Grammar English pdf

Chapter 1: Tenses Present Simple S+ V Vs(es) General Formula *Adverbs used in Present Simple: always, usually, sometimes, often, never, rarely, seldom, generally, normally, everyday… *Verbs used in Present Simple: I, you, We, They, plural subjects V (infinitive) He, She, It, singular subjects Vs(es) +Adding –es to verbs ending in –c, -o, –s, -z, -x, -sh, -ch +Adding –s to verbs ending in other sounds –p, -k, -r, -t, -f, -g … +For verbs ending in –y, change – y into –i and add –es E.g: I go to school everyday She rarely goes out alone Tom studies French at this university That sounds interesting *Usage: The Present Simple tense is used ● to describe a law of nature (things in general) E.g: Light travels through space at a speed of 299,792 kilometers per second ● to talk about a permanent situation or state with no definite time of beginning and finishing but it is still true now E.g: I like fish (I liked fish, I like fish and in the future I’ll still like fish.) ● to mention a regular repeated action or something of a timetable (fixed arrangements and scheduled events in the near future) E.g: I play football twice a week The London train leaves at o’clock everyday The party starts at o'clock ● to emphasize a fact (emphatic – does) E.g: I think about that Sangilicious (Tơi thực có nghĩ điều đó.) Present Continuous General Formula S+am/is/are+Ving(Gerund) *Adverbs used in Present Continuous: now, presently, currently, at the moment, at the present, at this time, at 10 o’clock… *Verbs used in Present Continuous: I am+Ving He, she, singular subjects is+Ving We, They, plural subjects are+Ving *Usage: The Present Continuous tense is used ● to talk about actions happening now or over a period of time around now E.g: Hattie is working at his computer at the moment She is reading books at school (over a period of time) ● to describe changing and developing actions or situations E.g: It is getting colder (developing situation) Black skirts are becoming fashionable again (changing situation) ● to mention temporary actions E.g: I am staying with Mark for three weeks ● to talk about habitual and/or repeated actions (often annoying) [habitual acts with negative sense] E.g: He is always asking questions (That annoys me) I am continually losing my spectacles (repeated and annoying actions) *Notes:  Some certain verbs (stative or non-continuous verbs) can’t be used in the Present Continuous tense + verbs of sense: be, sound, smell, taste, look, see, hear, listen to, recognize… + verbs of emotion: hate, dislike, like, love, refuse, adore, wish, forgive, desire… + verbs of thought: believe, trust, realize, expect, remember, forget, understand, recollect, mind, know, suppose… + verbs of possession: have, belong to, keep, own, owe, possess… + other verbs: contain, signify, matter, seem, appear… E.g: I hate you (not am hating) It seems to me that something horrible is going to happen (not is seeming)  Some of the above-mention verbs can be used in the present continuous tense but with special meanings (different from their original meanings) E.g: He is seeing the town (Anh ta viếng thăm thành phố.) I am having my house painted (Tôi cho người sơn nhà) Sangilicious How are you feeling? Exception: (Anh thấy nào?) I feel that you’re wrong (Tôi nghĩ anh lầm.)  Only rarely is "to be" used in a continuous form This is most commonly done when a person is temporarily behaving badly or stereotypically It can also be used when someone's behavior is noticeably different E.g: Joe is being very rude (Joe is behaving very rudely Usually he is not rude.)  Adverbs used in the Present continuous tense such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just… are placed between to be and the gerund E.g: Are you still watching TV? Present Perfect General Formula S+has/have+V3/ed (Past Participle) *Adverbs used in Present Perfect: never, ever, already, recently, lately, just, since, so far, until, not…yet, not…before, for ages, for years, up to now, for the past few years… * Verbs used in Present Perfect: I, You, We, They, Plural subjects have + V3/ed He, She, It, Singular subjects has + V3/ed *Usage: The Present Perfect tense is used ● to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now E.g: I have seen that movie twenty times ● to talk about actions that have gone on until now E.g: I have lived here for the past twenty-three years ● to describe repeated actions that have gone on until now E.g: He has written four books (He may write more books.) ● to mention the actions from the past until now (for non-continuous verbs), used with adverbs such as never, ever, before, yet…  Never: describes an action that hasn’t happened until now E.g: I have never read “War and Peace”  Yet: is used to ask whether something hasn’t happened until now (negative) or whther it’s happened until now (questions) E.g: I haven’t finished my homework yet  Before = until now E.g: I have never been in love before  Ever: is used to ask whether something has happened until now or not E.g: Have you ever been to Africa? Sangilicious ● to show the present result (the result now) of past actions, often used with ‘just’ and ‘already’  Already: is used in positive statements E.g: I’ve already explained, so you don’t have to say anything  Just: for a very recent past action E.g: James has just come in Let’s tell him what’s happened Present Perfect Continuous General Formula S+has/have+been+Ving (Present participle) *Usage: The Present Perfect Continuous tense is used to emphasize an action or a situation in progress not its completion It is used for: ● temporary actions and situations E.g: I have been using Joanna’s car while I have been staying with her ● talking about how long something has been going on (duration from the past until now) E.g: How long have you been studying English?  We can also use the Present Perfect Continuous without a duration such as "for two weeks." Then, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately." We often use the words "lately" or "recently" to emphasize this meaning E.g: Recently, I have been feeling really tired She has been watching too much television lately  Remember that the Present Perfect Continuous tense has the meaning of "lately" or "recently" If we use the Present Perfect Continuous in questions it can suggest unexpected meanings "Have you been feeling alright?" (this can suggest that the person looks sick or unhealthy.) "Have you been smoking?" (this can suggest that you smell the smoke on the person.) Using this tense in a question suggests you can see, smell, hear or feel the results of the action It is possible to insult someone by using this tense incorrectly *Notes:  The Present Perfect Continuous tense is more commonly used in informal speech  The Present Perfect Continuous tense is used with stative verbs (see, hear, look, taste, smell, want, realize…) to emphasize an action in progress not its completion E.g: I have been hearing funny noises  If we don’t want to emphasize the progressive nature of the action, we can use the Present Perfect tense with those verbs instead Sangilicious E.g: That house has looked a mess for years  Some certain verbs (live, rain, sit, study, wait, work…) suggest actions in progress by their meanings and can be used with both the Present Perfect Continuous and Present Perfect tense with little difference in meaning E.g: I have worked/have been working at the bank for three years Past Simple General Formula S+V2/ed *Adverbs used in Past Simple: ago, yesterday, last year last month, last Sunday, in the past, when… *Usage: The Past Simple tense is used ● to describe actions that started and finished at a specific time in the past Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but they have one specific time in mind E.g: Did you have dinner last night? ● to list a series of completed actions in the past These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on E.g: He arrived from the airport at 8:00, checked into the hotel at 9:00, and met the others at 10:00 ● with a duration which starts and stops in the past A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all day, all year E.g: They did not stay at the party the entire time ● to describe a habit which stopped in the past It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger… E.g: Every year when I was a child, we went to Italy on Holiday ● to describe past facts or generalizations which are no longer true E.g: She was shy as a child, but now she is very outgoing Past Continuous (Progressive) General Formula S + was/were + Ving *Adverbs used in Past Continuous: at P.M last Tuesday, at the moment, at this time yesterday… *Verbs used in Past Continuous: Sangilicious You, We, They, Plural subjects were+ Ving I, He, She, It, Singular subjects was + Ving *Usage: The Past Continuous tense is used ● to refer to something happening a specific time in the past E.g: I was having lunch at 12 o’clock yesterday ● to indicate that a longer action in the past was interrupted The interruption is usually a shorter action in the Simple Past Remember this can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time E.g: While we were having the picnic, it started to rain - A specific time can be considered as an interruption E.g: Yesterday at this time, I was sitting at my desk at work - In the Simple Past tense, a specific time is used to show when an action began or finished In the Past Continuous, a specific time only interrupts the action E.g: Last night at PM, I ate dinner (I started eating at PM.) Last night at PM, I was eating dinner (I started earlier; and at PM, I was in the process of eating dinner.) ● with “while/when” to join two actions happening at the same time in the past E.g: He was doing his homework while his mother was washing the dishes ● with ‘still’ to emphasize that something was continuing especially after the time it was expected to finish E.g: At aquarter past ten, I was still waiting for the train At midnight, we were still driving through the desert ● to mention repeated and irritating actions in the past usually used with ‘always’ E.g: I didn't like them because they were always complaining *Notes:  Linking verbs are often used in the Present Simple tense, not in the Past Continuous tense E.g: I was running home because I knew I was late (not was knowing)  When there is more than one background action, not repeat was/were for the second, the third action E.g: The teachers were sitting in the staff room, reading books and drinking coffee when I came in  “Just” is used to emphasize that the longer action had only recently started when the shorter action in the Past Simple tense interrupted it E.g: I was just leaving when she asked me to stay Past Perfect General Formula Sangilicious S+had+V3/ed * Adverbs used with the Past Perfect tense: after, before, by+ past time (by the time, by Last Friday, by 11 o’clock yesterday…) *Usage: the Past Perfect tense is used ● to expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past E.g: We got married in 1990, just a year after we had fallen in love ● to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action in the past E.g: By the time Alex finished his studies, he had been in London for over eight years *Notes:  The Past Simple tense can be used in place of the Past Perfect tense when the first action was short abd was closely followed by the second E.g: After I broke the window, I just ran off (Past perfect is still possible here.)  The Past Simple tense will be used when two past actions happened at the same time and there was no earlier action E.g: When he saw her, he screamed  Unlike with the Present Perfect tense, it is possible to use specific time words or phrases with the Past Perfect tense Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary E.g: She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996 - Moreover, if the Past Perfect action did occur at a specific time, the Simple Past tense, instead of the Past Perfect tense, can be used together with "before" or "after" in the sentence The words "before" and "after" actually tell you what happens first, so the Past Perfect is optional For this reason, both sentences below are correct E.g: She had visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996 She visited her Japanese relatives once in 1993 before she moved in with them in 1996 - However, If the Past Perfect tense is not referring to an action at a specific time, it is not optional In the following examples, the Past Perfect tense is referring to a lack of experience rather than an action at a specific time For this reason, Simple Past cannot be used She never saw a bear before she moved to Alaska  She had never seen a bear before she moved to Alaska E.g:   Adverb placement: adverbs such as always, only, never, ever, still, just… are put between ‘had’ and the past participles E.g: You had previously studied English before you moved to New York Had you previously studied English before you moved to New York? Sangilicious Past Perfect Continuous General Formula S+had+been+Ving *Usage: the Past Perfect Continuous tense is used ● to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past E.g: She had been working at that company for three years when it went out of business How long had you been waiting to get on the bus? ● before another action in the past to show cause and effect E.g: Betty failed the final test because she had not been attending class Jason was tired because he had been jogging *Notes: Past Continuous vs Past Perfect Continuous  If we not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous rather than the Past Perfect Continuous Be careful because this can change the meaning of the sentence Past Continuous emphasizes interrupted actions, whereas Past Perfect Continuous emphasizes a duration of time before something in the past E.g: He was tired because he was exercising so hard (This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he was exercising at that exact moment.) He was tired because he had been exercising so hard (This sentence emphasizes that he was tired because he had been exercising over a period of time It is possible that he was still exercising at that moment or that he had just finished.) Future Simple General Formula S+will/shall+V0 * Adverbs used with the Future Simple tense: tomorrow, tonight, next year, next Thursday, in the future… *Usage: The Future Simple tense is used ● to talk about things that are sure to happen or out of anybody’s control E.g: Next year, I will be twenty two ● to make a prediction (what we think will happen in the future) based on personal opinions E.g: The train service won’t be any better than it is now Sangilicious ● to make a decision about something at the moment of speaking It’s not a plan of any sort It’s an idea you’ve just thought of E.g: OK, if we can’t have a picnic, we will stay in and (will) watch a video ● to express a voluntary action Often, we use "will" to respond to someone else's complaint or request for help We also use "will" when we request that someone helps us or volunteers to something for us Similarly, we use "will not" or "won't" when we refuse to something voluntarily E.g: I will send you the information when I get it Will you make dinner? *Notes: I won't all the housework myself! Other ways to talk about future time  Present Continuous: to mention firm/fixed plans in the future E.g: The president is visiting London next week (This is arranged.) We are moving to a flat in New York (We have made all the arrangements.)  Be going to+Vo : + to talk about future intentions, not as firm as plans We have decided what we want to in the future but we haven’t made firm plans/ arrangements/ appointments E.g: I still have a pain I am going to see a doctor (I haven’t made an appointment yet.) We are definitely going to buy a small flat in London (We’re looking at possible flats We want to buy one.) + to make predictions (like Future Simple) based on strong evidence E.g: Look at those clouds! It is going to rain + to make decisions which have already made at the moment of speaking E.g: Tomorrow is my birthday I am going to buy a big birthday cake  Present Simple: for things considered as facts In future time, facts are usually regular events, timetables or the times building open and close E.g: The train leaves at 10 o’clock  Structures for expressing future time: + “be about to + V” : for actions in the near future E.g: Hurry up! The coach is about to leave + “be on the point of + N/Ving” E.g: the company is on the point of signing the contract + “be + due to + V” : actions as parts of timetables E.g: The visitors are due to arrive at two 10 Future Continuous General Formula Sangilicious S+ will/shall be going to + be + Ving *Usage: The Future Continuous tense is used ● to indicate that a longer action in the future will be interrupted by a shorter action in the future This can be a real interruption or just an interruption in time E.g: I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight In addition to using short actions as interruptions, you can also use a specific time as an interruption E.g: At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert ● with two actions in the same sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions will be happening at the same time The actions are parallel E.g: I am going to be studying and he is going to be making dinner ● in a series of parallel actions to describe atmosphere at a specific point in the future E.g: When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating Some will be dancing Others are going to be talking A few people will be eating pizza, and several people are going to be drinking beer They always the same thing ● to ask somebody’s plans in a polite way E.g: Will you be using the car next week? 11 Future Perfect S+ General Formula will/shall + have + V3/ed be going to *Usage: the Future Continuous tense is used ● to talk about an action occurring before another action in the future It can also show that something will happen before a specific time in the future E.g: Will she have learned enough Chinese to communicate before she moves to Beijing? How many countries are you going to have visited by the time you turn 50? ● to show that something will continue up until another action in the future E.g: I will have been in London for six months by the time I leave By Monday, Susan is going to have had my book for a week 12 Future Perfect Continuous General Formula Sangilicious S+ will/shall + have + been +Ving be going to 10 (Tôi đứng run rẩy bên vệ đường.) * “Having + past participle” : results If we want to say that someone did or experienced one thing before another, we mention the first thing in a clause containing “having” and a past participle Often this kind of construction indicates that the second event was a result of the first one E.g: I did not feel terribly shocked, having expected him to take the easiest way out (Đã chờ chọn lối dễ nhất, tơi khơng cảm thấy sửng sốt ghế gớm lắm.) Having married very late, he was only a year short of fifty when I was born (Lập gia đình muộn, ơng ta thiếu tuổi trịn năm mươi tơi sinh ra.) * Past participle: earlier events If we want to say what happened to someone or something before a situation or event described in the main clause, we say what happened in a clause containing a past participle on its own E.g: The novels of Mary Webb, praised by Stanley Baldwin and so popular in the 30s, were great favourites of mine (Các tiểu thuyết Mary Webb, Stanley Baldwin khen ngợi tiếng thập niên 30, tiểu thuyết tơi ưa thích nhất.) Angered by the policies of the union, she wrote a letter to the General Secretary (Được sách liên đồn tán thành, cô ta viết thư cho Tổng Thư Ký.) * Mentioning the subject + Sometimes we want to use a non-defining clause which has a different subject from the subject of the main clause In this kind of non-defining clause, we usually have to mention the subject E.g: Ashton being dead, the whole affair must now be laid before Colonel Browne (Ashton chết tồn vụ phải giao cho thiếu tá Browne.) + However, if the non-defining clause comes after the main clause, and it is clear from the context that it relates to the object of the main clause, we not need to mention the object again E.g: They picked me up, kicking and bawling, and carried me up to the road (Vừa la hét vung đạp, bị họ nhấc lên mang lên đường bộ.) Present participle + We use a non-defining clause containing a subject and a present participle: ● when we want to mention something that is happening at the same time as the event or situation described in the main clause E.g: Her eyes glistening with tears, she stood up and asked the Council: “What am I to do?” (Mắt long lanh ngấn lệ, cô đứng lên hỏi Hội Đồng: “Tôi phải làm đây?” ) Sangilicious 367 ● when we want to mention a fact that is relevant to the fact stated in the main clause E.g: Bats are surprisingly long-lived creatures, some having a life-expectancy of around twenty years (Loài dơi sinh vật sống lâu đến mức kinh ngạc, nhiều có tuổi thọ khoảng chừng hai mươi năm.) + “With” is sometimes added at the beginning of the non-finite clause E.g: The old man stood up with tears running down his face (Ông già đứng lên, nước mắt ràn rụa má.) Past participle + We use “having” and a past participle to mention something which happened before the thing described in the main clause E.g: About twice a month, enough evidence having accumulated, the police would feel obliged to stage a raid (Một tháng khoảng hai lần, cảnh sát thường thấy có bổn phận phải mở tập kích khu thu thập đủ chứng cớ.) George having been carried to his cabin, Ash had gone up to the deserted deck (George mang ca-bin Ash lên boong tàu bỏ trống.) The subject having been opened, he had to go on with it (Vấn đề đưa anh phải tiếp tục với nó.) The Border having become more settled, they had selected a site near the Kalpani River + We use a past participle on its own to say that something was done or completed before the event or situation described in the main clause E.g: He proceeded to light his pipe That done, he put on his woollen scarf and went out (Hắn tiếp tục châm điếu thuốc Châm xong, khốc khăn chồng len ra.) * Note on use In a negative non-defining clause, we put “not” in front of the participle, or in front of “having” E.g: He paused, not wishing to boast (Không muốn huênh hoang, dừng bước.) He failed to recognize her at first, not having seen her for fifteen years or so (Đã không gặp cô đâu chừng mười lăm năm, lúc đầu anh khơng nhìn cô.) He began hitting them with his stick, their reply not having come as quickly as he wanted Defining clauses Sangilicious 368 Defining non-finite clauses explain which person or thing we are talking about They are always placed after the noun in a noun group E.g: The old lady driving the horse was all in black (Bà lão cưỡi ngựa mặc tồn màu đen.) The bus carrying the freedom riders arrived just before noon (Chuyến xe buýt chở sinh viên đến trước buổi trưa.) * Use after pronouns Defining clauses can be used after indefinite pronouns such as “anyone” E.g: Anyone following this advice could find himself in trouble (Bất kỳ làm theo lời khuyên gặp rắc rối.) Ask anybody nearing the age of retirement what they think (Hãy hỏi gần đến tuổi hưu xem họ nghĩ gì.) Other structures used like non-finite clauses Phrases which not contain a verb are sometimes used in writing in a similar way to non-finite clauses In writing, we can add a phrase containing one or more adjectives to a sentence This is another way of making two statements in one sentence E.g: The boy nodded, pale and scared (Thắng bè gật đầu, mặt tái xanh hoảng sợ.) “Of course,” said Ash, astonished (“Tất nhiên rồi,” Ash sửng sốt nói.) Surprised at my reaction, she tried to console me (Ngạc nhiên trước phản ứng tôi, cô ta cố gắng an ủi tôi.) Much discouraged, I moved on to Philadelphia (Hết sức nản lịng, tơi tiếp tục đến Philadelphia.) In a similar way, we can use a phrase to describe something which is connected with the subject of a sentence The phrase consists of a noun group, followed by an adjective, a preposition phrase, or another noun group E.g: “What you mean by that?” said Hugh, his face pale (“Anh nói nghĩa sao?” Hugh hỏi, mặt tái nhợt.) She stood very erect, her body absolutely stiff with fury (Nàng đứng thẳng, người tê cứng lại thịnh nộ.) He was waiting, drumming with his fingers, his eyes on his napkin (Hắn chờ đợi, ngón tay gõ nhịp, đơi mắt nhìn vào khăn ăn.) “With” is sometimes added at the beginning of a phrase E.g: She walked on, with her eyes straight ahead (Nàng tiếp tục bước đi, mắt nhìn thẳng tới trước.) Sangilicious 369 It was a hot, calm day, with every object at the sea's surface visible for miles (Đó ngày nóng nực yên ả, vật thể mặt biển nhìn thấy rõ từ nhiều dăm xa.) ********* Chapter 16: Modals Language is not always used just to exchange information by making simple statements and asking questions Sometimes we want to make requests, offers, or suggestions, or to express our wishes or intentions We may want to be polite or tactful, or to indicate our feelings about what we are saying We can all these things by using a special set of verbs called modals Modals are always used with other verbs They are a special kind of auxiliary verb Here is a list of the modals used in English: can might shall could must should may ought to would will “Dare”, “need”, and “used to” are called as semi-modals “Ought” is sometimes regarded as a modal, rather than “ought to” I The Main Uses of Modals Modals are mainly used when we want to indicate our attitude towards what we are saying, or when we are concerned about the effect of what we are saying on the person we are speaking or writing to Attitude to information When we are giving information, we sometimes use modals to indicate how certain we are that what we are saying is true or correct For example, if we say “Mr Wilkins is the oldest person in the village”, we are giving a definite statement of fact If we say “Mr Wilkins must be the oldest person in the village”, the Sangilicious 370 modal “must” indicates that we think Mr Wilkins is the oldest person, because we cannot think of anyone in the village who is older than Mr Wilkins If we say “Mr Wilkins might be the oldest person in the village”, the modal “might” indicates that we think it is possible that Mr Wilkins is the oldest person, because he is very old Attitude to intentions We can use modals to indicate our attitude towards the things we intend to do, or intend not to For example, if we say “I won't go without Simon”, we are expressing strong unwillingness to something If we say “I can't go without Simon”, we are expressing unwillingness, but at the same time we are indicating that there is a special reason for our unwillingness If we say “I couldn't go without Simon”, we are indicating that we are unwilling to go without Simon, because to so would be unfair or morally wrong Attitude to people When we use language, we are affecting and responding to a particular person or audience Modals are often used to produce a particular effect, and the modal you choose depends on several factors, such as the relationship you have with your listener, the formality or informality of the situation, and the importance of what you are saying For example, it would normally be rude to say to a stranger “Open the door”, although we might say it in an emergency, or we might say it to a close friend or a child Normally, we would say to a stranger “Will you open the door?”, “Would you open the door?”, or “Could you open the door?”, depending on how polite we want to be Use in complex sentences Modals have special uses in three kinds of complex sentence: + they are used in reported clauses E.g: Wilson dropped a hint that he might come (Wilson bắn tiếng đến.) I felt that I would like to wake her up (Tôi cảm thấy ,uốn đánh thức nàng dậy.) + they are used in conditional structures E.g: If the bosses had known that he voted liberal, he would have got the sack (Nếu sếp mà biết bỏ phiếu cho phe tự dám việc làm lắm.) If only things had been different, she would have been far happier with George (Giá chuyện khác hẳn hạnh phúc nhiều với George.) + they are used in purpose clauses E.g: He stole under the very noses of the store detectives in order that he might be arrested and punished (Hắn ăn cắp trước mắt người cảnh vệ siêu thị để bị bắt giữ trừng phạt.) Sangilicious 371 They marched us through the town, so that they could say to the people, “Look at the great British army.” (Họ giải qua thành phố để họ nói với dân chúng “Hãy nhìn vào quân đội Anh lừng danh này”.) II Special Features of Modals Form of following verb Modals are followed by the base form of a verb E.g: I must leave fairly soon (Tôi phải sớm.) I think it will be rather nice (Tơi nghĩ xin xắn.) The rich ought to pay the tuition fees of their sons and daughters (Người giàu phải trả tiền học cho trai, gái họ.) Note that “ought” is sometimes regarded as a modal, rather than “ought to” “Ought” is then said to be followed by a to-infinitive Sometimes a modal is followed by the base form of one of the auxiliary verbs “have” or “be”, followed by a participle + When a modal is followed by “be” and a present participle, this indicates that we are talking about the present or the future E.g: People may be watching (Người ta theo dõi.) You ought to be doing this (Anh phải làm việc đó.) The play will be starting soon (Vở kịch mở liền thôi.) + When a modal is followed by “have” and a past participle, this indicates that we are talking about the past E.g: You must have heard of him (Chắc hẳn anh nghe nói rồi.) She may have gone already (Tôi tin làm được.) I ought to have sent the money (Tôi buộc phải gửi tiền rồi.) + In passive structures, a modal is followed by “be” or “have been” and a past participle E.g: The name of the winner will be announced They ought to be treated fairly (Tên người đoạt giải công bố.) (Chúng phải đối xử cơng bằng.) Such changes may have been justified (Những thay đổi xác minh rồi.) + A modal is never followed by the auxiliary verb “do”, or by another modal No inflections (Khơng thay đổi hình vị) Modals not inflect This means there is no “-s” form in the third person singular, and there are no “-ing” or “-ed” forms E.g: There's nothing I can about it (Tôi làm với nó.) I am sure he can it (Tôi tin ông ta làm được.) I must leave fairly soon (Tôi phải sớm.) She insisted that Jim must leave Sangilicious (Cô ta khăng khăng đòi Jim phải về.) 372 “Could” is sometimes thought to be the past tense of “can” Negatives Negatives are formed by putting a negative word such as “not” immediately after the modal In the case of “ought to”, we put the negative word after “ought” “Can not” is usually written as one word, “cannot” E.g: You must not worry (Em không lo lắng.) I cannot go back (Tôi quay lại.) He ought not to have done so (Hắn ta không bắt buộc phải làm thế.) After “could”, “might”, “must”, “ought”, “should”, and “would”, “not” is often shortened to “-n't” and is added to the modal E.g: You mustn't talk about Ron like this (Anh khơng nói với Ron thế.) Perhaps I oughtn't to confess this (Có lẽ tơi khơng cần phải thú nhận điều này.) “Shall not”, “will not”, and “cannot” are shortened to “shan't”, “won't”, and “can't” “May not” is not shortened at all E.g: I can't go with you (Em không với anh được.) I shan't get much work done tonight (tối chẳng làm xong nhiều việc.) He won't be finished for at least another half an hour (Phải nữa làm xong việc.) Questions Questions are formed by putting the modal in front of the subject In the case of “ought to”, we put “ought” in front of the subject and “to” after it E.g: Could you give me an example? (Cô cho tơi ví dụ khơng?) Ought you to make some notes about it? (Anh buộc phải ghi chép à?) Mightn't it surprise people? (Chẳng lẽ khơng làm người ta ngạc nhiên sao?) Why could they not leave her alone? (Tại họ không chịu để cô ta yên?) There are many questions we cannot answer, but must we not at least ask them? (Có nhiều câu hỏi khơng thể trả lời, phải nêu nghi vấn chứ?) Question tags Modals are used in question tags E.g: They can't all be right, can they? (Chúng đâu phải hết tất cả, phải không?) You won't forget the canary, will you? (Mày không quên chim bạch yến, phải không?) With a negative tag, the shortened form of the negative is used E.g: It would be handy, wouldn't it? Sangilicious (Chuyện tiện lợi, phải không?) 373 It'll give you time to think about it won't it? (Vậy anh có thời gian để suy nghĩ chuyện đó, phải khơng?) Contractions In spoken English, when “will” and “would” are used after a pronoun, they are often shortened to “-'ll” and “-'d” and added to the pronoun E.g: I hope you'll agree (Tôi mong anh đồng ý.) They'd both call each other horrible names (Họ thường gọi tên gọi kinh khủng.) If I went back on the train, it'd be better (Nếu trở chuyến tàu tốt hơn.) “Will” and “would” cannot be shortened like this when they are used on their own, without a following verb Paul said he would come, and I hope he will  Paul said he would come, and I hope he'll E.g:  Note We sometimes use a modal on its own, without a following verb We this when we are repeating a modal E.g: “I must go.” - “I suppose you must.” (“Tôi phải đi.” - “Tôi phải thôi.”) “You should have become an archaeologist.” - “You're dead right, I should.” (“Anh trở thành nhà khảo cổ.” - “Anh nói trúng phóc, tơi vậy.”) We can also omit the verb following a modal when this verb has just been used without a modal, or with a different modal E.g: You learned to deal with each other We never will (Các người biết đối phó với Bon tơi chẳng bao giờ.) They had come to believe that it not only must go on for ever but that it should (Ho đâm tin chuyện phải tiếp diễn mãi mà tin nên.) However we cannot omit the verb “be” after a modal when we have just used it without a modal E.g: Linguistics is not yet a science and perhaps never will be (Ngơn ngữ học chưa phải có lẽ không khoa học.) Relations between the two countries have not been as smooth as they might have been (Quan hệ hai quốc gia chưa êm thắm lẽ phải thế.) The feature of language in which you omit certain words to avoid repeating them is called ellipsis Sangilicious 374 III Specific Uses of Modals Referring to time Modals not usually indicate whether we are talking about the past, the present, or the future Usually we indicate this in other ways, for example by putting an auxiliary verb and a participle after the modal Sometimes the general context makes it clear whether we are talking about a past, present, or future event or situation However, “shall” and “will” are exceptions to this * The future: “shall” and “will” + “Shall” always indicates that we are talking about a future event or situation E.g: I shall what you suggested (Tôi làm anh gợi ý.) + “Will” usually indicates that we are talking about a future event or situation E.g: He will not return for many hours (Nó khơng quay lại vịng nhiều nữa.) + However “will” is sometimes used to talk about present situations E.g: You will not feel much love for him at the moment (Ngay lúc ông không cảm thấy thương yêu ta mấy.) “Could” and “would” are sometimes described as past tense forms of “can” and “will” However this is true in only a few minor ways * Ability in the past: “could” “Could” can be regarded as the past tense of “can” if we are simply talking about the ability of a person or thing to something E.g: He can speak Russian and Finnish (talking about a living person) He could speak Russian and Finnish (talking about a dead person) * Reported speech “Coulld” and “would” are used in place of “can” and “will” when we are reporting what someone has said E.g: If a man has said “I can come”, we report this as “He said that he could come” Similarly, if he has said, “I will come”, we report this as “He said that he would come” * Regularity in the past: “would” + “Would” is used to talk about something that happened regularly in the past, but no longer happens E.g: She would sit crosslegged in her red robes (Dạo cô thường ngồi chéo chân áo màu đỏ.) A man with a list would come round and say you could go off duty (Một người cầm bảng danh sách thường xuất bảo anh tạm ngưng cơng việc.) + When we use “would” like this, we often add an adverb of time E.g: She would often hear him grumbling Sangilicious (Cơ thường nghe tiếng nói lẩm bẩm.) 375 Once in a while she'd give me some lilac to take home (Năm mười họa bà cho vài tử đinh hương mang về.) Every day I'd ring up home and asked if they'd changed their minds (Ngày gọi điện nhà xem họ có đổi ý khơng.) * Thoughts about the future: “would” “Would” is also used in stories to talk about the thoughts that someone is having about the future E.g: He would recognize it when he heard it again (Khi nghe chun lần nhận ran gay.) They would reach the castle some time (Họ đến lâu đài vào dịp đó.) * Unwillingness: “would not” When 'would' is used with 'not' to talk about something that happened in the past, it has a special meaning It is used to say that someone was unwilling to something, or refused to something E.g: They just would not believe what we told them (Chugn1 khơng thèm tin bọn tơi kể.) After all this, I wouldn't come back to the farm (Sau chuyện không muốn quay nông trại ấy.) Indicating possibility (Biểu thị tính khả thi) 2.1 Indicating ability * Skills and abilities (Kỹ & lực): “can” and “could” + “Can” is used to say that someone has a particular skill or ability E.g: You can all read and write (Các anh biết đọc biết viết cả.) Some people can ski better than others (Một số người trượt tuyết giỏi người khác.) + “Could” is used to say that someone had a skill or ability in the past E.g: I could barely walk (Tôi không bước nổi.) He could kick penalty goals from anywhere (Anh ta đá cú phạt đền từ vị trí nào.) * Awareness (Nhận thức): “can” and “could” + “Can” is also used to say that someone is aware of something through one of their senses E.g: I can see you (Anh nhìn thấy em.) I can smell it Can't you? (Tơi ngưởi thấy mùi Cịn anh?) + “Could” is used to say that someone was aware of something through one of their senses on a particular occasion in the past Sangilicious 376 E.g: I could see a few faint stars in a clear patch of sky (Tơi nhìn nhạt nhịa qua mảng trời quang.) Everyone in the village could hear her voice (Mọi người làng nghe thấy tiếng cô ta.) * Capability (Khả năng): “can” and “could” + “Can” and “could” are also used to say that something or someone is capable of having a particular effect, or of behaving in a particular way E.g: Art can be used to communicate (Có thể dung thể thuật để truyền thơng.) It can be very unpleasant (Chuyện khó chịu.) He could really frighten me, and yet at the same time he could be the most gentle and courteous of men (Anh ta thật đáng sợ với tôi, lúc lại người đàn ông lịch thiệp hiền từ đời.) + Note: we cannot use “can” or “could” to say that someone or something will have a particular ability in the future Instead we use “be able to” or “be possible to” These two expressions can also be used to talk about someone's ability to something in the present or the past 2.2 Indicating likelihood (Biểu thị điều xảy ra)  Expressing degrees of certainty * Assumption (Giả định): “will” and “would” + We use “will” when we are assuming that something is the case, and we not think there is any reason to doubt it E.g: Those of you who are familiar with the game will know this (Trogn anh người quen thuộc với trị chơi biết điều đó.) He will be a little out of touch, although he's a rapid learner (Mặc dù học nhanh, anh lúng túng đôi chút.) + We use “will not” or “won't” when we are assuming that something is not the case E.g: The audience will not be aware of such exact details (Khán giả không nhận chi tiết xác đến đâu.) You won't know Gordon He's our new doctor (Anh Godon đâu Anh ta bác sĩ chúng tôi.) + After “you”, we can use “would” instead of “will”, if we want to be more polite E.g: You would agree that the United States should be involved in assisting these countries (Chắc anh đồng ý Hoa Kỳ can dự vào chuyện hỗ trợ quốc gia này.) * Certainty (Chắc chắn): “would” and “should” + We also use “would” to say that something is certain to happen in particular circumstances E.g: Even an illiterate person would understand that (Ngay người mù chữ hiểu điều đó.) Sangilicious 377 A picnic wouldn't be any fun without you (Đi pic-nic mà khơng có anh cịn vui.) + After “I”, we can use “should” instead of 'would' E.g: The very first thing I should would be to teach you how to cook (Chuyên làm dạy anh làm bếp.) I should be very unhappy on the continent (Tôi bất hạnh châu Âu.) * Belief (Tin tưởng): “must” and “cannot” + We use “must” to indicate that we believe something is the case, because of particular facts or circumstances E.g: Fashion must account for a small percentage of sales (Thời trang định nguyên cớ cho số phần trăm doanh thu nhỏ.) This article must have been written by a woman (Bài báo định đàn bà viết.) + When we are indicating that something is not the case, we use “cannot” The two conflicting messages cannot possibly both be true E.g: You can't have forgotten me (Nhất định anh đâu thể quên tôi.) He can't have said that He just can't (Nhất định khơng thể nói Khơng thể có.) * Possibility (Khả thi): “could”, “might”, “may” We use “could”, “might”, or “may” to say that there is a possibility of something happening or being the case “May” is slightly more formal than “could” or “might”; otherwise there is very little difference in meaning between these modals E.g: Don't eat it It could be a toadstool (Đừng có ăn Nó dám nấm độc lắm.) His route from the bus stop might be the same as yours (Lơ trình từ chạm xe buýt giống anh đấy.) In rare cases the jaw may be broken during extraction (Trong trường hợp hoi xương hàm bị vỡ nhổ răng.) * Strong possibility (Nhấn mạnh tính khả thi): adding “well” If we put “well” after “could”, “might”, or “may”, we are indicating that it is fairly likely that something is the case E.g: You might well be right (Có thể anh hoàn toàn đúng.) I think that may well have been the intention (Tơi chuyện hồn tồn có ý đồ từ trước.) It could well be that rich people treasure peace more highly than poor people (Hồn tồn người giàu lại quý trọng bình yên hẳn người nghèo nhiều.) Sangilicious 378 * Negative possibility (Phủ định tính khả thi): “might not” and “may not” We use “might not” or “may not” to say that it is possible that something is not the case E.g: That mightn't be true That may not sound very imposing (Chuyện đúng.) (Nói nghe khơng trang trọng mấy.) He might not be in England at all (Có thể ta khơng có mặt có mặt Anh Quốc.) * Impossibility (Bất khả thi): “could not” and “cannot” We use “could not” or “cannot” to say that it is impossible that something is the case E.g: It couldn't possibly be poison (Nó khơng thể thuốc độc được.) You can't talk to the dead (Anh khơng thể nói chuyện với người chết.) Kissinger cannot know what the situation is in the country (Kissinger kkhogn6t hể biết tình hình nước sao.) * Strong assertion: “could” with negatives and comparatives “Could” is sometimes used in negative constructions with the comparative form of an adjective We use “could” like this to say that it is not possible for someone or something to have more of a particular quality E.g: I couldn't be happier (Tôi vui khơng bằng.) You couldn't be more wrong (Anh khơng thể sai lầm hơn.) The setting couldn't have been lovelier (Cảnh trí hữu tình khơng sánh được.) He could hardly have felt more ashamed of himself (Khơng thể cảm thấy xấu hổ với nữa.)  Talking about possible future situations * Certainty: “will” We use “will” to say that something is certain to happen or be the case in the future E.g: They will see everything (Họ thấy điều.) The price of food will go up (Giá thực phẩm tăng lên.) The service will have been running for a year in May (Đến tháng năm dịch vụ hoạt động năm.) “Be going to” can also be used to say that something is certain to happen in the future * Certainty: “shall” “Shall” is also used to say that something is certain to happen We usually use “shall” when we are talking about events and situations over which we have some control For example, we can use “shall” when you are making a resolution (decision) or a promise E.g: Of course he shall have water Sangilicious (Tất nhiên có nước uống.) 379 I shall be leaving as soon as I am ready (Tôi sẵn sàng.) Very well, my dear You shall have the coat (Hay đó, cưng Em áo khốt này.) * Certainty: “must” and “cannot” + We use “must” to say that something is certain to happen because of particular facts or circumstances E.g: Computer interviewing and rudimentary computer diagnosis must eventually lead to computer decision-making (Việc computer khám bệnh computer chuẩn đoán sơ sau định dẫn tới việc computer đề định.) + We use “cannot” to say that something is certain not to happen because of particular facts or circumstances You not use “must not” E.g: The repression can't last (Sự trấn áp kéo dài mãi.) Europe cannot hope to forge a united defence policy without first settling its internal quarrels (Châu Âu hy vọng tạo sách phịng thủ hợp mà không giải trước tiên tranh chấp nội bộ.) * Expectation (Mong đợi): “should” and “ought to” + We use “should” or “ought to” to say that we expect something to happen E.g: This course should be quite interesting for you (Khóa học kết thúc thú vị anh.) The Court of Appeal ought to be able to help you (Tòa thượng Thẩm hẳn giúp anh.) + “Should” and “ought to” are also used when we are talking about the importance of doing something * Possibility: “could”, “might”, and “may” + We use “could”, “might”, or “may” to say that it is possible that a particular thing will happen E.g: The river could easily overflow (Dịng sơng dễ dàng dâng ngập bờ.) They might be able to remember what he said (Có thể họ nhớ nói.) England's next fixture in Salzburg could be the decisive match (Trận đấu tới đội Anh Salzburg đấu định.) + If we put “well” after “could”, “might”, or “may”, we are indicating that it is fairly likely that something will happen or be the case E.g: When it is finished it may well be the largest cathedral in the world (Khi hồn thành giáo đường lớn giới.) + If we put “possibly” or “conceivably” after “could”, “might”, or “may”, we are indicating that it is possible, but fairly unlikely, that something will happen or be the case Sangilicious 380 E.g: These conditions could possibly be accepted (Những điều kiện có khả chấp thuận.) Rates could conceivably rise by as much as a whole percentage point (Tỷ giá có khả tăng cao tới mười lăm phần trăm.)  Talking about past possible situations The following paragraphs explain how you use modals when you are talking about possible situations in the past http://www.lixiaolai.com/misc/collins-english-grammar/html/4.140.html Sangilicious 381 ... ‘had’ and the past participles E.g: You had previously studied English before you moved to New York Had you previously studied English before you moved to New York? Sangilicious Past Perfect... will have been jogging for over an hour Claudia''s English will be perfect when she returns to Germany because she is going to have been studying English in the United States for over two years... If we not include a duration such as "for five minutes," "for two weeks" or "since Friday," many English speakers choose to use the Past Continuous rather than the Past Perfect Continuous Be careful