Sciences of the United States of America 104, no. 50 (2007): 19,691-19,696. Stainforth, D. A., et al. “Issues in the Interpretation of Climate Model Ensembles to Inform Decisions.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 365 (2007): 2163-2177. Walker, Gabrielle, and D. A. King. The Hot Topic: What We Can Do About Global Warming. Orlando, Fla.: Harcourt, 2008. Web Sites Gateway to the U.N. System’s Work on Climate Change http://www.un.org/climatechange/ United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change http://unfccc.int/2860.php See also: Air pollution and air pollution control; Earth Summit; Environmental ethics; Greenhouse gases and global climatechange; United Nations Con- vention on the Law of the Sea; United Nations Con- vention to Combat Desertification; United Nations Environment Programme; United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization; United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; World Bank. United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity Category: Laws and conventions Date: Adopted June 5, 1992; entered into force December 29, 1993 During the 1992 United Nations Conference on Envi- ronment and Development (UNCED), world decision makers agreed on the concept of sustainable develop- ment as the main path for future development. The conservation of biodiversity is a key element of the sus- tainable development strategy because diverse ecologi- cal systems provide the basis for human life and shar- ing conservation benefits is a prerequisite for effective conservation management and poverty reduction. Background While nature conservation and environmental pro - tection have long histories, one of the major events was the establishment of the Yellowstone National Park in 1872, which was followed by the global spread of the idea ofnational parks. However, establishingin- ternational frameworks for conserving biodiversity took more than one hundred years. Efforts for stan- dardization were started by, among others, the Inter- national Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) with its system of categorization of protected areas, such as national parks, beginning in the 1970’s. In 1987, the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) began a process of expert talks for a joint framework (Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Bi- ological Diversity) after having developed the idea of an international convention as early as 1982 at the World Congress on Protected Areas at Bali (Indone- sia). In 1990, a UNEP-led group of legal and technical experts worked on legal instruments aimed at the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. A first formal draft of the Convention on Biological Di- versity was presented in 1991, and, after several inter- national working group meetings, the final text of the convention was adopted in 1992. Provisions The Convention on Biological Diversity is concerned with the conservation of biodiversity, the sustainable use of biodiversity components, and the fair and equi- table use of genetic resources. The convention de- fines biological diversity (biodiversity) in terms of ge- netic, species, ecosystem,andlandscape diversity. The conservation of biodiversity is founded on the funda- mental value of biodiversity for human life on Earth and offers many benefits forhumans, such as food, fu- els, productive resources, stabilization of the climate, and recreation. The convention isdesigned to reduce the loss of biodiversity, especially of ecosystems and species. It provides policies and incentives for biodi- versity conservation andsustainableuse and regulates the access to genetic resources and the transfer of biotechnology. Italso arranges scientific cooperation, education, and public awareness and considers finan- cial support. Among the convention’s numerous other provisions, it created the Cartagena Protocol on Bio- safety (2003) as a subsidiary agreement covering ge- netically modified organisms. Impact on Resource Use The Convention on Biological Diversity offers a com - prehensive and international framework for conserv - ing and using biodiversity. An important precaution - 1266 • United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity Global Resources ary principle prescribes political action even in the case of scientific uncertainty. In 2002, the convention members agreed on the 2010 Biodiversity Target to achieve a significant reduction in the rate of biodiver- sity loss. Critics argue that the path to comprehen- sively conserving biodiversity has onlybegun,andthat there is still a long way to go to reduce the rates of bio- diversity loss. Michael Getzner See also: Biodiversity; Biotechnology; Conservation; Conservation biology; Earth Summit; Ecosystems; En- vironmental biotechnology; Genetic diversity; Na- tional Park Service; National parks and nature re- serves; National Parks Act, Canadian; United Nations Environment Programme. United Nations Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Category: Laws and conventions Date: Adopted December 28, 1973; entered into force July 1, 1975 The United Nations Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was a limited international treaty de- signed to regulate commerce in endangered species and products made from endangered animals and plants. Background In the 1960’s, international concern for the preserva- tion of endangered species was led by the United States, which launched international activism in this area when it passed its own protective legislation, the 1966 Endangered Species Preservation Act and the 1969 Endangered Species Conservation Act. One of the provisions of the latter law was that the United States would take the initiative in convening an inter- national meeting on endangered species no later than June 30, 1971. Although the deadline was not met, the United Nations did bring together represen- tative nations, which eventually developed the Con- vention on International Trade in Endangered Spe - cies of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). It took effect July 1, 1975. Provisions The United States was the first nation to ratify CITES and became a strong supporter of its provisions and enforcement. The convention was an international agreement under which participating nations agreed to abide by certain trade rules. The treaty did not deal with the preservation of species or their habitats; it dealt only withinternational trade,thus limiting itsef- fectiveness in protecting species biodiversity. CITES divided species into three levels of vulnera- bility and protection: Appendix I, all species threat- ened with extinction or affected by trade; Appendix II, species not threatened with extinction but that could become so without strictly regulated trade in specimens; and Appendix III, species subject to regu- lation for the purpose of preventing exploitation. Each appendix contained a list of species that could be added or deleted as their population decreased or stabilized, with an elaborate series of trade permits within each category. Nations that ratified CITES also had the option of seeking a reservation to the convention, a form of ex- Global Resources U.N. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species • 1267 The Carpathian lynx is an endangered species and as such is osten - sibly protected under the provisions of CITES. (AP/Wide World Photos) emption from trade restrictions because of an over - riding economic interest. The reservation meant, in effect, that the nation did not accept the listing of a species in one of the three appendixes and that there- fore the country would not observe trade restric- tions. CITES was administered by a Conference of the Parties, a group meeting every two years to review trade information and biological surveys of endan- gered species. The Conferences of the Parties were the forums in which a determination was made about whether the listing of a specific species on an appen- dix is appropriate. Impact on Resource Use While CITES received the support of most of the world, several nations were particularly affected by its trade restrictions and sought reservations or refused to ratify the treaty. CITES was somewhat successful in reducing the trade inand poaching of certain species, although a considerable level of illegal smuggling ac- tivity continued to occur, mostly in Southeast Asia. Critics believe that while CITES made some inroads into species preservation, only a more strict enforce- ment policy and an end to the reservation exemption would truly protect the Earth’s most endangered spe- cies. Jacqueline Vaughn Switzer See also: Conservation biology; Endangered Species Act; Environmental law in the United States; Species loss; United Nations Environment Programme; Wild- life biology. United Nations Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Category: Laws and conventions Date: Adopted November 13, 1979; entered into force March 16, 1983 The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution is an international treaty. Signatory na- tions agreed to reduce the amount of air pollution they created and to monitor any pollution created in one country that harmed another. The convention was the first international environmental treaty and as a model for future efforts. Background Although industrial air pollution was recognized as a threat in the 1960’s, most attempts to limit it failed to consider that pollution created in one area might have dramatic effects somewhere else. Local regula- tions might call for taller smokestacks or might limit emissions to areas away from population centers, but there was little concern about pollution in the wider atmosphere. The destruction of forests and other veg- etation, surface water, and buildings caused by acid rain led to a United Nations Conference on the Hu- man Environment in 1972, and then to two major studies of the Long-Range Transport of Air Pollutants (LRTAP). These studies showed that sulfur and nitro- gen compounds carried through the air can travel thousands of kilometers, causing harm even in nonin- dustrial nationswhere little or no pollutionis created. Data showed further that the burning of fossil fuel was a primary cause of international air pollution. In 1979, thirty-four members of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe met tofindacoop- erative solution to the problem. Thirty-two of those nations signedthe Convention on Long-Range Trans- boundary Air Pollution on November13, 1979, which was ratified by enough members to go into effect on March 16, 1983. Provisions Under the terms of thetreaty, membernationsagreed to use the best available technology to limit and re- duce air pollution as much as economically feasible, to share data and technology to work toward the goal of pollution reduction, and to cooperate in trans- boundary monitoring. Originally, the convention did not set targets for the amount of pollution reduction or for dates by which progress would be achieved. Be- tween 1984 and 1999, the convention was amended eight times to reflect understandings of particular pollutants. The United States refused to sign the pro- tocols that established specific targets. Impact on Resource Use By 2009, fifty-one countries, including the United States, had ratified the convention. By several mea- sures, air quality improved dramatically after 1979: Sulfur levels decreased 50 percent in North America and 60 percent in Europe. The convention created programs to study forests, waters, vegetation, and materials. However, the data remain, in many cases, inconclusive. Forests in Europe do not seem to be 1268 • U.N. Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Global Resources recovering, but lakes and streams in Europe and North America appear to be almost universally lower in sulfate concentrations, contributing to the recovery of some biotic species. Heavy metal concen- trations in mosses decreased dramatically in the 1990’s but remained stable afterward. New under- standings of the importance of ozone levels for wheat, clover, and other crops could lead to future regula- tions. Cynthia A. Bily Web Site United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/ See also: Acid precipitation; Air pollution and air pollution control; Clean Air Act; Earth Summit; Envi- ronmental law in the United States; Oxygen; United Nations climate change conferences. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Category: Government and resources Date: Adopted December 10, 1982; entered into force November 16, 1994 The Law of the Sea is an international attempt to solve the myriad problems facing the international commu- nity concerning the world oceans. These problems in- volve the offshore industries, including petroleum, fishing, and ocean mining, as well as trade and ocean commerce. Background The advances in technology and the emergence of a Third World coalition pressed the United Nations into developing a “Law of the Sea” treaty that would be acceptable to the majority of the nations affected. This marked a major shift from custom and tradition. Previously, only coastal states were involved in such an issue. This changing impact was also felt at the local level, as various technological and environmental concerns were being debated that previously had been ignored. The United Nations convened its first Law of the Sea convention in Geneva in 1958. The basis for the treaty was U.S. government policy from 1945 to 1958. A draft treaty was prepared by a group of industrial experts. The convention to con- sider the treaty was attended by fifty nations and cre- ated four committeestostudy areas of concern. These areas included (1) territorial sea and contiguous zones, (2) thecontinental shelf, (3) thehigh seas, and (4) fishing and mining resources. The 1958 conven- tion reached an agreement on oneofthese four issues via the “exploitation clause,” which allowed any na- tion that had the technology to mine ocean-bottom resources and claim them as natural resources. This agreement became effective after twenty-two coun- tries had signed it. In June, 1964, theUnited States be- came one of these nations. A second convention was held in Geneva in 1960 but resulted in no new agreements. During the next ten years, 1960-1970, the policies of the United States did not change. These policies were twofold. The first concerned national security, specifically the right of passage, freedom of straits, and overflight by planes. The second concerned mineral resources, specifi- cally petroleum, ocean mining, and fishing. In 1969, the U.S. Senate convened to establish a broadset of policies for U.S. offshore industry. Five areas were addressed. One of these was control of the outer con- tinental shelf to 200 meters’ water depth or 80 kilo- meters from shore. Another was the first-come, first- served policy on mineral deposits. Senator Claiborne Pell also requested that an “Intermediate Zone” on the outer continental shelf—to 250 meters’ water depth or 50 miles (160 kilometers) offshore—be es- tablished. The other areas addressed included an In- ternational Registry Authority and an International Fund. In 1970, President Richard M. Nixon signed an executive order changing the United States’ offshore policy. He indicated that the United States would re- nounce claims beyond 200 meters. The open ocean was “common heritage,” so Nixon requested the cre- ation of an international agency for mineral exploita- tion and distribution of royalties to developing coun- tries. An international agency was alsoto be created to organize exploration. In 1973, the United Nations convened a third Law of the Sea convention. This convention would last for ten years and cause some major upheavals in U.S. pol - icy. Many of the unresolved issues from previous con - ferences were to be examined as well as many new is - Global Resources United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea • 1269 sues posed by the developing nations of the world. These nations had begun to take a proactive role in the establishment of policy concerning resources of the open ocean. In 1974, theconventionmet in Caracas, Venezuela, and specifically addressed ocean mining. The consen- sus was that the open ocean was “common heritage” and that an international body be setupto control the mining, refining, and marketing aspects of ocean minerals. This agency would be one-third national and two-thirds international, and all technology and resources would be shared accordingly. In 1975, the convention met in Geneva with no agreement. In 1976, the group reconvened in New York and agreed on a 12-nautical-mile (22-kilometer) “territorial sea” (that is, nations wouldbeableto claim an offshore dis- tance of 12 nautical miles as sovereign territory) and an “economic resource zone” of 200 nautical miles (or about 370 kilometers). The advent of this exclu- sive economic zone (EEZ) aided the United States in addressing a number of issues, especially concerning fishing and petroleum. The fishing industry could now be better regulated. Foreign vessels were no lon- ger entitled to fish within this zone. Permits for given types of fishas well astimes and amounts of catch could be used to regulate overfishing and endangered spe- cies. Also, whaling and dolphin fishing could be regu- lated with this area. Throughout the late 1970’s and early 1980’s, the offshore industry continued to prosper. As larger mineral and petroleum sites were explored, many states were forced to create agencies to deal with the industry. In areas such as Arctic Alaska, offshore Cali- fornia, the Baltimore Canyon, and the Grand Banks, the various state governments tried to initiate com- prehensive yet ecologically sound offshore policies. As may be imagined, these regulations clashed at times with those of both the federal government and the United Nations. On December 10, 1982, the United Nations Law of the Sea convention came to an agreement on a num- ber of articles. When these were presented, 117 na- tions signed or indicated they would sign in the near future. The lack of a comprehensive policy, however, made the U.S. position weak, and the United States did not signthe articles. Manyotherindustrialized na- tions also did notsign the articles. The“common heri- tage” statements concerning ocean mining and the limited freedom for “free passage and overflight” were among the major stumbling blocks. Provisions The largest area for the mining of manganese nod- ules is in the deep waters of the central Pacific Ocean. This area lies to the south of Hawaii and extends in an east-west band across the ocean floor for about 24,000 kilometers. The water depth in this region is about 4,500 meters. These nodules contain a number of dif- ferent elements. This made the development of tech- nology a concern for some nations that depended on land-based mining industries for their capital. These elements include copper, nickel, gold, silver, lead, and manganese. The fishing industry had also expanded dramati- cally during this period. Many new areas were opened to commercial fishing and many new products began reaching the markets of theworld. Issues suchas over- fishing, whaling, anddolphin killing had surfaced but had not been resolved by the international commu- nity. Countries such as Japan and the Soviet Union re- fused to change their policies concerning whaling and deep-sea fishing. Drift nets had also begun to ap- pear on the seas as the technologyoffishingchanged. The signing of the Law of the Sea convention effec- tively endedany development of ocean mining opera- tions by mostindustrializednations. The provisions of the Law of theSeaindicated that revenue gained from mining must be shared with the United Nations. The two sites were selected by aprivate mining company to be mined. The United Nations then could chose one of these two sites for itself. The mining company was required to mine both sites and give the United Na- tions the money gained from the sale of the minerals on the U.N selected site. The money then was allo- cated to U.N. programs in underdeveloped nations. Impact on Resource Use The attempts by the international community to gen- erate a comprehensive policy concerning the world’s oceans have made great advances since their incep- tion in 1958. The involvement of a large number of less developed countries in the policy-making process shifted the balance of power away from those industri- alized nations that previously controlled the wealth and resources of the oceans and, coupled with the growing environmental awareness concerning deple- tion of resources and ocean pollution, led to the de- velopment of policies concerning offshore industries. Deep-ocean fishing, such as drift netting, will con - tinue to be an area of concern and debate among na - tions. Whaling also will provoke debate among na - 1270 • United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Global Resources tions. The area that appears most affected by the Law of the Sea convention, however, is that of deep-ocean mining. The idea of “common heritage” and the min- ing of duplicate sites caused many corporations to leave the field of ocean mining, but as shore-side min- eral deposits are depleted and environmental con- cerns over strip mining and other environmentally deleterious methods grow, the mineral wealth of the deep oceans will increase in importance. Then possi- bly, the conventions of the Law of the Sea will change the policies concerning “common heritage.” The development of the EEZ for petroleum pro- duction has been a greatbenefit to offshore industries in a large number of nations. These industries have been allowed to develop the technology necessary to recover petroleum reserves under a wide variety of conditions. These reserves and the royalties paid from them offer a great benefit to the governments of the individual countries. Yet, as the technology continues to develop, many nations will move their offshore petroleum production into regions beyond the conti- nental shelf. Brazil and Norway have both begun de- veloping fields in water depths well beyond a 250- meter curve. Robert J. Stewart Further Reading Freestone, David,Richard Barnes, andDavid M. Ong, eds. The Law of the Sea: Progress and Prospects. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Haward, Marcus, and Joanna Vince. Oceans Gover- nance in the Twenty-first Century: Managing the Blue Planet. Northampton, Mass.: Edward Elgar, 2008. Paulsen, Majorie B., ed. Law of the Sea. New York: Nova Science, 2007. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. New York: Nova Science, 2009. Web Site United Nations, Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea Oceans and Law of the Sea http://www.un.org/Depts/los/ convention_agreements/ convention_overview_convention.htm See also: Exclusiveeconomic zones; Fisheries;Law of the Sea; Manganese; Marine mining; Oceanography; Oceans. United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Category: Laws and conventions Date: Adopted June 17, 1994; entered into force December 26, 1996 The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertifica- tion (UNCCD) is an international treaty aimed at re- versing the ill effects of desertification and drought. It is unusual in its insistence that developed nations sup- port environmental efforts that most directly affect de- veloping nations andin its acknowledgment thatlocal stakeholders, with traditional and indigenous knowl- edge, may contribute to solving their own problems. Background Desertification, or the degradation of productive desert land, threatens nearly one-quarter of the Earth’s land surface and has many causes, many of them human-induced: overgrazing, cuttingdownof forests, drawing too much water, overpopulation, and global warming. Desertification results in a loss of biodiver- sity and the failure of land to support human habita- tion and crop cultivation. The process has been going on for thousandsofyears, but in thesecond half of the twentieth century, the international community began to look for long-term collaborative ways to combat it and to halt the human suffering and death it causes. In 1977, aPlan of Actionto Combat Desertification (PACD) was drawn up and adopted by the United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD), but attracted little attention. In 1992, the United Nations sponsored a Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) popularly known as the Earth Summit. More than one hundred heads of state and thousands of other delegates attended and sup- ported, among other plans, the United Nations Con- vention to CombatDesertification (UNCCD), adopted on June 17, 1994. After it was ratified by the required fifty member nations, it entered into force on Decem- ber 26, 1996. Provisions Desertification presents social and economic dan- gers, particularly to poor people in developing na- tions. Under the terms of the convention, developed nations are called upon to provide substantial fund - ing to help developing nations affected by desertifica - Global Resources U.N. Convention to Combat Desertification • 1271 tion and to share expertise and technology with those affected countries.For their part, affected developing nations agree to provide as much support for combat- ing desertification and drought as their resources allow; to establish clear actionplans;toaddressunder- lying socialcauses; to provide education for local pop- ulations concerning how they may be contributing to desertification and how they can contribute to slow- ing it; and touselawsand governmental bodies to sup- port desertification efforts. The convention also pro- vides an organizational framework for distributing funding and research data efficiently. Efforts to draw attention to the problem of desertification included the WorldDay to Combat Desertification and Drought, observed June 17, 2008, as the beginning of a ten-year strategic plan. Impact on Resource Use By 2006, which was named the International Year of Deserts and Desertification by the United Nations, the UNCCD had been signed by 193 nations, includ- ing the United States. After a decade of monitoring and program-building, the parties were optimistic about the success of the ten-year strategic plan. Cynthia A. Bily Web Sites College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, The University of Arizona U.N. Convention to Combat Desertification Information Network Project http://ag.arizona.edu/cgi-bin/cstccd.cgi United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification http://www.unccd.int/ See also: Desertification; Deserts; Developing coun- tries; United Nations climate change conferences; United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; United Nations Environment Programme; United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. United Nations Environment Programme Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1972 The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), a United Nations agency, was created to provide leader- ship and encourage international cooperationto protect the environment. It coordinates the activities of interna- tional, regional, national, and nongovernmental stake- holders with the goal of striking a balance between hu- man needs and the sustainable use ofnaturalresources. Background UNEP was established by the United Nations General Assembly after the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in Stockholm, Sweden, in June, 1972. UNEP is governed by a council composed of fifty-eight members: thirteen from Asia, ten from Latin America and the Caribbean, sixteen from Af- rica, six from Eastern Europe, and thirteen from Western Europe and othercountries.These members are elected by the U.N. General Assembly and report to the Assembly through the U.N. Economic and So- cial Council. Since1972, UNEP mandate hasbeen up- dated or revised five times: in 1992, by the adoption of Agenda 21 at the U.N. Convention on Environ- ment and Development (Earth Summit); in 1997, by the adoption of the Nairobi Declaration; in 2000, by the adoption of the Malmö Ministerial and U.N. Mil- lennium Declarations; and by the recommendations made at the World Summits on Sustainable Develop- ment in 2002 and 2005. UNEP works as a catalyst, mobilizing, supporting, and complementing worldwide environmental activ- ity through its major divisions: Early Warning and Assessment; Environmental Policy Implementation; Technology, Industry, and Economics; Environmen- tal Law andConventions; Regional Cooperation;Com- munications and Public Information; and Global En- vironment Facility (GEF) Coordination. Each one of these divisions plays an important role in fulfilling UNEP’s mission. The Early Warning and Assessment Division ad- dresses scientific assessment and reporting, assesses environmental conditions and trends around the world, provides stakeholders with data and informa- tion on various environmental issues, and help capac- ity building and servicing withingovernment agencies. This division also facilitates the Global Environment Outlook assessment process, which represents an im- portant component in UNEP’s capacitybuilding role. The division is also responsible for biodiversity and policy implementation through its World Conserva - tion Monitoring Centre. 1272 • U.N. Environment Programme Global Resources The Division of Environmental Policy Implemen- tation focuses on policy development and promotes international cooperation aimed at the development of action plans and strategies and programs for train- ing and technology transfer. The division works with local, national, and international partners to help them develop and implement environmental policies and laws to safeguard their natural resources. The Technology, Industry, and Economics Divi- sion is composed of eight branches: the OzonAction Branch, the International Environmental Technol- ogy Center (based in bsaka, Japan), the Economics and Trade Branch, the Chemicals Branch, the Sustain- able Consumption and Production Branch, the Energy Branch, and the Business and Partnerships Branch, and the Urban Environment Branch. Through these branches, and in collaboration with local, regional, and national government agencies and international and nongovernmental organizations, the division pro - motes sustainable development by encouraging re- sponsible consumption and production and by en- couraging the use of renewable energies in these processes. To this end, the division is entrusted with developing and implementing policies and strategies that promote sustainable development, including the management of waste and water by all stakeholders. Some of the areas with which the division is con- cerned are environmental technology, industry and the environment, and registration of potentially toxic chemicals. The Environmental Law and Conventions Division plays a major role in the promotion of compliance to the various environmental related conventions, also called multilateral agreements. The functions of the division are to help countries comply with these agreements, todeveloppartnerships amongthe stakeholders, and to promote a better coordination of stakeholders’ efforts. Global Resources U.N. Environment Programme • 1273 Achim Steiner, executive director of the United Nations Environment Programme, right, claps at the ceremony honoring Erik Solheim, center, as the2009recipient of theChampionoftheEarthaward.Trophy designer YuanXikunison the left. (ZhangYuwei/Xinhua/Landov) UNEP is one of the implementing agencies for the GEF through its Division of Global Environment Fa- cility Coordination. The division provides assistance to the Scientific and Technical Advisory Panel of the GEF and plays an important worldwide role in the im- plementation, coordination, and support of projects that are funded by the GEF. The Regional Cooperation Division works to im- plement and coordinate UNEP programs in many parts of the world. The division also provides techni- cal support to governments of the regions served by its offices. Through its regional offices, UNEP pro- motes regional collaboration among countries and raises awareness among stakeholders(nongovernmen- tal organizations, government agencies, private sec- tor groups, communities, and others). The Regional Cooperation Division has offices that are strategically located in six regions of the world: Europe, West Asia, North America, Africa, and Asia and the Pacific. In addition, UNEP has liaison offices in seven major capitals: Moscow,Beijing,Brasília, Addis Ababa (forco- ordination with the African Union), Brussels (for coordination with the European Union), Cairo (for coordination with the Arab League), and New York (for coordination with the United Nations). The Communications and Public Information Di- vision is in chargeofthe dissemination of information concerning environmental and ecosystem protection. The division also is instrumental in the dissemination of information concerning specific programs, such as the World Environment Day, the UNEP Sasakawa Environment Prize, the Champions of the Earth pro- gram, and photo contests. The purpose of these activi- ties is to influence the opinions and habits of the general public and stakeholders regarding the envi- ronment by promoting a more sustainable way of using natural resources. Impact on Resource Use UNEP plays a pivotal role in the implantation of some global environmental initiatives, such as the Regional Seas and the Freshwater programs, which target the protection of water bodies. The Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA), an initiative funded by the Global Environment Facility, is designed to ad- dress the issues of marine and freshwater areas and protection of major transboundary water bodies around the world. UNEP also acts as the secretariat for the following conventions: the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal, the Convention on Biological Diver- sity, theConvention on International Trade in Endan- gered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, the Conven- tion on the Conservation ofMigratory SpeciesofWild Animals, the Vienna Convention forthe Protection of the Ozone Layer, the Multilateral Fund for the Imple- mentation of the Montreal Protocol, the Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Proce- dure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization oftheUnited Nations), and the Stockholm ConventiononPersistent Organic Pollutants. Marian A. L. Miller, updated by Lakhdar Boukerrou Further Reading United Nations Environment Programme. Environ- mental Effects of Ozone Depletion and Its Interactions with Climate Change: 2006 Assessment. Nairobi, Kenya: Author, 2006. _______. Global Environment Outlook Four: Environment for Development. Nairobi, Kenya: Author, 2007. _______. Protecting Coastal and Marine Environments from Land-Based Activities: A Guide for National Ac- tion. The Hague, Netherlands: Author, 2006. Web Site United Nations Environment Programme http://www.unep.org/ See also: Agenda 21; Biodiversity; Earth Summit; En- vironmental movement; Montreal Protocol; Stock- holm Conference; United Nations Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1945 The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that spear- heads international efforts against hunger. The FAO serves as an informational network, shares policy ex - pertise among member nations, provides a neutral fo - 1274 • U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization Global Resources rum for negotiations, and oversees field projects that help developing countries modernize and improve ag- riculture, forestry, and fishery practices. Background In 1943, at the behest of President Franklin D. Roose- velt, representatives from forty-four governments met in Hot Springs, Virginia, to discuss the formation of a permanent international organization to deal with world problems of food and agriculture. World War II not only had disrupted trade in agricultural products and damaged agriculturally productive areas but also had diverted fertilizer, pesticide, andfarm-machinery factories to wartime uses or destroyed them outright. The Hot Springs meeting led to the First Session of the Food and Agriculture Organization Conference, held in Quebec City, Canada, in the fall of 1945. Dur- ing the conference, on October 16, 1945—six weeks after the formal surrender of Japan and eight days be- fore the U.N. charter entered into force—the FAO was established inWashington,D.C.In 1951, the orga- nization moved its headquarters to Rome, Italy. Impact on Resource Use In its early years, the FAO focused on addressing post- war food shortages. It also collected and published food-related statistics and supplied its members with technical assistance, such as literature, seeds, equip- ment, and localized training facilities. In the early 1960’s, as an influx of newly independent nations changed the face of the FAO, the organization chan- neled a greater portion of its financial resources into field programs that benefited developing countries. In 1960, the FAO launched its Freedom from Hun- ger campaign, which sought to raise awareness of world hunger and malnutrition. The campaignwasan unprecedented mobilization of U.N. agencies, govern- ments, nongovernmental organizations, other groups, private industry, and individuals to respond to the problem of hunger on a nation-by-nation basis. In 1961, the FAO teamed with the United Nations to establish the World Food Programme (WFP) for distributing surplus food to needy populations. Al- though the WFP was not scheduled to begin opera- tions until early 1963, food crises brought on by an earthquake inIran,a hurricane inThailand, and a de- luge of refugees returning to a newly independent Al- geria spurred the fledgling program to provide its first food assistance in the fall of 1962. In 1986, the FAO launched AGROSTAT, a compre - hensive source of international agricultural statistics. Afterward, AGROSTAT evolved into FAOSTAT, a mul- tilingual computer database that includes statistical information on agricultural resources, forestry, fish- eries, food prices, food consumption, agricultural production, and trade. In 1994, FAO established its Emergency Preven- tion System (EMPRES) for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases. EMPRES was created to contain highly contagious animal diseases and agri- cultural pests at an early stage, before widespread losses could result. The FAO Conference of 2001adopted the Interna- tional Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, an agreement supporting sustain- able agriculture through the equitable sharing of plant genetic material among farmers, plant breed- ers, and research institutions. The treaty entered into force in 2004. Karen N. Kähler Web Site Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations http://www.fao.org See also: Agricultural products; Agriculture indus- try; Agronomy; Food shortages; Land ethic; Land management. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Category: Laws and conventions Date: Adopted May 9, 1992; entered into force March 21, 1994 The United Nations Convention Framework on Cli- mate Change is a nonbinding international treaty de- signed to establish a worldwide response to global warming. Background As a scientific consensus about the human causes of climate change emerged, the United Nations estab - lished the Intergovernmental Negotiating Commit - tee in 1991 to negotiate a response among member Global Resources U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change • 1275 . technologyoffishingchanged. The signing of the Law of the Sea convention effec- tively endedany development of ocean mining opera- tions by mostindustrializednations. The provisions of the Law of theSeaindicated. pro - tection have long histories, one of the major events was the establishment of the Yellowstone National Park in 1872, which was followed by the global spread of the idea ofnational parks. However, establishingin- ternational. resources of the oceans and, coupled with the growing environmental awareness concerning deple- tion of resources and ocean pollution, led to the de- velopment of policies concerning offshore