CHAPTER 5: Wireless Networking 206 If the network is encrypted, the hacker will start by determining the physical location of the target. NetStumbler has the ability to display the signal strength of the discovered networks. Utilizing this information, the attacker only needs to drive around and look for a location where the signal strength increases and decreases to determine the home of the wireless network. To enhance their ability to locate the positions of a wireless network, attackers can use directional antennas to focus the wireless interface in a specific direction. An excellent source for wireless information, including information on the design of directional antennas, is the Bay Area Wireless Users Group (www.bawug.org). Protecting Against Sniffing and Eavesdropping As networking technology matured, wired networks were able to upgrade from repeaters and hubs to a switched environment. These switches would send only the traffic intended for a specific host over each individual port, making it difficult (although not impossible) to sniff the entire network’s traffic. Unfortunately, this is not an option for wireless networks due to the nature of wireless communications. The only way to protect wireless users from attackers who might be sniff- ing is to utilize encrypted sessions wherever possible: SSL for e-mail connec- tions, Secure Shell (SSH) instead of Telnet, and secure copy (SCP) instead of File Transfer Protocol (FTP). To protect a network from being discovered with NetStumbler, it is impor- tant to turn off any network identification broadcasts and, if possible, close down the network to any unauthorized users. This prevents tools such as NetStumbler from finding the network. However, the knowledgeable attacker will know that just because the network is not broadcasting information that does not mean that the network cannot be found. All an attacker needs to do is utilize one of the network sniffers to monitor for network activity. Although not as efficient as NetStumbler, it is still a functional way to discover and monitor networks. Even encrypted networks show traffic to the sniffer. Once they have identified traffic, attackers can then utilize the same identification techniques to begin an attack on the network. Note Keep in mind that the most popular wireless network security scanning tools are Ethe- real, NetStumbler, AiroPeek, and Kismet. This will help you to analyze wireless networks in the field. Each tool has its benefits, so you may want to try them all if you have access to them. Common Exploits of Wireless Networks 207 Active Attacks on Wireless Networks Once an attacker has gained sufficient information from the passive attack, the hacker can then launch an active attack against the network. There are a potentially large number of active attacks that a hacker can launch against a wireless network. For the most part, these attacks are identical to the kinds of active attacks that are encountered on wired networks. These include, but are not limited to, unauthorized access, spoofing, denial of service (DoS) and flooding attacks, as well as the introduction of malware (malicious software) and the theft of devices. With the rise in popularity of wireless networks, new variations of traditional attacks specific to wireless networks have emerged along with specific terms to describe them, such as “drive-by spamming” in which a spammer sends out tens or hundreds of thousands of spam mes- sages using a compromised wireless network. Because of the nature of wireless networks and the weaknesses of WEP, unauthorized access and spoofing are the most common threats to wireless networks. Spoofing occurs when an attacker is able to use an unauthor- ized station to impersonate an authorized station on a wireless network. A common way to protect a wireless network against unauthorized access is to use MAC filtering to allow only clients that possess valid MAC addresses access to the wireless network. The list of allowable MAC addresses can be configured on the AP, or it may be configured on a RADIUS server with which the AP communicates. However, regardless of the technique used to implement MAC filtering, it is a relatively easy matter to change the MAC address of a wireless device through software to impersonate a valid station. In Windows, this is accomplished with a simple edit of the registry, and in UNIX through a root shell command. MAC addresses are sent in the clear on wireless networks, so it is also a relatively easy matter to discover authorized addresses. WEP can be implemented to provide more protection against authentica- tion spoofing through the use of Shared Key authentication. However, as we discussed earlier, Shared Key authentication creates an additional vulner- ability. Because Shared Key authentication makes visible both a plaintext challenge and the resulting ciphertext version of it, it is possible to use this information to spoof authentication to a closed network. Once the attacker has authenticated and associated with the wireless network, he or she can then run port scans, use special tools to dump user lists and passwords, impersonate users, connect to shares, and, in general, create havoc on the network through DoS and flooding attacks. These DoS attacks can be traditional in nature, such as a ping flood, SYN, fragment, or Distributed DoS (DDoS) attacks, or they can be specific to wireless networks CHAPTER 5: Wireless Networking 208 through the placement and use of rogue APs to prevent wireless traffic from being forwarded properly (similar to the practice of router spoofing on wired networks). Spoofing (Interception) and Unauthorized Access The combination of weaknesses in WEP, and the nature of wireless transmis- sion, has highlighted the art of spoofing as a real threat to wireless network security. Some well-publicized weaknesses in user authentication using WEP have made authentication spoofing just one of an equally well-tested number of exploits by attackers. One definition of spoofing is the ability of an attacker to trick the network equipment into thinking that the address from which a connection is coming is one of the valid and allowed machines from its network. Attackers can accomplish this in several ways, the easiest of which is to simply redefine the MAC address of the attacker’s wireless or network card to be a valid MAC address. This can be accomplished in Windows through a simple registry edit. Several wireless providers also have an option to define the MAC address for each wireless connection from within the client manager application that is provided with the interface. There are several reasons that an attacker would spoof. If the network allows only valid interfaces through MAC or IP address filtering, an attacker would need to determine a valid MAC or IP address to be able to commu- nicate on the network. Once that is accomplished, the attacker could then reprogram his interface with that information, allowing him to connect to the network by impersonating a valid machine. IEEE 802.11 networks introduce a new form of spoofing: authentica- tion spoofing. As described in their paper Intercepting Mobile Commu- nications: The Insecurities of 802.11, Borisov, Goldberg, and Wagner (the authors) identified a way to utilize weaknesses within WEP and the authentication process to spoof authentication into a closed network. The process of authentication, as defined by IEEE 802.11, is very simple. In a shared-key configuration, the AP sends out a 128-byte random string in a cleartext message to the workstation that is attempting to authenti- cate. The workstation then encrypts the message with the shared key and returns the encrypted message to the AP. If the message matches what the AP is expecting, the workstation is authenticated onto the network and access is allowed. As described in the paper, if an attacker has knowledge of both the original plaintext and ciphertext messages, it is possible to create a forged encrypted message. By sniffing the wireless network, an attacker is able to accumulate Common Exploits of Wireless Networks 209 many authentication requests, each of which includes the original plaintext message and the returned ciphertext-encrypted reply. From this, the attacker can easily identify the key stream used to encrypt the response message. The attacker could then use it to forge an authentication message that the AP will accept as a proper authentication. The wireless hacker does not need many complex tools to succeed in spoofing a MAC address. In many cases, these changes are either features of the wireless manufacturers or can be easily changed through a Windows registry modification or through Linux system utilities. Once a valid MAC address is identified, the attacker needs only to reconfigure his device to trick the AP into thinking he is a valid user. The ability to forge authentication onto a wireless network is a complex process. There are no known “off the shelf” packages available that will provide these services. Attackers will need to either create their own tools or take the time to decrypt the secret key by using AirSnort or WEPCrack. If the attacker is using Windows 2000 and his network card supports reconfiguring the MAC address, there is another way to reconfigure this information. A card supporting this feature can be changed through the System Control Panel. Once the attacker is utilizing a valid MAC address, he is able to access any resource available from the wireless network. If WEP is enabled, the attacker will have to either identify the WEP secret key or capture the key through malware or stealing the user’s notebook. Protecting Against Spoofing and Unauthorized Attacks Protecting against these attacks involves adding several additional components to the wireless network. The following are examples of measures that can be taken: Using an external authentication source such as RADIUS or SecurID will prevent an unauthorized user from accessing the wireless network and the resources with which it connects. Requiring wireless users to use a VPN to access the wired network also provides a significant stumbling block to an attacker. Another possibility is to allow only SSH access or SSL-encrypted traffic into the network. Many of WEP’s weaknesses can be mitigated by isolating the wireless network through a firewall and requiring that wireless clients use a VPN to access the wired network. CHAPTER 5: Wireless Networking 210 Denial of Service and Flooding Attacks The nature of wireless transmission, and especially the use of spread spectrum technology, makes a wireless network especially vulnerable to denial of service attacks. The equipment needed to launch such an attack is freely available and very affordable. In fact, many homes and offices contain the equipment that is necessary to deny service to their wireless networks. A denial of service occurs when an attacker has engaged most of the resources a host or network has available, rendering it unavailable to legiti- mate users. One of the original DoS attacks is known as a ping flood. A ping flood utilizes misconfigured equipment along with bad “features” within TCP/IP to cause a large number of hosts or devices to send an Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) echo (ping) to a specified target. When the attack occurs, it tends to use a large portion of the resources of both the network connection and the host being attacked. This makes it very difficult for valid end users to access the host for normal business purposes. In a wireless network, several items can cause a similar disruption of service. Probably the easiest way to do this is through a conflict within the wireless spectrum, caused by different devices attempting to use the same frequency. Many new wireless telephones use the same frequency as 802.11 networks. Through either intentional or unintentional uses of another device that uses the 2.4 GHz frequency, a simple telephone call could prevent all wireless users from accessing the network. Another possible attack would be through a massive number of invalid (or valid) authentication requests. If the AP is tied up with thousands of spoofed authentication attempts, authorized users attempting to authenti- cate themselves will have major difficulties in acquiring a valid session. As demonstrated earlier, the attacker has many tools available to hijack network connections. If a hacker is able to spoof the machines of a wireless network into thinking that the attacker’s machine is their default gateway, not only will the attacker be able to intercept all traffic destined for the wired network, but he or she would also be able to prevent any of the wireless network machines from accessing the wired network. To do this, the hacker needs only to spoof the AP and not forward connections on to the end destination, thus preventing all wireless users from doing valid wireless activities. Not much effort is needed to create a wireless DoS. In fact, many users create these situations with the equipment found within their homes or offices. In a small apartment building, you could find several APs as well as many wireless telephones, all of which transmit on the same frequency. These users could easily inadvertently create DoS attacks on their own net- works as well as on those of their neighbors. Common Exploits of Wireless Networks 211 A hacker who wants to launch a DoS attack against a network with a flood of authentication strings will also need to be a well-skilled program- mer. There are not many tools available to create this type of attack, but (as we discussed earlier regarding the attempts to crack WEP) much of the programming required does not take much effort or time. In fact, a skilled hacker should be able to create such a tool within a few hours. This simple application, when used with standard wireless equipment, could then be used to render a wireless network unusable for the duration of the attack. Creating a hijacked AP DoS requires additional tools that can be found on many security sites. Many apartments and older office buildings are not prewired for the high- tech networks in use today. To add to the problem, if many individuals are setting up their own wireless networks without coordinating the installa- tions, many problems can occur that will be difficult to detect. Only a limited number of frequencies are available to 802.11 networks. In fact, once the frequency is chosen, it does not change until manually reconfigured. Considering these problems, it is not hard to imagine the fol- lowing situation occurring: A person goes out and purchases a wireless AP and several network cards for his home network. When he gets home to his apartment and configures his network, he is extremely happy with how well wireless networking actu- ally works. Then, suddenly, none of the machines on the wireless network are able to communicate. After waiting on hold for 45 minutes to get through to the tech support line of the vendor who made the device, he finds that the network has magically started working again, so he hangs up. Later that week, the same problem occurs, except that this time he decides to wait on hold. While waiting, he goes onto his porch and begins discussing his frustration with his neighbor. During the conversation, his neighbor’s kids come out and say that their wireless network is not working. So they begin to do a few tests (while still waiting on hold, of course). First, the man’s neighbor turns off his AP (which is usually off unless the kids are online, to protect their network). When this is done, the original person’s wireless network starts working again. Then they turn on the neighbor’s AP again and his network stops working again. At this point, a tech support representative finally answers and the caller describes what has happened. The tech-support representative has seen this situation several times and informs the user that he will need to change the frequency used in the device to another channel. He explains that the neighbor’s network is utilizing the same channel, causing the two networks to conflict. Once the caller changes the frequency, everything starts working properly. CHAPTER 5: Wireless Networking 212 Protecting Against DoS and Flooding Attacks There is little that can be done to protect against DoS attacks. In a wireless environment, an attacker does not have to even be in the same building or neighborhood. With a good enough antenna, an attacker is able to send these attacks from a great distance away. This is one of those times when it is valid to use NetStumbler in a non- hacking context. Using NetStumbler, administrators can identify other net- works that may be in conflict. However, NetStumbler will not identify other DoS attacks or other non-networking equipment that is causing conflicts (such as wireless telephones, wireless security cameras, amateur TV (ATV) systems, RF-based remote controls, wireless headsets, microphones and audio speakers, and other devices that use the 2.4 GHz frequency). MITM Attacks on Wireless Networks Placing a rogue AP within range of wireless stations is a wireless-specific variation of a MITM attack. If the attacker knows the SSID in use by the network (which, as we have seen, is easily discoverable) and the rogue AP has enough strength, wireless users will have no way of knowing that they are connecting to an unauthorized AP. Using a rogue AP, an attacker can gain valuable information about the wireless network, such as authentication requests, the secret key that is in use, and so on. Often, the attacker will set up a laptop with two wireless adaptors, where one card is used by the rogue AP and the other is used to forward requests through a wireless bridge to the legitimate AP. With a sufficiently strong antenna, the rogue AP does not have to be located in close proximity to the legitimate AP. So, for example, the attacker can run the rogue AP from a car or van parked some distance away from the building. However, it is also common to set up hidden rogue APs (under desks, in closets, etc.) close to and within the same physical area as the legitimate AP. Because of their undetectable nature, the only defense against rogue APs is vigilance through frequent site surveys (using tools such as NetStumbler and AiroPeek) and physical security. Frequent site surveys also have the advantage of uncovering the unau- thorized APs that company staff members may have set up in their own work areas, thereby compromising the entire network and completely undo- ing the hard work that went into securing the network in the first place. This is usually done with no malicious intent, but for the convenience of the user, who may want to be able to connect to the network via his or her laptop in meeting rooms or break rooms or other areas that don’t have wired outlets. Even if your company does not use or plan to use a wireless network, you should consider doing regular wireless site surveys to see if someone has Common Exploits of Wireless Networks 213 violated your company security policy by placing an unauthorized AP on the network, regardless of their intent. Network Hijacking and Modification Numerous techniques are available for an attacker to hijack a wireless net- work or session. And unlike some attacks, network and security admin- istrators may be unable to tell the difference between the hijacker and a legitimate “passenger”. Many tools are available to the network hijacker. These tools are based upon basic implementation issues within almost every network device available today. As TCP/IP packets go through switches, routers, and APs, each device looks at the destination IP address and compares it with the IP addresses it knows to be local. If the address is not in the address table, the device hands the packet off to its default gateway. The address table is used to coordinate the IP address with the MAC addresses that are known to be local to the device. In many situations, this is a dynamic list that is built up from traffic that is passing through the device and through Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) notifications from new devices joining the network. There is no authentication or verification that the request received by the device is valid. Thus, a malicious user is able to send messages to routing devices and APs stating that his MAC address is associated with a known IP address. From then on, all traffic that goes through that router destined for the hijacked IP address will be handed off to the hacker’s machine. If the attacker spoofs as the default gateway or a specific host on the network, all machines trying to get to the network or the spoofed machine will connect to the attacker’s machine instead of to the gateway or host to which they intended to connect. If the attacker is clever, he will only use this to identify passwords and other necessary information and route the rest of the traffic to the intended recipients. If he does this, the end users will have no idea that this MITM has intercepted their communications and compro- mised their passwords and information. Another clever attack can be accomplished through the use of rogue APs. If the attacker is able to put together an AP with enough strength, the end users may not be able to tell which AP is the authorized one that they should be using. In fact, most will not even know that another is available. Using this technique, the attacker is able to receive authentication requests and information from the end workstation regarding the secret key and where they are attempting to connect. These rogue APs can also be used to attempt to break in to more tightly configured wireless APs. Utilizing tools such as AirSnort and WEPCrack CHAPTER 5: Wireless Networking 214 requires a large amount of data to be able to decrypt the secret key. A hacker sitting in a car in front of your house or office is noticeable and will gener- ally not have enough time to finish acquiring enough information to break the key. However, if the attacker installs a tiny, easily hidden machine in an inconspicuous location, this machine could sit there long enough to break the key and possibly act as an external AP into the wireless network it has hacked. Attackers who wish to spoof more than their MAC addresses have several tools available. Most of the tools available are for use in a UNIX environment and can be found through a simple search for “ARP Spoof” at http://packetstormsecurity.com. With these tools, the hacker can easily trick all machines on the wireless network into thinking that the hacker’s machine is another machine. Through simple sniffing on the network, an attacker can determine which machines are in high use by the worksta- tions on the network. If the attacker then spoofs the address of one of these machines, the attacker might be able to intercept much of the legitimate traffic on the network. AirSnort and WEPCrack are freely available. Although it would take addi- tional resources to build a rogue AP, these tools will run from any Linux machine. Once an attacker has identified a network for attack and spoofed his MAC address to become a valid member of the network, the attacker can gain further information that is not available through simple sniffing. If the network being attacked is using SSH to access the hosts, just stealing a pass- word might be easier than attempting to break in to the host using an avail- able exploit. By just ARP spoofing the connection with the AP to be that of the host from which the attacker wants to steal the passwords, the attacker can cause all wireless users who are attempting to SSH into the host to connect to the rogue machine instead. When these users attempt to sign on with their passwords, the attacker is then able to first receive their passwords and then pass on the connection to the real end destination. If the attacker does not perform the second step, it will increase the likelihood that the attack will be noticed because users will begin to complain that they are unable to connect to the host. Protection against Network Hijacking and Modification There are several different tools that can be used to protect a network from IP spoofing with invalid ARP requests. These tools, such as ArpWatch, notify an administrator when ARP requests are detected, allowing the administrator Common Exploits of Wireless Networks 215 to take the appropriate action to determine whether someone is attempting to hack into the network. Another option is to statically define the MAC/IP address definitions. This prevents attackers from being able to redefine this information. However, due to the management overhead in statically defining all network adapters’ MAC addresses on every router and AP, this solution is rarely implemented. There is no way to identify or prevent attackers from using passive attacks, such as from AirSnort or WEPCrack, to determine the secret keys used in an encrypted wireless network. The best protection available is to change the secret key on a regular basis and add additional authentication mechanisms such as RADIUS or dynamic firewalls to restrict access to the wired network. However, unless every wireless workstation is secure, an attacker only needs to go after one of the other wireless clients to be able to access the resources available to it. Jamming Attacks The last type of attack is the jamming attack. This is a fairly simple attack to pull off and can be done using readily available off-the-shelf RF testing tools (although they were not necessarily designed to perform this function). Although hackers who want to get information from your net- work would use other passive and active types of attacks to accomplish their goals, attackers who just want to disrupt your network communica- tions or even shut down a wireless network can jam you without ever being seen. Jamming a wireless LAN is similar in many ways to how an attack would target a network with a Denial of Service attack – the difference is that in the case of the wireless network, the attack can be carried out by one person with an overpowering RF signal. This attack can be carried out by using any number of products, but the easiest is with a high-power RF signal generator readily available from various vendors. This is sometimes the most difficult type of attack to prevent against, as the attacker does not need to gain access to your network. The attacker can sit in your parking lot or even further away depending on the power output of their jamming device. Although you may be able to readily determine the fact that you are being jammed, you may find yourself hard pressed to solve the problem. Indications of a jamming attack include the sudden inability of clients to connect to APs where there was not a problem previously. The problem will be evidenced across all or most of your clients (the ones within the range of the RF jamming device) even though your APs are operating properly. Jamming attacks are sometimes used as the prelude to further . large number of active attacks that a hacker can launch against a wireless network. For the most part, these attacks are identical to the kinds of active attacks that are encountered on wired. users create these situations with the equipment found within their homes or offices. In a small apartment building, you could find several APs as well as many wireless telephones, all of which. attack. Creating a hijacked AP DoS requires additional tools that can be found on many security sites. Many apartments and older office buildings are not prewired for the high- tech networks in use today. To