceramic particles Detailed reviews on the subject have been written by M S Whittingham, K Xu, and P Arora and Z Zhang Both positive and negative are intercalation (or insertion) electrodes On discharge, the negative serves as the Liỵ-ion source, while the positive acts as the Liỵ-ion sink Charge transport in the electrolyte works through an Liỵ-ion shuttle The cell voltage is apparently the difference in potential of Liỵ in both host electrodes Stability of the host lattice limits the access for Liỵ ions Depending on the masses used, the voltage on charge and discharge has therefore to be controlled within narrow limits Reactions between active materials and electrolyte are responsible for the so-called solid–electrolyte interface or SEI, which is preferably built up at the negative electrode and controls intercalation efficiency, power capability, and the onset temperature for thermally activated reactions that define the safety of the cells In the cell, there is no lithium metal present at all Common chemistries which make up 4- and 3-V systems (see Figure 12) are LiC6 in combination with the following positive electrodes: high-priced lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) for small consumer cells, substituted s i Lithium batteries n l systems each of which found their preferred niche application Both systems use liquid sodium as the negative electrode, separated from the positive electrode by the sodium-ion-conducting ceramic solid electrolyte b00 Al2O3 The earlier Na–S cell developed by Ford used liquid sulfur, soaked in carbon felt for the positive, while solid nickel(II) chloride (NiCl2), with sodium tetraaluminate (NaAlCl4) as an additional molten salt electrolyte, serves as the positive in the Na–NiCl2 cell developed by AEG-Anglo, manufactured now by MESDEA and known as the ZEBRA system The ZEBRA battery has limited success as a traction battery in fleet services, while the Na–S system is in use in many stationary applications In traction application, heat dissipation with the associated thermal loss is the major drawback, corresponding to a self-discharge of about 8% per day The ZEBRA system tolerates the failure of up to 10% of the cells in service, occurring in the shorted mode and leading to a respective loss in battery voltage only, as exemplified by C.-H Dustmann o s i v t e a g c a i t l l p o A p V c e Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries organic electrolyte in combination with protective polymer membranes are used An interesting approach for a lithium–air battery comprises an ionic liquid as the electrolyte However, all these systems are far from being sufficiently developed for mass production EEstor, a Texan startup company, proposes a ceramic high-volt ultracapacitor to substitute batteries for EV, patented by R D Weir and C W Nelson As the dielectric, barium titanate powder, the grain of which is coated with two layers of aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and calcium–magnesium–alumosilicate glass, is used Alternate layers of the dielectric and nickel are made by screen-printing one onto the other, and then sintered and densified by hot pressing The components are then configured into a multilayer array by means of a solderbump technique as the enabling technology to provide a parallel configuration with sufficient storage capability The claims ask for a few thousand volts and up to 340 W h kgÀ1 In general, however, the ongoing development of lithium-ion systems is expected to succeed in the EV battery competition, in spite of controversy about lithium resources Battery design The battery contains cells and the periphery it requires, as shown schematically in the block diagram in Figure 13 High-voltage wiring of the cells requires attention to keep the insulation distance between cables within the permitted distance In the case of an accident, the battery is electrically cut off from the drivetrain by two contactors Thermal control is exerted by forced air, or liquid cooling, which is more effective Insulation resistance between battery and vehicle chassis is also monitored If packed into one piece, the battery is the heaviest single functional part of the vehicle, and therefore placed under the floor to enhance the stability Also, this place is relatively safe in the case of a crash Conversion vehicles not always permit packaging into one tray Information Vehicle interface BMS Coolant Figure 14 shows a purpose-built SAFT 50 kWh/132kW lithium-ion battery Nominal voltage is 315 V The battery contains 45 modules in a three-parallel, twoseries configuration, weighing 340 kg Battery pack weight is 450 kg Cylindrical cells with spiral-wound electrodes are limited in size, in this case to 44 Ah per cell Ninety prismatic cells with 132 Ah in an all-series connection would have been the alternative Lithium-ion batteries need single-cell voltage control anyway To demonstrate the advantage of the lithium-ion system, the so-called ‘commercial-off-the-shelf ’ (COTS) cells have been used to assemble a 56-kWh traction battery from 18 650 2.3-Ah laptop cells A total of 6831 cells are required, connected in 11 series modules with cells in series and 69 cells in parallel each The resulting battery has a nominal voltage of 375 V, power 200 kW, and weight 450 kg Transferring Pesarans assessment into a table to compare the properties of COTS versus purpose-built batteries leads to the results shown in Table In summary, F R Kalhammer expects a higher price for the COTS battery by a factor of 1.25–1.5, although consumer cells are offered at $0.3 (Wh)À1 already, according to H Takeshita For demonstrators, COTS batteries with cells from carefully selected manufacturers may be an alternative, but for mass-manufactured vehicles purpose-built cells will be indispensable Vehicles The attention-grasping vehicles are of course sports cars ´ like the Venturi Fetish or the Tesla Motors Roadster Sport Both offer an acceleration of 3.6–4.5 s to 100 km hÀ1, top speeds of 170–200 km hÀ1, and sufficient range, up to 360 km, with 56–58 kWh of lithium-ion battery packs in lightweight car bodies In contrast to these toys for the well-offs, there are fleets of industrial Housing; containment system Thermal control system Cell modules Actors Sensors Electric power Figure 13 Block diagram of the battery system 229 230 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries Figure 14 Chrysler EPIC minivan electric vehicle (EV) with liquid-cooled Li-ion under-floor battery and tray Daimler AG, with permission Table Configuration of Tesla Roadster battery vs purposedesign high energy (HE) traction battery Parameter COTS Purpose-design HE battery Specific energy Energy density Cost of cells Cost of assembly Safety Reliability Redundancy Electrical management Thermal management Lifea (80% DoD cycles) À À þ –(6831) ? À þ À þ þ À þ (99) ? ỵ ỵ ỵ 300700 (estimate) 2000 þ (estimate) a Numbers added from available data sheets COTS, commercial-off-the-shelf; DoD, depth of discharge vehicles like automatically guided vehicles or forklift trucks, or movers for the disabled, neighborhood vehicles, golf carts, and the like, equipped with lead acid batteries Still, the focus of the public is on substitutes for the ICEV personal cars, close to everybody’s own expertise with cars State-of-the-Art Examples Battery electric vehicles have been frequently subject to more or less successful constructions Therefore, a selection of somewhat representative, but tentative, examples will be presented here Adapted Internal Combustion Engine versus Purpose-Design-Built Vehicles Many BEVs are adapted conventional vehicles, like the Peugeot 106, Toyota RAV4, or Chrysler EPIC minivan Some are a sort of intermediates, with the Mercedes AClass as an early representative It was prepared for conversion by a sandwich floor for safety and battery placement, but could accept different kinds of conventional and alternative drivetrains from the beginning (Figure 15) Mitsubishi Motors i-MiEV uses a so-called rear-midship placement of the engines (Figures and 16), with the drive components on the rear axle and under-floor battery packs, as shown by K Handa and H Yoshida A famous purpose-designed vehicle was the EV1 from General Motors, a two-passenger lightweight car with lead–acid batteries, later on with Ni–MH batteries; 1117 vehicles were built, taken back by GM, and crushed, with the exception of three or four Still available is the Panda Elettrica, a conversion design car (Figure 17) Equipped with a 16/36 kW AC motor and a 253 V, 19.2 kWh ZEBRA battery, payload is 305 kg, maximum speed 110 km hÀ1, and the range about 130 km Two thousand Mitsubishi i-MiEV BEVs (Figure 16) are intended to be built in 2009 The new i-MiEV is powered by a compact 47 kW motor and a 330 V, 16 kWh or 20 kWh lithium-ion battery pack Top speed is 130 km hÀ1, with a range of up to 130 km for the 16 kWh pack or 160 km for the 20 kWh pack Because of their stop-and-go modes, distribution vans in cities are among the best-suited BEV applications Figure 18 shows the purpose-design-built DuraCar QUICC! DiVa (‘distribution van’) Equipped with a 15/50 kW motor and about 20–23 kWh batteries, the weight is said to be 850 kg, the range shall be 150 km, and the payload up to 600 kg As for the batteries, either bipolar lead–acid or Li–FePO4 – both advanced types – is planned to be used Renault presented an interesting new BEV, named ZE Concept Energy-wasting air conditioning is sustained by Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries Converter for air conditioner 231 Transmission Charging socket ZEBRA battery system Individual cells Drive motor Power steering Compressor for air conditioner Inverter Onboard charger with High-voltage DC/DC converter power distributor Both the entire drivetrain and the ZEBRA battery system can be accommodated comfortably in the double-floor sandwich configuration of the A-class Figure 15 Mercedes A-Class with sandwich floor prepared for different drivetrains: the battery electric vehicle (BEV) Daimler AG, with permission Figure 16 Mitsubishi i-MiEV battery electric vehicle (BEV) with Li-ion battery, for city fleet use Rear-midship engine design for simple conversion DC, direct current Source: Patterson D (2008) The New Generation Electric Vehicle Mitsubishi Motors i MiEV Ontario: Southern California Clean Vehicle Technology EXPO (Mitsubishi Motors R&D of America) a thermally insulating bodywork with heat-reflecting paint and acid green-tinted glass Purpose-design vehicles have a number of advantages versus adapted ICEVs They can make full use of steerby-wire/break-by-wire components Also, single inwheel motors can be used, which save space and weight Lightweight construction, as proposed by A B Lovins and D R Cramer, is beneficial for manufacturing limited numbers of vehicles, and for low mass as well Use of Battery Electric Vehicles With extending range, advanced BEVs extend their service and delivery transport functions The ban on, or high taxes for, ICEV use in city zones has raised opportunities for BEV fleets This may be a lifestyle product, but it fits perfectly well, too, e.g., the Smart fortwo EL BEV in combination with leasing contracts that shift the burden of battery costs These test fleets planned or already in 232 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries Figure 17 Panda Elettrica conversion vehicle by MES-DEA Copyright from MES-DEA Figure 18 Purpose-design-built DuraCar QUICC! DiVa place for London, Berlin (‘e-mobility Berlin’), and Rome, Milan, and Pisa (‘e-mobility Italy’) offer the chance for extended battery testing with limited risk Mitsubishi will probably participate with the i-MiEV, and BMW starts similar programs with the MINI E in the USA In addition to the applications where BEVs are already successful, with improving batteries, the BEVs are able to escape the niches and extend their use versus ICEVs in emission- and noise-sensitive areas Advantages and Disadvantages of Electric Vehicles Like with every thing around batteries, progress is slow but steadily The compilation of pros and cons is as follows: There are no local emissions in the streets Energy costs are low, due to the high drivetrain efficiency Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries The BEV has long life The BEV is quiet With the high torque of the motor at low speed and the high spread, no gear shifting is required – Battery costs are high – Owing to the low specific energy storage density, weight for stored energy is high – Safety of high-energy battery is still subject of discussion Battery electric vehicles are tax free in some applications However, BEVs will be only successful if they not rely on tax benefits, but have true economic advantages With lithium-ion batteries, they may come closer to that target Outlook The installation of fleets with hundreds of vehicles presents a good chance to achieve in-depth battery test results This will sustain further development of lithiumion traction batteries, which combine high energy density with high safety requirements Results will contribute to the success of the BEV With the increase in vehicle numbers, purposedesigned vehicles have a better chance to become economical Advantages of the electric drive, such as in-wheel motors, e-corner solutions for better economy of space, improved packaging of batteries in the vehicle, or thermally optimized bodywork, altogether may come in use for further improvement of the BEV Frequent use of BEV could make people getting accustomed to the BEV properties Increasing regenerative energy production in grids will contribute effectively to an overall carbon dioxide reduction Finally, with the energy storage capacity of fleet traction batteries, the effect of peak-shaving storage by overnight charging could be tested with high-energy lithium-ion batteries, receive growing attention This article is restricted to the BEV The battery is considered to bear the technical limitations and the high costs in use of BEV While the fuel costs per charge are only about one-third of gasoline costs, the depreciation and recovery would require a battery price of $300 (kWh)À1 and >3000 full cycles of lifetime to become competitive For the lithium-ion battery, this target may be high but not impossible In demonstrators, COTS cells from carefully selected mass manufacturers for laptop use have been assembled into traction batteries to show the potential of lithium-ion systems For mass-manufactured vehicles, purpose-built cells and battery systems will be without alternative Other BEV drivetrain components have been steadily improved and may require some refinement for mass production The public focus is on substitutes for the ICEV personal cars In addition, performance vehicles like TESLA or Venturi have grabbed the attention of the public In practice, with the improved range and weight of lithiumion batteries, and zero local emission, commuter vehicles for city use are gaining importance Test fleets with hundreds of vehicles are being set up for extensive tests Similar conditions are valid for distribution vans, as BEVs or P-HEVs With an increase in vehicle numbers, it is anticipated that more purpose-designed vehicles will appear, making use of the advantages of electric drive, such as in-wheel motors, e-corner solutions for better economy of space, improved packaging of batteries in the vehicle, or thermally optimized bodywork An ongoing development of lithium-ion systems with respect to the challenge of traction batteries, high energy density in combination with high safety, will give another push to the success of the BEVs, which will contribute effectively to an overall carbon dioxide reduction Nomenclature Conclusions Electric vehicles make use for propulsion of the torque of an electric motor only, e.g., battery electric, internal combustion motor, series hybrid-electric, and fuel cell (hybrid) electric vehicles On the road, battery and fuel cell vehicles provide zero emission, but WTW emission depends on the generation of their onboard stored energy For the BEV, a limited infrastructure already exists, if battery recharge overnight is tolerated, as well as a range of about 200 km per day, which is sufficient to cover more than 90% of urban or near-urban mobility requirements Also, BEVs, charged from regenerative energy sources, offer close to zero emission and therefore, in combination 233 Symbols and Units Pair drag Pfriction Pgrade Pkin Ptotal power to overcome air drag resistance friction power power to overcome grading resistance acceleration/braking power total power Abbreviations and Acronyms AC AGM ASM BCU BEV alternating current absorptive glass mat asynchronous machine battery control unit battery electric vehicle 234 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries BMS CITELEC COTS DC DLC EDTA EPIC EV FC-EV DoD HE HEV ICE ICEV JCR IES MCU MES-DEA NEDC Ni–MH P-HEV PMSM SEI SLI SRM SUBAT TTW USABC V2G VCU WTW ZEBRA battery management system Association of European Cities interested in Electric Vehicles commercial-off-the-shelf direct current double layer capacitor Electric Drive Transportation Association Chrysler Minivan model name electric vehicle fuel cell electric vehicle depth of discharge high energy (battery) hybrid electric vehicle internal combustion engine internal combustion engine vehicle Joint Research Center Institute for Environment and Sustainability motor control unit Company in Switzerland; manufacturer of ZEBRA-battery and conversion vehicles New European Driving Cycle nickel–metal hydride (cell, battery) plug-in hybrid electric vehicle permanent magnet synchronous machine solid electrolyte interphase/interface starting, lighting, and ignition switched reluctance machine sustainable batteries; EU-project tank-to-wheel United States Advanced Battery Consortium vehicle-to-grid vehicle control unit well-to-wheel Zero Emission Battery Research Activity See also: Applications – Transportation: Buses: Fuel Cells; Hybrid Electric Vehicle: Plug-In Hybrids; Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Batteries; Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Overview; Light Traction: Fuel Cells; Batteries: Alternating Currents; Capacity; Charge–Discharge Curves; Energy; Fast Charging; Lifetime Prediction; Nomenclature; Self-Discharge; Batteries and Fuel Cells: Efficiency; Lifetime; Power; Techno-Economic Assessments; Energy: Energy Storage; Hydrogen Economy; Fuel Cells – Overview: Introduction; Fuel Cells – Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells: Anodes with Reformate; History: Electrochemical Capacitors; Fuel Cells; Secondary Batteries; Recycling: Lead–Acid Batteries: Overview; Nickel–Metal Hydride Batteries; Safety: Cell Reversal; High Voltage; Materials Toxicity; Thermal Runaway; Secondary Batteries: Overview; Secondary Batteries – High Temperature Systems: Safety; Sodium–Nickel Chloride; Sodium– Sulfur; Secondary Batteries – Lead–Acid Systems: Automotive Batteries: Conventional; Automotive Batteries: New Developments; Bipolar Batteries; Carbon Additives; Catalytic Valves; Charging; Curing and Formation; Electrode Design; Electrolyte; Flooded Batteries; Flow Batteries; Grid Production; Lead Alloys; Lifetime Determining Processes; Modeling; Negative Electrode; Overview; Performance; Positive Electrode; Separators; State-of-Charge/Health; Stationary Batteries; Valve-Regulated Batteries: Absorptive Glass Mat; ValveRegulated Batteries: Gel; Valve-Regulated Batteries: Oxygen Cycle; Secondary Batteries – Lithium Rechargeable Systems – Lithium-Ion: Aging Mechanisms; Electrolytes: Solid Oxide; Inorganic Electrolyte Batteries; Lifetime Prediction; Lithium Vanadium Oxide/Niobium Oxide Batteries; Lithium-Ion Polymer Batteries; Negative Electrode: Spinel-Type Titanium Oxides; Negative Electrode: Titanium-Based Materials; Negative Electrodes: Carbon; Negative Electrodes: Graphite; Negative Electrodes: Lithium Alloys; Overview; Positive Electrode: High-Voltage Materials; Positive Electrode: Layered Metal Oxides; Positive Electrode: Layered Mixed Metal Oxides; Positive Electrode: Lithium Cobalt Oxide; Positive Electrode: Lithium Iron Phosphate; Positive Electrode: Lithium Nickel Oxide; Positive Electrode: Manganese Oxides; Positive Electrode: Manganese Spinel Oxides; Separators; Secondary Batteries – Lithium Rechargeable Systems: All-Solid State Battery; Electrolytes: Additives; Electrolytes: Glass; Electrolytes: Nonaqueous; Electrolytes: Overview; Electrolytes: Solid Sulfide; Hazards and Protection Circuits; Lithium–Iron Sulfide; Lithium–Organic Sulfur; Lithium–Sulfur; Negative Electrodes: Lithium Metal; Overview; Positive Electrodes: Vanadium Oxides; Secondary Batteries – Metal-Air Systems: Lithium–Air; Zinc–Air: Electrical Recharge; Zinc–Air: Hydraulic Recharge; Secondary Batteries – Nickel Systems: Electrodes: Cadmium; Electrodes: Iron; Electrodes: Nickel; Memory Effect; Nickel–Cadmium: Overview; Nickel–Cadmium: Sealed; Nickel–Hydrogen; Nickel–Iron; Nickel–Metal Hydride: Metal Hydrides; Nickel–Metal Hydride: Overview; Nickel–Zinc; Secondary Batteries – Zinc Systems: Zinc Electrodes: Overview; Zinc Electrodes: Solar Thermal Production Further Reading Anderman M (2008) The 8th International Advanced Automotive Battery & Ultracapacitor Conference (AABC-08); and 4th International Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries Symposia on Large Lithium Battery Technology and Applications (LLIBTA-08); and Large Ultracapacitor Technology and Applications (UCAP-08) Tampa, Florida, 12–16 May Arora P and Zhang Z (2004) Battery Separators Chemical Reviews 104: 4419 4462 Bitsche O and Gutmann G (2004) Systems for hybrid cars Journal of Power Sources 127: 15 Dustmann C-H (2004) Advances in ZEBRA batteries Journal of Power Sources 127: 85 92 EUCAR, CONCAWE, and JRC (2007) Well-to-Wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context, WELLTO-TANK Report version 2c Handa K and Yoshida H (2007) Development of next generation electric vehicle ‘i-MiEV’ Mitsubishi Motors Technical Review 19: 66 70 Haxel GB, Hedrick JB, and Orris GJ (2002) Rare Earth Elements – Critical Resources for High Technology USGS Fact Sheet: 087-02 Reston, VA: United States Geological Survey Kalhammer FR, Kopf BM, Swan DH, Roan VP, and Walsh MP (2007) Status and prospects for zero emissions vehicle technology Report of the ARB Independent Expert Panel 2007, prepared for State of California Air Resources Board, Sacramento, CA (See 15 Appendix H, 196198.) ă ă Kohler U, Antonius C, and Bauerlein P (2004) Advances in alkaline batteries Journal of Power Sources 127: 45 52 Lam LT, Louey R, Haigh NP, et al (2007) VRLA ultrabattery for high-rate partial-state-of-charge operation Journal of Power Sources 174: 16 29 Linden D and Reddy TB (ed.) (2002) Handbook of Batteries, 3rd edn, ch 24, 29, 30, 34, 35, 37, 40 New York: McGraw-Hill Lovins AB and Cramer DR (2004) Hypercarss, hydrogen, and the automotive transition International Journal of Vehicle Design 35(1/2): 50 85 Matheys J and Autenboer W (2005) SUBAT: Sustainable batteries Work package 5: Overall assessment, ch 3, (WP 2), Environmental assessment Final Public Report, prepared under supervision of Van Mierlo J Brussel: Vrije Universiteit ETEC ă ă Paulus A (2005) Okonomische und okologische Effekte der Nutzung des Werkstoffs Aluminium – Ein Beitrag zur Berucksichtigung der ă 235 Nutzungsphase in der modellgestutzten Stoffstromanalyse ă ă ă Dissertation: RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, 08 Fakultat fur Wirtschaftswissenschaften, 2005, p 56 http://deposit.d-nb.de/cgibin/dokserv?idn=979705290&dok_var=d1&dok_ext= pdf&filename= 979705290.pdf Dokument aufgenommen: 12.05.2006; Copyright: Deutsche Nationalbibliothek, 29.06.2006 http://deposit.ddb.de/cgibin/dokserv?idn=979705290 Pesaran A (2007) Battery choices and potential requirements for plug-in hybrids Plug-in Hybrid Electric Truck Workshop, 13 February 2007 Los Angeles: Hybrid Truck Users Forum (fig 26) Ragone DV (1968) Review of battery systems for electrically powered vehicles SAE Paper 680453, Mid-year meeting, Detroit, MI, 20–24 May 1968 Reale P, Panero S, Scrosati B, et al (2004) Towards safe, low cost and sustainable lithium ion polymer batteries Proceedings of the 206th Meeting, The Electrochemical Society, Inc, Abstract 438 3–8 October Honolulu, Hawaii http://www.electrochem.org/dl/ma/206/ pdfs/0438.pdf Schallenberg RH (1982) Bottled Energy: Electrical Engineering and the Evolution of Chemical Energy Storage Philadelphia, PA: The American Philosophical Society Scharff V (1991) Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age New York: The Free Press Takeshita H (2005) Worldwide market update on NiMH, Li ion and polymer batteries for portable applications and HEVS, March 14, 2005 The 22nd International Battery Seminar and Exhibit, 14–17 March 2005 Fort Lauderdale, FL: Broward County Convention Center, Weir RD and Nelson CW (2006) Electrical-energy-storage unit (EESU) utilizing ceramic and integrated-circuit technologies for replacement of electrochemical batteries US Patent 7,033,406, 25 April 2006 Whittingham MS (2004) Lithium batteries and cathode materials Chemical Reviews 104: 4271 4301 Winter M and Brodd RJ (2004) What are batteries, fuel cells, and supercapacitors? Chemical Reviews 104: 4245 4269 Xu K (2004) Nonaqueous liquid electrolytes for lithium-based rechargeable batteries Chemical Reviews 104: 4303 4417  ... Transportation: Buses: Fuel Cells; Hybrid Electric Vehicle: Plug-In Hybrids; Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Batteries; Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Overview; Light Traction: Fuel Cells; Batteries: Alternating Currents;... Actors Sensors Electric power Figure 13 Block diagram of the battery system 229 230 Applications – Transportation | Electric Vehicle: Batteries Figure 14 Chrysler EPIC minivan electric vehicle... Conclusions Electric vehicles make use for propulsion of the torque of an electric motor only, e.g., battery electric, internal combustion motor, series hybrid -electric, and fuel cell (hybrid) electric