Encyclopedia of Global Resources part 67 potx

ping—a necessity for the development of Indonesia’s export markets. Petroleum Before Indonesia’s independence after World War II, Royal Dutch Shell dominated oil production in the country, withconcessions on the three main islands of Java, Sumatra, and Kalimantan (then Borneo).Initial involvement of other foreign firms (most notably Caltex and Texaco) led to discovery of the Duri and Minas fields in Riau Province in Sumatra just before World War II. These fields became the most active areas of oil production in Indonesia in the postcolonial era, representing nearly one-half of the total production by the early 1960’s. By the late 1960’s, the Indonesian government had begun exercising stringent control over concessions, undertaking production and marketing of Indone- sian oil. The National Oil and Natural Gas Mining Company—also known as Pertamina, whose official name and bylaws would be altered several times into the twenty-first century—brought two earlier govern- mental entities under one roof and introduced profit- sharing arrangements with foreign contractors that were advantageous for Indonesian interests. Perta- mina’s operations came to involve processing and marketing of a variety of petroleum products, including various petrochemicals. Boom conditions in the 1970’s, combined with peak production of more than 600 million barrels in 1977, seemed to promise con- tinuation of these advantages. Prices reached thirty- five dollars per barrel and brought in about $15 billion annually by 1981. However, changing conditions after the 1980’s had negative effects on Indonesia’s oil sector. Price drops (to as low as ten dollars per barrel) followed by partial recoveries seem to have induced Pertamina to push for maximum (some say wasteful) production—keep- ing output near 500 million barrels, even though total revenue intake fell to one-half of earlier figures. At- tempts to keep the oil sector healthy seem to have only partially succeeded. Loosening contractual terms with foreign companies (a field of about twenty firms, mainly U.S. registered) had the aim of encouraging investment to expand production to new areas (because only slightly more than one-half of sixty likely basins had been explored). Even though estimates indicate that Indonesia probably has reserves of between 5 and 10 billion bar - rels, the country’s place among oil producers has dropped considerably. Government policies after 2000, which included closing down marginally productive oil wells, did not lead to real improvement in the oil sector. Indonesia’s act of resorting to domestic subsidies of billions of dollars a year to keep gasoline and kerosene (for home heating and cooking fuel) prices down for Indonesian consumers has been criti- cized widely as an economic anomaly. Timber and Forest Products The harvesting of timber from Indonesia’s extensive forests, many of which are classified as rain forests, represents the country’s second most important resource after oil. In the1960’s, estimates indicated that more than 80 percent of the land surface of the archi- pelago was forested. Extensive harvesting of timber for export has reduced that surface considerably— some say to 50 percent. As a side effect, given the high rainfall in this tropical zone, serious soil erosion has become widespread. At various times in the second half of the twentieth century concessions were granted by the Indonesian government to ten private companies for the right to log more than 50 million hectares of forest (out of an estimated total surfaceof more than 120 million hectares). The giant island of Kalimantan (formerly Bor- neo) relies almost entirely on timber harvesting as the basis of its economy. Sumatra’s forests rank as the second most intense zone. Other potentially productive areas, such as the westernmost island of Irian Jaya (for many decades relatively immune to heavy logging), have been affected by the expanding logging industry. Numerous controversies have arisen and continue to be debated, concerning not only questionable political favoritism in timber concession granting but also forest conservation programs that have been ini- tiated (with funding from timber concession royal- ties) to save Indonesia’s forests from depletion. Vari- ous measures are included in these programs, ranging from mandatory reforestation to “police” investigations of widespread instances of illegal logging. There is also a major ecological issue of widespread fires, many of which are caused by traditional tribal slash-and-burn methods of agriculture that have got- ten out of control, but some of which are assumed to be illegal policies carried out by logging firms. Some ecologists suggest that the massive reduction of Indo - nesia’s forested area has already had the result of low - ering the overall levels of humidity that are necessary 608 • Indonesia Global Resources to sustain certain species of tropical vegetation. How - ever, reforestation projects are not without potential controversy. After some progress in controlling levels of deforestation from the late 1980’s to 1997, figures rose alarmingly (to more than 3.5 million hectares per year in the last three years of the twentieth century). Critics claim that, instead of replacing extremely valuable hardwood trees with the same species, some companies plant fast-growing softwood trees on arbi- trarily chosen “nonproductive” land. Indonesia derives a number of commercially valuable products from its forests. “Raw” logs for sawmill treatment constitute the largest category in terms of cubic meters processed. Between 2001 and 2006 processing of raw timber (qualities of which ranged from valuable hardwoods through more common varieties) more than doubled, from slightly more than 10 million cubic meters to nearly 25 million cubic meters. A number of other categories of commercially valuable processed wood products count almost as heavily, most notably high-quality plywood and com- posite (wood chip) building materials. Despite this movement toward diversification of production in Indonesia’s timber industry, the world’s attention has been increasingly directed at issues re- lating to the country’s tropical rain-forest area and a number of endangered species—both animal and vegetal—whose future depends on Indonesian timber industry policy makers. Severe criticism has been leveled not only against the logging industry but also against what is viewed as an excessive consumer demand in developed countries for rare hardwoods, natural supplies of which are rapidly diminishing. Copper Indonesia is the world’s third largest producer of copper (after Chile and the United States). However, this position is not a guaranteed source of economic potential. A lesson was learned when the price for copper reached a sixty-year low point in 1999, coming at a time when Indonesia was already in the midst of a major region-wide economic crisis (affecting mainly, but not only, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand). The 1999 price of only $0.27 per kilogram recovered to $1.70 by 2006. However, between 2006 and 2009, considerable fluctuation occurred, and available stock- piles during the onset of the global financial and economic crisis suggested that decreasing demand would push prices below $0.68, or even lower. Despite such trends, Indonesia may be able to capi - talize on combining different sectors of its mining potential. For example, copper can be alloyed with nickel (another, less developed resource of Indone- sia) to produce cupronickel (or commercial name Monel), which is highly resistant to corrosion and, thus, important forthe modernshipbuildingindustry. Meanwhile, there is worldwide concern that, despite whatsometimes looks like acopper “surplus” (es- pecially when demand lessens, pushing prices down), the sudden reappearance of demand, and therefore expansion of mining efforts, could result in early depletion of reserves in countries like Indonesia. Tin Indonesia ranks high among the ten countries producing tin for the world market. While its proven reserves are not as substantial as those of China, Malay- sia, or Brazil, Indonesia fills almost as important a role as China and even more of a role than Malaysia as a producer of tin. However, new worldwide develop- ments may affect Indonesia: High-grade tin reserves in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Colom- bia mayattract importers away from Asian producers. As of 2009, the global market for tin was dominated by ten major mining companies, the two largest of which, Yunnan Tin and the Malay Company in China, both produced more than 54,000 metric tons in 2007. The third largest producer was the Indonesia-based company PT Timah, which produced approximately 53,000 metric tons in the same year. PT Timah’s shares are divided between the Indonesian government (holding 65 percent) and local and international private investors (holding the remaining 35 percent). PT Timah produces several varieties of tin, the most highly refined (99.9 percent pure) carrying the label “Banka Four Nines.” Meanwhile, like aluminum, global consumption of tin may be affected over time by growing efforts to recycle scrap metals. Nickel The most important areas for the production of nickel are in the Sudbury region of Ontario, Canada, several zones of Australia, and the Siberian region of Russia. Together these areas have reserves amounting to about 70 percent of the world’s nickel. Indonesia, whose yearly production follows that of Canada and Australia, continues to hold an important share of the world market. Nickel is highly resistant to corrosion and, therefore, has been used for generations either for nickel plating or as an alloy in the manufacture Global Resources Indonesia • 609 of steel. Technological advances—a factor that may change the nature of demand and therefore global prices—have produced a particularly refined product, called nickel superalloy, used in the manufacture of jet-engine turbines and some spacecraft parts. Therefore, Indonesia has several reasons to be careful when considering its nickel industry. This need to cal- culate carefully was particularly clear following an apparent boom period in 2006-2007, whennickel’s price reached more than $50,000 per metric ton and then dropped dramatically by early 2009 to $10,800 per metric ton. Indonesia has an interest, therefore, in calculating whether it should concentrate on producing high quantities of “ordinary” nickel (mainly for export to China) or experimenting with higher-priced alloys. Bauxite Although Indonesia has significant quantities of bauxite ore, it does not figure among the world’s ten most important suppliers. This fact might result from its proximity to Australia, the world’s main producer of bauxite. In terms of relative costs of production, bauxite may offer attractive advantages to less techni- cally developed countries like Indonesia, because the mineral is typically strip-mined close to the surface or under a ferruginoussurface layer. However, the costly process involved in extracting aluminum from ore means that, unless Indonesia could some day reach the bulk volume of exports supplied by the top five world suppliers, it would have difficulty matching the economies of scale enjoyed by its competitors. Another factor of increasing importance has to do with the success of aluminum recycling processes that have been adopted throughout the world. Although recycling does not hold out the prospect of reducing the price of aluminum itself, it can have the effect of reducing demand for bauxite, making Indonesia’s global position even more vulnerable. Other Resources In the first two years of the twenty-first century, Indo- nesia produced significant quantities of iron ore, a necessary componentfor producing anotherof its potentially significant exports: raw steel. In 2001, Indo- nesia produced more than 450 million metric tons of iron ore. The next year production dropped off nearly 20 percent, and by 2005 the decrease appeared drastic, going as low as 19 million metric tons. Signifi - cantly, production of steel, which began to slump in 2003, did not follow iron ore’s drop, possibly because of continued emphasis on steel production for the construction industry. Indonesia does not rank among major producers of gypsum, in partbecause of itsgeographical unique- ness as an island country. The main producers for the global market are found in Spain and NorthAmerica. Gypsum is a basic crystalline mineral used to make plasterboard, or drywall, and other basic construction materials. Thus, Indonesia’s rather stable annual production (about 6,000 metric tons) is mainly important as an import substitution resource. Considerably rarer than ordinary gypsum is the more complex molecular crystal form known as alabaster. Indonesia is attempting to produce sufficient quantities of alabaster to complement its list of “lux- ury” exports. Byron D. Cannon Further Reading Carlson, Sevinc. Indonesia’s Oil. Boulder, Colo.: West- view Press, 1977. Lewis, Peter M. Growing Apart: Oil, Politics, and Change in Indonesia and Nigeria. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007. Rosser, Andrew. Why Did Indonesia Overcome the Re- source Curse? Brighton, Sussex, England: University of Sussex Institute of Development Studies, 2004. World Bank. Spending for Development: Making the Most of Indonesia’s New Opportunities—Indonesia Public Ex- penditure Review. Washington, D.C.: Author, 2008. See also: Aluminum; Copper; Forest fires; Forestry; Forests; Nickel; Oil and natural gas distribution; Tim- ber industry; Tin. Industrial Revolution and industrialization Category: Historical events and movements The term “Industrial Revolution” describes the historical period in which the exploitation of new energy technologies led to industrialization—the centralization of production with a reorganization of human living patterns and increased consumption of a broad range of natural resources. 610 • Industrial Revolution and industrialization Global Resources Background The Industrial Revolution is generally considered to have begun in England in the eighteenth century and to have spread to North America, northern Eu- rope, and then further throughout the world. It is still under way in emerging nations of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Industrialization is characterized by increased consumption of energy and material resources, centralization of production, the growth of urban populations, and the evolution of extensive transportation and energy distributioninfrastructures. The production of nonagricultural goods has followed a common historical pattern in many parts of the world. At first, families (or somewhat larger tribal units) make enough for their own needs. Then a type of trade develops in which individuals specialize in the production of a limited number of goods, and a market economy—allowing the accumulation of money or capital—is established. The buying and sell- ing then increasingly come under the control of merchants who buy from the producers and arrange transport to the buyers. At first, domestic manufacture prevails; in other words, production occurs within or near the home. Eventually, an industrial stage is achieved: Labor is centralized so that investment can be made in the means of production and economies of scale can be realized. Preconditions In order for factory production to supplant domestic production in a nation or region, there must be adequate supplies of human power, mechanical energy, and capital. A transportation infrastructure must be in place. Further,some rudimentaryknowledge of science and engineering is required, as are adequate materials with which to build machinery. Cultural as- sumptions are also important. Industrialization will not occur unless improvements in material wealth are considered both possible and desirable by those in po- sitions of political and economic power. The Industrial Revolution could not have occurred before an agricultural revolution made it possible for a smaller proportion of the population to be directly involved in food production, thereby freeing individuals to move to cities. Historians view the agricultural revolution as beginning with the transition in Western Europe, about the year 1600, from open fields to enclosed individual farms and the subse - quent introduction of new crops (particularly feed for livestock), new tools for plowing and planting, and improvements in livestock. With the increased avail - ability of animal muscle power and fertilizer from animal waste, farms became more productive, but they were also more expensive to run. Rural populations stratified into farm owners, tenants, and paid workers. The latter, having no direct tie tothe land, were freeto move to the city in search of work, and they formed the first pool of industrial workers. Because building a factory requires capital and en- trepreneurs who can afford to wait a period of time to realize a return on their investment, the Industrial Revolution also had to await the accumulation of wealth by merchants and the founding of banks with sufficient funds to finance industrial construction. Further, the centralization of production could only be effective with the availability of dependable transport of raw materials to, and finished goods from, the factories. Perhaps the most characteristically “industrial” feature of the revolution, and certainly the one with the greatest direct impact on natural resources, was the development of easily controlled mechanical power, essential to both production and the infrastructure upon which mechanized production depends. The Steam Engine Prior to the eighteenth century the only available sources of mechanical energy were muscle, wind, and flowing or falling water. The latter had been widely exploited in milling and other industries. The development of the steam engine appears to have been a by-product of the metal- and coal-mining industries. A major problem in mining was water that seeped into mine shafts, and, in 1698, English inventor Thomas Savery introduced a water-lifting device based on steam pressure. By 1713 an English craftsman named Thomas Newcomen had produced the first steam engine that could function at atmospheric pressure. The basic Newcomen design was improved by James Watt, a Scottish instrument maker, in the period between 1765 and 1790. By 1820 some sixty steam engines were at work in Birmingham, England, generating a total of about 1,000 horsepower. A scant eighteen years later there were more than three thousand steam engines in theUnited States—on steamboats, in railroad locomotives, and in manufacturing use. The steam engine converts heat energy into me - chanical energy. Its development meant that mechan - ical power could be available wherever there was an Global Resources Industrial Revolution and industrialization • 611 adequate supply of fuel. The burning of coal, which had already begun to replace wood for home heating, became the principal source of power for the In- dustrial Revolution, with the early steam engines pro- viding a means both of pumping water from mine shafts and of cutting the coal from deposits. With the extensive use of coal came the first industrial air pollution, because soot and sulfur oxides were released into the air. Industrialization of the Textile Industry The textile production industry of fiber and cloth was the first manufacturing process to be industrialized, and cotton proved to be the fiber most amenable to the mechanized processing. Cotton is converted into cloth by the processes of carding, spinning, and weav - ing, in which the fibers are separated from one an - other, wound into thread or yarn, and then woven into fabric. The first spinning machine was put into production in London in 1740, with a carding machine developed about a decade later. Improvements in both these technologies were achieved by the English inventor James Hargreaves, who pat- ented the “spinning jenny” in 1770 and a carding engine in 1775. The power loom was introduced by Ed- mund Cartwright, an English clergy- man turned industrialist, in 1785. The number of power looms in England and Scotland grew from about four- teen thousand in 1820 to one hun- dred thousand in 1833. The explosive growth of the textile industry had important implications for land use and for world politics. The British governmentsought to pre- vent the designs for textile machinery from leaving England so as to main- tain a monopoly on textile production. The American textile industry began in 1790 when an English immi- grant named Samuel Slater built successful water-powered spinning machines in Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Following the invention of the cotton gin (which separates cotton fiber from the seed) by the American Eli Whit- ney in 1793, cotton became a principal crop in the southern United States. After the industrialization of the American textile industry, the need for sources of raw cotton and markets for finished textiles became a major determinant of British colonial policy in the Middle East and India. Transportation With industrialization came the need for more efficient transportation of raw materials to manufacturing centers and of finished goods to consumers. The first steamboat, in which a steam engine produced the motive power for a paddlewheel,was demonstratedin 1787 by John Fitch, an American inventor. Regular steamboat service was not established until twenty years later, when American engineer Robert Fulton introduced regular service on New York’s Hudson River. The first propeller-driven steamships were in - 612 • Industrial Revolution and industrialization Global Resources Watt’s steam engine, shown here in one of its earliest versions, became a symbol of the In- dustrial Revolution. (The Granger Collection, New York) troduced in 1836, and in 1845, a propeller-driven ship crossed the Atlantic, inaugurating a new era in worldwide shipping. The second major vehicle for the transport of goods and services was the railroad. The first designs that were called “railroads” consisted of short lengths of wooden rail on which horses moved coal for short distances. In 1804, an English inventor named Rich- ard Trevithick mounted a steam engine on a four- wheeled carriage and used his invention to pull an 8- metric-ton load of coal over 14 kilometers of track. The first public railroad began operation in England in 1825. By that time railroad-building had already spread to the United States. With government sup- port, the railroads expanded rapidly across North America, fueling the westward migration of farmers and cattlemen and resulting in the conversion of vast areas of wilderness to agricultural use. The Chemical Industry The chemical industry is somewhat unusual in that most of its products are meant for use in other industries. It also is probably the industry with the greatest impact on natural resources other than energy. Sulfu- ric acid, used in the bleaching of textiles and the cleaning of metals, was perhaps the first major “chemical” to be used. At the end of the eighteenth century, new sources of alkali were sought to meet the demands of glassmaking and soapmaking. The depletion of the forests of Europe to produce charcoal had led to a scarcity of potash (potassium carbonate), tra- ditionally obtained from wood ash. In 1780, Nicolas Leblanc developed a process whereby soda ash (so- dium carbonate) could be produced from salt, chalk, and sulfuric acid. The modern chemical industry began about 1840 when chemists discovered that numerous organic chemicals could be extracted from coal tar, a by-product of the use of coke in blast fur- naces. In addition to aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene and toluene, then thought of mainly as solvents, the nitrogen-containing compound aniline and an entire family of aniline dyes were obtained. A great number of new chemical compounds and industrial by-products were thus released into industrial wastewater. The Internal Combustion Engine While the steam engine was the original workhorse of the Industrial Revolution, it had many inefficient fea - tures. Heat energy, provided by burningwood or coal, was used to heat water, creating the steam that pro - vided the moving force for a piston, which in turnpro- duced the actual mechanical motion. Much of the generated heat energy escaped in the process. The strategy of using the fuel as the working material— thereby eliminating the middle steps in the production of motion—was realized in the internal combustion engine, developed in the years 1863 to 1866 by a German traveling salesman, Nikolaus August Otto. The compactness of the internal combustion engine made it an extremely attractive power source for self-powered vehicles, including the automobile and the truck.The automobile became a major product of industry in the United States. The motor truck provided the capability to deliver goods wherever there was a road. Possibly no single aspect of industrialized society has had as much effect on land use and air quality as the automobile. In 1908, Henry Ford introduced the Model T, the first automobile to be afford- able to many Americans. Within twenty years more than half of all American families owned motorcars. Petroleum refining and road construction became major industries. Unfortunately, the combustion of gasoline in the automobile engine was not complete, so carbon monoxide and volatile hydrocarbons were released into the air. To keep the engines running smoothly, tetraethyl lead was added to gasoline, resulting in the release of lead in automobile exhausts. Eventually improvements in engine design and the introduction of the catalytic converter were able to re- duce the amount of polluting material releasedper ki- lometer traveled. Electricity Italian physicist AlessandroVolta invented the electric battery in 1800, opening a new energy source to development. After the invention of the electromagnet by William Sturgeon in 1825, a number of inventors strove to perfect the electromagnetic telegraph, by which messages could be sent over wires almost in- stantaneously. Exploitation of the telegraph required the stringing of telegraph lines between major cities. Much of the development of electrical technology was driven by the potential for long-distance communica- tion. The discovery of the electric motor and genera- tor marked a new freedom in the generation of mechanical energy. Electrical energy could be produced wherever convenient and transmitted at low cost to wherever it might be needed. In particular, electricity could be generated by the energy of falling water, ei - Global Resources Industrial Revolution and industrialization • 613 ther at a natural waterfall, such as at Niagara Falls, or by damming the flow of rivers. An explosion in energy consumption was heralded by Thomas Edison’s invention of the incandescent electric light in the late nineteenth century. In order for profits to be generated by this innovation networks of generators, transmission lines, and trans- formers for the distribution of electrical energy had to be established. These networks could be powered by falling water (hydroenergy); by the burning of coal, oil, or natural gas; or, following World War II, by the energy released by nuclear fission. Each of these sources carried its own environmental price. The burning of fossil fuels produced air pollution, and nuclear energy plants produced nuclear waste as well as excessive quantities of heat, leading to the thermal pollution of streams and lakes. Even hydroelectric power, widely considered a “clean” and renewable energy source, alters local ecosystems and interferes with scenery; moreover, dams have a limited life cycle because they are eventually filled in with sediment. Impact on Natural Resources The course of industrialization in Western Europe and the United States demonstrates dramatically the interconnections between technological change, so- cial and economic conditions, and the utilization of natural resources. Overall, industrialization is accom- panied by anincreased use of natural resources,punc- tuated by innovations and discoveries that may shift consumption from one resource to another. While industrialization has historically resulted in varying de- grees of environmental degradation—ranging from deforestation to damage from huge strip mines to air and water pollution—advances in technology fre- quently allow a more efficient use of resources, mod- erating the demand for individual scarce resources and limiting environmental impact. The evolution of automobiles over the last forty years of the twentieth century, for instance, saw a reduction in metal usage, greatly increased fuel economy, the elimination of lead released to the environment, and a reduction in other pollutants. There has been considerable debate over the ques- tion of whether continuing worldwide industrialization, coupled with population growth, will deplete crucial resources such as oil and certain mineral resources in the near future. On the one hand, reserves of materials such as oil are finite. On the other hand, a number of factors seem to be mitigating the problem. Automation and computers are employed in industry to use resources more efficiently and minimize waste, reducing the drain on resources. Improvements in renewable energy resources such as solar and wind power, together with recycling technologies for key materials, offer at least the possibility of continued industrialization without the exhaustion of essential resources in the immediate future. However, with the accelerating industrialization of the economies of China, India and other formerly developing nations, resource sustainability is becoming a greater impera- tive. Donald R. Franceschetti Further Reading Bronowski, Jacob. The Ascent of Man. Boston: Little, Brown, 1973. Josephson, Paul R. Industrialized Nature: Brute Force Technology and the Transformation of the Natural World. Washington, D.C.: Island Press/Shearwater Books, 2002. Kranzberg, Melvin, and Carroll W. Pursell, Jr., eds. Technology in Western Civilization. 2 vols. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967. McPherson, Natalie. Machines and Economic Growth: The Implications for Growth Theory of the History of the Industrial Revolution. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1994. Marcus, Alan I., and Howard P. Segal. Technology in America: A Brief History. 2d ed. Fort Worth, Tex.: Harcourt Brace College, 1999. Park, Se Hark, and Walter C. Labys. Industrial Develop- ment and Environmental Degradation: A Source Book on the Origins of Global Pollution. Northampton, Mass.: Edward Elgar, 1998. Pursell, Carroll W., Jr., ed. Technology in America: A His- tory of Individuals and Ideas. 2d ed. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1990. Singer, Charles, et al., eds. The Industrial Revolution, c. 1750 to c. 1850.Vol.4inA History of Technology.Ox- ford, England: Clarendon Press, 1954-1984. Smith, Toby M. The Myth of Green Marketing: Tending Our Goats at the Edge of Apocalypse. Toronto: Univer- sity of Toronto Press, 1998. Stearns, Peter N. The Industrial Revolution in World His- tory. 3d ed. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2007. See also: Air pollution and air pollution control; Cap - italism and resource exploitation; Coal; Developing countries; Environmental degradation, resource ex - 614 • Industrial Revolution and industrialization Global Resources ploitation and; Internal combustion engine; Iron; Manufacturing, energy use in; Oil industry; Steam engine; Steel industry; Transportation, energy use in; Watt, James. Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established October 1, 2003 The Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP) is an international research program that supports drilling into the Earth’s crust below the oceans. Hundreds of scientists from around the world participate in propos- ing, conducting, and analyzing research and in dis- seminating results to enhance understanding of the Earth, its structure, and its history. Background In 1961, the firstsample of the Earth’scrust at the bot- tom of the ocean was obtained through drilling off the coast of Guadalupe, Mexico. The value of such core samples was immediately apparent, and in 1966, the Deep Sea Drilling Project began, followed in 1985 by the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP). These international programs yielded thousands of core samples, helping scientists trace the history of the planet, con- firming the movement of tectonic plates and the impact of an asteroid 65 million years ago, revealing the existence of salt domes, and suggesting the potential for drilling for oil under the ocean floor. As new information led to scientific questions, and as the technology for exploration improved, a new model for cooperative funding and research was needed. In 2003, the U.S. National Science Founda- tion and the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology formed the Inte- grated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP). These two “lead agencies” shared responsibility and funding, and other countriesin Europe and Asia soon joinedas members. Impact on Resource Use IODP provides a mechanism for scientists to share information, technology, and funding as an international community. The activities of IODP are in - formed by the Initial Science Plan, titled “Earth, Oceans and Life: Scientific Investigations of the Earth System Using Multiple Drilling Platforms and New Technologies,” formulated by an international multi- disciplinary group of scientists as a blueprint for the first ten years of research. The plan identifies fourma- jor areas of inquiry: the deep biosphere and the sub- seafloor ocean; environmental changes; Earth effects and processes; and solid Earthgeodynamics and cycli- cal activity. IODP has a complex organization, guided by a memorandum of understanding that defines how much money each member should contribute and how many of its scientists will participate in drilling cruises and in meetings. The program also has provi- sions for sharing information with scientists and the general public free of charge through conferences, papers, journals, magazines, Web sites, and teacher- at-sea programs. Undersea drilling has helped scientists expand their knowledge about the environments on and below the seafloor to reformulate understand- ings about how the Earth has changed both over the long term and in recent times and has enhanced understanding of global climate change. Cynthia A. Bily Web Sites Integrated Ocean Drilling Program—United States Implementing Organization http://www.oceandrilling.org/ Integrated Ocean Drilling Program http://www.iodp.org/ See also: Coast and Geodetic Survey,U.S.; Deep drilling projects; Earth’s crust; Oceanography; Oceans. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Category: Organizations, agencies, and programs Date: Established 1988 The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) gathers, reviews, and reports scientific, technical, and socioeconomic information on climate change as directed by the Conference of Parties to the United Nations Conventions. IPCC task forces also prepare papers and special reports pertainingto the effect of cli - mate change. Global Resources Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change • 615 Background Concerns regarding the effect of greenhouse gaseson Earth’s climate prompted the World Meteorological Organization Executive Council to establish the In- tergovernmental Panel on Climate Change following authorization by the United Nations Environment Programme. The IPCC reports and papers culminate from the efforts of thousands of experts from developed and developing countries working under a rig- orous review, adoption, and approval process. The IPCC consists of the secretariat in Geneva, three working groups, and several special committees that prepare assessment reports on scientific, technological, and socioeconomic information related to climate change. Impact on Resource Use In 1990, the IPCC adopted its First Assessment Re- port, which reported that emissions from human activities were substantially increasing the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases, the result of which would be additional warming of the Earth’s surface. Furthermore, the report noted that adverse impacts on forestry and water resources would be most pro- nounced in developing countries. It also addressed mitigation and adaptation measures to protect food, water, land, and biological resources. This report spurred the establishment of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992) to address global warming. The Second Assessment Report (1995) noted that the balance of evi- dence suggested a discernible human influence on global climate and that climate changes were projected to result in significant adverse impacts on food supply and water resources. This was key to the 1997 adoption of the Kyoto Protocol, which established binding targets to limit greenhouse-gas emissions for developed countries. IPCC re- sponded to a request for a special report and published Land Use, Land- Use Change, and Forestryin 2000, which described carbon sequestration strat- egies involving land and forests. Sequestration of carbon dioxide in forests is one mechanism to offset greenhouse-gas emission limits. The Third Assessment Report (2001) stated that most of the warming over the previous fifty years was attributable to human activities. It concluded that global temperature increases in the ensuing one hun- dred years could be significantly larger than previ- ously thought. In 2002, IPCC published a technical paper, Climate Change and Biodiversity,requested by the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, which noted that humans will continue to cause a loss in biodiversity through climate change. The Fourth Assessment Report (2007) noted that human-induced climate change could lead to some impacts that are abrupt or irreversible. In 2007, the IPCC, with Al Gore, received the Nobel Peace Prize for efforts to disseminate knowledge about climate change and mitigation measures. In 2008, IPCC published a technical paper, Climate Change and Water, which predicted that freshwater sources were vulnerable to climate change because of changes in temperature, precipitation variability, and glacial melting and predicted that water pollution would increase because of increases in sediments, nutrients, pesticides, and temperature. The IPCC scheduled its Fifth As- sessment Report for 2014. Kathryn L. Rowberg Web Site Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change http://www.ipcc.ch/ 616 • Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Global Resources Following a 2009 meeting between the European Union and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), European Commission president José Manuel Barroso speaks with the press. He is flanked on the right by Rajendra Kumar Pachauri of the IPCC and on the left by environmentalist Nicholas Stern. (AFP/Getty Images) See also: Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act; Gore, Al; Greenhouse gases and global climate change; Kyoto Protocol; United Nations climate change conferences; United Nations Framework Con- vention on Climate Change. Internal combustion engine Categories: Obtaining and using resources; pollution and waste disposal Along with the electric motor, the internal combustion engine became the most widely used source of motive power in twentieth century technology. Its advantages of speed and intermittent operation made it a popular power source for transportation. Widespread use depended on a steady source of liquid fuel, so a huge demand for petroleum products was created. Background The internal combustion engine uses the principle that an explosive mixture of air and fuel contained in a space will expand when ignited. Three basic types of engines developed from that principle: atmospheric, which used the pressure of the atmosphere to move a piston after an explosion created a vacuum; noncompression, which exploded a mixture of air and fuel in a chamber; and precompression, which compressed a mixture of air and fuel before ignition. Designers used either a reciprocal or turbine action as the basic motion in the devices. As early as the seventeenth century, gunpowder- fueled cannons demonstrated the power generated by internal combustion. This knowledge led Christiaan Huygens to produce the first such gunpowder- powered device in 1673; it had little practical success. Although several people experimented with internal combustion designs for more than a century and a half after Huygens’s pioneering efforts, no successful efforts emerged until William Murdoch produced a reliable source of coal gas as fuel for these engines in 1790. From that date until the 1850’s, several inventors experimented with a variety of devices used to produce motive or stationary power. None was practical, and none saw commercial success, yet these efforts were important in the development of internal combustion power. Jean-Joseph-Étienne Lenoir produced the firstcom - mercially viable internal combustion engine in 1859; it used town coal gas for fuel. Lenoir’s noncompression engine generated as much as three horsepower and sold widely in the 1860’s. However, its high fuel consumption, size, rough operation, and extensive main- tenance demands kept it from developing into a major power source. The creation of a practical engine depended on the ingenuity of German engineers and on the ready availability of petroleum-based fuels. Nineteenth century German inventor Nikolaus Au- gust Otto sensed that the Lenoir engine would have a greater potential if powered by a portable liquid fuel. That awareness motivated Otto to begin a long process of improving the Lenoir engine and creating his own design, which became the standard for decades. This process was typical of much innovation in technology: An inventor and a developer/financier formed a team to improve an existing design. In Otto’s case, he was fortunate to work with Eugen Langen, who provided both technical and financial assistance in the development of an atmospheric engine. By 1876, Otto had learned the importance of precompression and devised his famous “silent Otto engine”: a four-stroke cycle engine using intake of fuel, compression, ignition, and expansion and ex- haust phases. Using this Otto method of power generation in a four-cylinder engine, Gottlieb Daimler, in 1885, used an early form of gasoline to power the engine and created the prototype for the widely used automobile engines of the twentieth century. The use of petroleum fuel increased the mobility and conve- nience of the automobile and created a growing demand for both gasoline and the Otto-type engine. The practical motorcar also depended on further improvements to the Otto engine, such as Wilhelm Maybach’s carburetor (1892) and an electric spark ignition system that was developed by 1900. These fea- tures made the car powered by an internal combustion engine a new and popular transportation device in the early years of the twentieth century. Applications The internal combustion engine also powered air- planes, marine vehicles, trucks, and factory machines. By the early 1900’s, Rudolf Diesel’s self-ignition engines, relying on fuel oil, saw use in heavy-duty applications. Frank Whittle’s development work in Britain on a gasoline-powered turbine engine in the 1920’s and 1930’s led to jet aircraft toward the end of World War II. These engines became widespread in aviation Global Resources Internal combustion engine • 617 . in the manufacture Global Resources Indonesia • 609 of steel. Technological advances—a factor that may change the nature of demand and therefore global prices—have produced a particularly refined. exploitation of new energy technologies led to industrialization—the centralization of production with a reorganization of human living patterns and increased consumption of a broad range of natural resources. 610. production of nickel are in the Sudbury region of Ontario, Canada, several zones of Australia, and the Siberian region of Russia. Together these areas have reserves amounting to about 70 percent of the