8.4.2 Baroclinic Instability: The Rayleigh Theorem
8.4.3 The Eady Stability Problem
8.5 GROWTHAND PROPAGATION OF NEUTRAL MODES
8.5.1 Transient Growth of NeutralWaves
8.5.2 Downstream Development
PROBLEMS
MATLAB EXERCISES
Suggested References
9. Mesoscale Circulations
9.1 ENERGY SOURCES FOR MESOSCALE CIRCULATIONS
9.2 FRONTS AND FRONTOGENESIS
9.2.1 The Kinematics of Frontogenesis
9.2.2 Semigeostrophic Theory
9.2.3 Cross-Frontal Circulation
9.3 SYMMETRIC BAROCLINIC INSTABILITY
9.4 MOUNTAINWAVES
9.4.1 Flow over Isolated Ridges
9.4.2 LeeWaves
9.4.3 DownslopeWindstorms
9.5 CUMULUS CONVECTION
9.5.1 Equivalent Potential Temperature
9.5.2 The Pseudoadiabatic Lapse Rate
9.5.3 Conditional Instability
9.5.4 Convective Available Potential Energy (CAPE)
9.5.5 Entrainment
9.6 CONVECTIVE STORMS
9.6.1 Development of Rotation in Supercell Thunderstorms
9.6.2 The Right-Moving Storm
9.7 HURRICANES
9.7.1 Dynamics of Mature Hurricanes
9.7.2 Hurricane Development
PROBLEMS
MATLAB EXERCISES
Suggested References
10. The General Circulation
10.1 THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM
10.2 THE ZONALLY AVERAGED CIRCULATION
10.2.1 The Conventional Eulerian Mean
10.2.2 The Transformed Eulerian Mean (TEM)
10.2.3 The Zonal-Mean Potential Vorticity Equation
10.3 THE ANGULAR MOMENTUM BUDGET
10.3.1 Sigma Coordinates
10.3.2 The Zonal-Mean Angular Momentum
10.4 THE LORENZ ENERGY CYCLE
10.5 LONGITUDINALLY DEPENDENT TIME-AVERAGED FLOW
10.5.1 Stationary RossbyWaves
10.5.2 Jetstream and Storm Tracks
10.6 LOW-FREQUENCY VARIABILITY
10.6.1 Climate Regimes
10.6.2 Annular Modes
10.6.3 Sea Surface Temperature Anomalies
10.7 LABORATORYSIMULATIONOFTHEGENERALCIRCULATION
10.8 NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF THE GENERAL CIRCULATION
10.8.1 The Development of AGCMs
10.8.2 Dynamical Formulation
10.8.3 Physical Processes and Parameterizations
10.8.4 The NCAR Climate System Model
PROBLEMS
MATLAB EXERCISES
Suggested References
11. Tropical Dynamics
11.1 THE OBSERVED STRUCTURE OF LARGE-SCALE TROPICAL CIRCULATIONS
11.1.1 The Intertropical Convergence Zone
11.1.2 EquatorialWave Disturbances
11.1.3 AfricanWave Disturbances
11.1.4 Tropical Monsoons
11.1.5 TheWalker Circulation
11.1.6 El Ni ˜ no and the Southern Oscillation
11.1.7 Equatorial Intraseasonal Oscillation
11.2 SCALE ANALYSIS OF LARGE-SCALE TROPICAL MOTIONS
11.3 CONDENSATION HEATING
11.4 EQUATORIALWAVE THEORY
11.4.1 Equatorial Rossby and Rossby–Gravity Modes
11.4.2 Equatorial KelvinWaves
11.5 STEADY FORCED EQUATORIAL MOTIONS
PROBLEMS
MATLAB EXERCISES
Suggested References
12. Middle Atmosphere Dynamics
12.1 STRUCTURE AND CIRCULATION OF THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE
12.2 THE ZONAL-MEAN CIRCULATION OF THE MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE
12.2.1 Lagrangian Motion of Air Parcels
12.2.2 The Transformed Eulerian Mean
12.2.3 Zonal-Mean Transport
12.3 VERTICALLY PROPAGATING PLANETARYWAVES
12.3.1 Linear RossbyWaves
12.3.2 RossbyWavebreaking
12.4 SUDDEN STRATOSPHERICWARMINGS
12.5 WAVES IN THE EQUATORIAL STRATOSPHERE
12.5.1 Vertically Propagating KelvinWaves
12.5.2 Vertically Propagating Rossby–GravityWaves
12.5.3 Observed EquatorialWaves
12.6 THE QUASI-BIENNIAL OSCILLATION
12.7 TRACE CONSTITUENT TRANSPORT
12.7.1 Dynamical Tracers
12.7.2 Chemical Tracers
12.7.3 Transport in the Stratosphere
PROBLEMS
MATLAB EXERCISES
Suggested References 12
13. Numerical Modeling and Prediction
13.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
13.2 FILTERING METEOROLOGICAL NOISE
13.3 NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION OF THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION
13.3.1 Finite Differences
13.3.2 Centered Differences: Explicit Time Differencing
13.3.3 Computational Stability
13.3.4 Implicit Time Differencing
13.3.5 The Semi-Lagrangian Integration Method
13.3.6 Truncation Error
13.4 THE BAROTROPIC VORTICITY EQUATION IN FINITE DIFFERENCES
13.5 THE SPECTRAL METHOD
13.5.1 The Barotropic Vorticity Equation in Spherical Coordinates
13.5.2 Rossby–HaurwitzWaves
13.5.3 The Spectral Transform Method
13.6 PRIMITIVE EQUATION MODELS
13.6.1 The Ecmwf Grid Point Model
13.6.2 Spectral Models
13.6.3 Physical Parameterizations
13.7 DATA ASSIMILATION
13.7.1 The Initialization Problem
13.7.2 Nonlinear Normal Mode Initialization
13.7.3 Four-Dimensional Data Assimilation
13.8 PREDICTABILITY AND ENSEMBLE PREDICTION SYSTEMS
PROBLEMS
MATLAB EXERCISES
Suggested References
Appendix A: Useful Constants and Parameters
Appendix B: List of Symbols
Appendix C: Vector Analysis
C.1 VECTOR IDENTITIES
C.2 INTEGRAL THEOREMS
C.3 VECTOR OPERATIONS IN VARIOUS COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Appendix D: Moisture Variables
D.1 EQUIVALENT POTENTIAL TEMPERATURE
D.2 PSEUDOADIABATIC LAPSE RATE
Appendix E: Standard Atmosphere Data
Appendix F: Symmetric Baroclinic Oscillations
Bibliography
Index
Nội dung
[...]... vector g* and gravity g For an idealized homogeneous spherical earth, g* would be directed toward the center of the earth In reality, g* does not point exactly to the center except at the equator and the poles Gravity, g, is the vector sum of g* and the centrifugal force and is perpendicular to the level surface of the earth, which approximates an oblate spheroid surfaces slope upward toward the equator... a distance r (1.3) January 27, 2004 13:54 Elsevier/AID 8 aid 1 introduction In dynamic meteorology it is customary to use the height above mean sea level as a vertical coordinate If the mean radius of the earth is designated by a and the distance above mean sea level is designated by z, then neglecting the small departure of the shape of the earth from sphericity, r = a + z Therefore, (1.3) can be... techniques and ensemble forecasting Acknowledgments: I am indebted to a large number of colleagues and students for their continuing interest, suggestions, and help with various figures I am particularly grateful to Drs Dale Durran, Greg Hakim, Todd Mitchell, Adrian Simmons, David Thompson, and John Wallace for various suggestions and figures January 27, 2004 13:54 Elsevier/AID aid C H A P T E R 1 Introduction. .. force proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance separating them Thus, if two mass elements M and m are separated by a distance r ≡ |r| (with the vector r directed toward m as shown in Fig 1.2), then the force exerted by mass M on mass m due to gravitation is GMm r Fg = − 2 (1.2) r r where G is a universal constant called the gravitational constant The law of... still fundamental to the understanding of large-scale extratropical motions This chapter has been revised to provide increased emphasis on the role of potential vorticity and potential vorticity inversion The presentation of the omega equation and the Q vector has been revised and improved In Chapter 9, the discussions of fronts, symmetric instability, and hurricanes have all been expanded and improved... of view of an observer in inertial space the speed of the ball is constant, but its direction of travel is continuously changing so that its velocity is not constant To compute the acceleration we consider the change in velocity δV that occurs for a time increment δt during which the ball rotates through an angle δθ as shown in Fig 1.5 Because δθ is also the angle between the vectors V and V + δV,... Therefore, in order to apply Newton’s second law to describe the motion relative to this rotating coordinate system, we must include an additional apparent force, the centrifugal force, which just balances the force of the string on the ball Thus, the centrifugal force is equivalent to the inertial reaction of the ball on the string and just equal and opposite to the centripetal acceleration To summarize,... of important derived units have special names and symbols Those that are commonly used in dynamic meteorology are indicated in Table 1.2 In addition, the supplementary unit designating a plane angle, the radian (rad), is required for expressing angular velocity (rad s−1 ) in the SI system.1 In order to keep numerical values within convenient limits, it is conventional to use decimal multiples and submultiples... must change Thus, the object behaves as though a zonally directed deflection force were acting on it The form of the zonal deflection force can be obtained by equating the total angular momentum at the initial distance R to the total angular momentum at the displaced distance R + δR: + u R2 = R + u + δu R + δR (R + δR)2 where δu is the change in eastward relative velocity after displacement Expanding... (h), and day (d) may be used in preference to the second in order to express quantities in convenient numerical values 2 The hectopascal (hPa) is the preferred SI unit for pressure Many meteorologists, however, are still accustomed to using the millibar (mb), which is numerically equivalent to 1 hPa For conformity with current best practice, pressures in this text will generally be expressed in hectopascals . Paris San Diego San Francisco Singapore Sydney Tokyo January 24, 2004 12:0 Elsevier/AID aid Senior Editor, Earth Sciences Frank Cynar Editorial Coordinator Jennifer Helé Senior Marketing Manager. Elsevier/AID aid AN INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMIC METEOROLOGY Fourth Edition JAMES R. HOLTON Department of Atmospheric Sciences University of Washington Seattle,Washington Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg. publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission