Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary into sections or zones. Cables are centralized in each zone, with main arteries running between zones or to the central power source. See distribution frame. zone of authority The set of names managed by, or under the authority of, a specific name server. zone of silence, skip zone In radio transmissions, a geographic region that does not receive normal ra- dio signals, frequently due to abrupt changes in ter- rain, (e.g., mountains). zone paging The capability of an intercom or phone system to selectively page certain groups of speak- ers. See public address system. zone punch In a punch card, a punch located in one of the upper three rows (the section that usually has less text displayed on the card). See Hollerith card, punch card. Contrast with digit punch. zone time A system in which the Earth is divided lon- gitudinally into 24 time zones of about 15 degrees each starting in Greenwich, England. It was devel- oped in the late 1800s by a Canadian, S. Fleming, to establish a standard time. See Greenwich Mean Time. zoning, stepping In microwave transmissions, dis- placement of portions of the surface of the microwave reflector in order to prevent changes in the phase front in the near field. zoom To continuously reduce or enlarge an image, as on a monitor or in a viewfmder. Zooming capabil- ity is usually provided to improve the visibility of details (zoom in), or to provide a 'big picture, wide angle' view (zoom out) ofa diagram, object, image, or scene. See zoom factor. zoom factor The degree to which an image can be scaled, that is, decreased or enlarged. The X and Y axes mayor may not be capable of sizing indepen- dent of one another. The enlargement zoom factor on consumer camcorders often ranges from 20 to 200 times (or more) the normal viewing factor. In some cases, the zoom factor on still cameras and cam- corders may be digitally enhanced, that is, the zoom up to 20 times may be an optical zoom and, beyond that, it may be a digital zoom, which may show some pixelation at higher zoom factors. See zoom. zoom lens An apparatus that provides the ability to reduce or enlarge the apparent size of an image in order to frame that image with the desired scope or to enhance detail. Commonly used on video and film cameras, and sometimes on telescopes and bin- oculars. zsh, Z shell A Unix command interpreter shell, simi- lar to ksh, developed by Paul F alstad. Zsh is said to be similar to a bash shell, but faster and with more 1042 features. Zsh is not a Posix-compliant implementation. Zulu time Greenwich Mean Time, Coordinated Uni- versal Time. Zuse, Konrad (1910-1995)A German structural en- gineer and inventor who independently created pio- neer general purpose calculating and computing tech- nologies, coincident with the development of the Attanasoff-Berry computer in the U.S. and Alan Turing's computing theories in England. Zuse's ac- complishment is remarkable, considering he didn't have the corporate and university facilities, funding, and personnel support that led to the development of other pioneer computing systems. Zuse began building computers in his mid-20s from a studio he set up in his parents' apartment. He re- ports in his autobiography that he originated the con- cept in 1934, and constructed the VI, later called the ZI, between 1936 and 1938. His early notebooks de- scribe important binary computing concepts. The Z1 included mechanical memory for data storage (for practical reasons of space and ease of construction) and used program instructions punched into film. Later, Zuse added the Z2, Z3 and Z4, with a friend, Helmut Schreyer, providing expertise on electronic relays and vacuum tubes. Zuse considered his Z3 re- lay-based version to be a true binary computer (the original Z3 was destroyed after World War II bomb- ing raids). A reproduction has been installed in the Deutsches Museum. The Z4, which began develop- ment in 1942, was demonstrated in April 1945, and operated in ZUrich from 1950 to 1955. From Zuse's agile mind came also apioneer algorithmic program- ming language called PlanKalkiiel (plan calculus) that was developed in the mid-1940s. See Attanasoff- Berry computer; Hertzstark, Curt. Zworykin, Vladimir Kosma (1889-1982) A Rus- sian-born American physicist and electrical engineer who emigrated to America in 1919 and worked for Westinghouse Electric Company in the 1920s. Zworykin developed an idea to control the passage of beams in an electron tube with magnets to devise a cathode-ray tube (CRT), which he patented in 1928. This historic CRT led to his development of the icono- scope, a practical television camera. In 1929 Zworykin demonstrated acathode-ray-baseddisplay device, the same basic concept as current computer and television monitors. In the same year, Zworykin became the director ofresearch for the Radio Cor- poration of America (RCA). In November 1935, he received a patent for his apparatus for producing images (U.S. #2,021,907). © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Network Technologies 4B/5B Fiber transmissions cable that is commonly used in asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) and Fi- ber Distributed Data Interface (FOOl) networks. This 4-byte/5-byte multifiber cable can support transmis- sion speeds up to about 100 Mbps. See 8B/I OB. 6boneAn IETF-supported international collaboration testbed providing policies and procedures for the evo- lution ofInternet Protocol (IP). The name 6bone is derived from backbone a major 'artery' of the Inter- net, IP version 6. 6bone is designed to be used in the development, deployment, and evolution of the In- ternet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) which is intended to succeed the current Internet protocol IPv4. This testbed and transition project is essential in that the Internet is not one machine and one agency run- ning it, but a global collaboration ofcomputing de- vices managed and owned by many different per- sonal, commercial, and governmental entities. The 6bone provides not only a means to test the many fea- tures and concepts of the new systems, but also a means for developing and deploying a transition in- frastructure. The 6bone is avirtual network that is layered on por- tions of the current physical structure of the IPv4- based Internet. IPv4 routers are not designed to ac- commodate IPv6 packets. By layering IPv6 on the existing structure, the routing ofIPv6 packets can be accomplished prior to the implementation of en- hanced physical structures, particularly routers de- signed to take advantage of the features of IPv6. To understand the 6bone virtual structure, imagine various workstation-class computers, such as those commonly used as servers in various communities and institutions. Provide these machines with oper- ating system support for IPv6 so that they have di- rect support for the IPv6 packets. Now provide a means through the Internet for these machines to in- terconnect and communicate with one another through virtual point-to-point links called tunnels, thus managing the links on behalfofphysical rout- ers until IPv6 support is more widespread. Eventu- ally, as the Internet is upgraded to IPv6, this interim system will be replaced by agreement with direct physical and virtual IPv6 support. The 6bone Web site is sponsored by the Berkeley Lab Networking & Telecommunications Department. See IPv4, IPv6, MBone, X-Bone. See RFC 2546, RFC 2772. http://www-6bone.lbl.gov/6bone/ 8B/I0B The designation for a fiber transmission cable suitable for high speed networks. This 8-byte/1 O-byte multifiber cable can support transmission speeds up to about 149.76 Mbps. See 4B/5B. 10Base- After ratification ofEthernet as a standard (IEEE 802.3), a number ofvariations were defined to support twisted pair and fiber optics physical me- dia and data formats transmitting at rates of 10 MBps. See Ethernet Standards chart. 10 Gbit Ethernet lOGbE. A telecommunications technology developed within the IEEE 802.3ae work- ing committee (a subcommittee of the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Working Group), based upon the evolution of Ethernet/Fast Ethernet technologies. The project began in spring 1999 to extend and update the capa- bilities of Ethernet and was approved by ballot in March 2001, a milestone toward standards ratifica- tion that is expected in 2002. 10GbE differs from earlier versions in a couple of physical interface aspects. It includes a long-haul optical transceiver capable of 40 kilometers or more, or physical medium-dependent (PMD) interface for single-mode fiber. This can be used with either a LAN or WAN physical layer to support metropolitan area networks (MANs). Secondly, 10GbE includes an optional WAN physical (PHY), enabling 10GbE to be transported transparently over SONET OC-192c or SOH VC-464c infrastructures. In general, lOGbE multimode fiber connections are expected to transmit 65 or 300 meters or more and 9-micron diameter single-mode fiber connections are expected to transmit 10,000 to 40,000 meters or more. Initial implementations are expected to include high- speed local backbones in large-capacity installations (campuses, ISPs, etc.). 10 Gbit Ethernet AllianceAnonprofit trade alliance promoting standards-based 10 Gigabit Ethernet tech- nology development, distribution, and utilization. The founding members include 3Com, Cisco Systems, Extreme Networks, Intel, Nortel Networks, Sun Mi- crosystems, and World Wide Packets. http://www.1 Ogea.org/ 1043 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary lOOBase-T A baseband signaling networking stan- dard supporting FastEthernet with data transfer rates up to 100 Mbps. 1 OOBase- T is intended to provide a faster option to Ethernet networks based originally upon 1 OBase- Tcarrier sense multiple access systems. 1 OOBase- T is described in IEEE 802.3u. 1 OOBase- T specifications can be supported over a variety of physical media configurations. Type Physical Medium/Notes 1 OOBase- TX data-quality twistedpair Requires at least Cat 5 cable. As in 1 OBase- T, the data is not split and may be used in full-duplex transmission modes. I OOBase- T4 4pairs of regular twistedpair Requires at least Cat 3 cable. The data stream is divided into three 33-Mbps streams with the 4th twisted pair used for error mechanisms. Half-duplex transmission. 100Base-FX dual-strandedfiber optics Segments may be up to 412 meters. lOOBaseVG-AnyLAN A commercial LAN from Hewlett-Packard that was later refined and standard- ized by the IEEE 802.12 committee and ratified in 1995 as 802.2. Like 100Base-T (Fast Ethernet), it provides data rates of 100 Mbps. It is similar to Fast Ethernet, and capable of carrying Ethernet and To- ken-Ring transmissions simultaneously. A VG net- work consists of nodes connected to hub ports in a star topology. Hubs are interconnected through a tree topology. This technology has not found the same widespread commercial acceptance as 1 OOBase- T. See High Speed Token-Ring. lOOBASE-SX TIA/EIA/ANSI-785. The Short Wave- length Fast Ethernet Standard developed as Project SP-4360 by the FO 2.2 committee, approved June 2001. This standard was developed to provide a clear, cost-effective means to upgrade local area networks (LANs) from 10-Mbps copper or fiber to lOO-Mbps fiber with a cabling structure different from that of Gigabit Ethernet. Thus, 10BASE-FLcan be upgraded to 100BASE-SX fairly readily and may be less ex- pensive than Gigabit Ethernet deployed over Cat 5 or higher cabling. It uses 850-nm optical media for backward compatibility with 10BASE-FL and is similar to 1 OOBASE-FX, with the same signal encod- ing structure. lOOBASE-SX differs from 100BASE-FX in that it uses lower cost 850-nm optics, has a local distance of 300+ meters, and does Ethernet Standards - Overview Name Description lOBase-2 10 Mbps baseband "thin" Ethernet 50-ohm coaxial cable as a network physical transmissions medium. Up to 30 stations can be supported per cable segment of up to 200 meters. This format is popular for small local area networks connecting personal computers. See RFC 1983. lOBase-5 Essentially Ethernet delivered over a standard or "thick" Ethernet 50-ohm cable at data rates of 10 Mbps over cable segments up to 500 meters. lOBase-F A physical layer specification for 10-Mbps data rates over fiber optic cable. lOBase-FL 10- Mbps baseband fiber optic network links supporting transmission segments of up to two kilometers, with a maximum of two devices per segment (station and hub). Multiple stations may be connected through a hub in a star topology. There are commercial media converters available for connecting twisted pair (1 OBase- T) cables to 10Base-FL Ethernet-based networks to extend twisted pair cable lengths with optical connections. Converters may be used with regenerating repeaters. lOBase-T A physical transmissions medium supporting up to 10 Mbps ofbaseband transmissions over twisted pair (T) that is commonly interconnected with RJ-45 cables (the ones that have connectors that look like fat RJ-l1 phone connectors). Three or more stations can be interconnected in a star topology through a hub (and stars can be interconnected through a 'bus' topology). It's a convenient method of connection since the loss ofa station in the star doesn't bring down the rest of the network as in a ring topology. The Manchester scheme of binary coding is typically used with 10Base-T. lOBroad36 A multiple-channel network broadband signaling system that can be implemented over single or dual coaxial cables. The bandwidth is subdivided into two or more channels for the simultaneous transmission ofdifferent types of signals as might be found with multimedia communications. Segments can support transmission distances of up to 3600 meters per segment. I 1044 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC not require aspecific fiber optic connector, any of the standard connectors meeting minimum performance requirements may be used. A new Physical Media Dependent (PMD) sublayer has been defined as part of the standard, as has an optional auto-negotiation mechanism. Above the physical layer, the standard remains the same as pre- vious implementations and is intended to be used along with IEEE 802.3 (1998) that is prevalent in LANs. Thus, 100BASE-SX is intended to fit in well with established Ethernet/Fast Ethernet environ- ments. 1000Base-T An IEEE standard approved in 1997, developed by the P802.3ab study group. This stan- dard defines a full duplex Gigabit Ethernet signaling system for category 5 (Cat 5) network systems. U n- like 1 OOBase- TX transceivers, which use only two pairs of wires, one in each direction, 1 OOOBase- T transmits on all four pairs simultaneously from both directions of each pair. This creates a more complex system and a greater potential for crosstalk. See far end crosstalk, near end crosstalk. 802.3, 802.30, 802.3z An IEEE-specified family of Ethernet standards ranging from 10 Mbps to Gigabit Ethernet that are commonly used on local area net- works. The maximum distance depends in part upon the cabling. For example, for 802.3, a maximum seg- ment length would be 500 meters for "thick" Ether- net (10Base-5) or 185 meters for "thin" Ethernet (10Base-2). See Ethernet Standards chart. 802.5 An IEEE-specified token-passing network sys- tem using differential Manchester coding for up to 250 workstations to a maximum distance of 101 meters at 1 or 4 Mbps. General IBL abbrev. 1. single bottom line. 2. one business line. lEAX A GTE variant of Western Electric/AT&T's ESSIA telephone switching system. See lA, Elec- tronic Switching System 1.214 LicenseA Section 214 license is issued by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to qualifying applicants pursu- ant to the Communications Act. It charges the FCC with the responsibility ofdetermining whether appli- cants have demonstrated that their proposal will serve the public interest and need. Thus, activities such as corporate expansions and mergers require prior Sec- tion 214 FCC approval. In the mid-1990s, the FCC streamlined the applications process such that it is au- tomatically granted if no one objects during aperiod set aside for public comment. 2D two-dimensional. Existing or described in two spatial dimensions or in terms of two selected realms of data. A Cartesian coordinate system is a graphical representation of data in two dimensions. The dimen- sions need not be spatial, they may be quantities, time, or other types of information that may be plotted. Two-dimensional systems representing spatial con- cepts commonly tend to be flat in the sense that they represent width and breadth but not depth. In call ac- counting, 2D representations may illustrate profits over time or calls over time. In network systems logs, connections over time or downtime over time are commonly represented as 2D graphs. 3D three-dimensional. Existing or described in three spatial dimensions or in tenns of three selected realms of data or time. A Cartesian coordinate system can graphically represent three dimensions but often does so in two-dimensional spatial conventions that use an illusion of 'stretching into space' in the Z (third) di- mension. A photograph is a representation ofspatial relationships in two dimensions whereas a sculpture is a representation of spatial relationships in three dimensions. In graphical representations and statis- tical reports, time is often one of three dimensions represented. For example, an accounting log may track new versus established employees' sales over a period of three months. Thus, employee status is treated as one dimension, the number of sales as the second, and time as the third. In telecommunications, one of the most ~ignificant developments is in the representation ofthree-dimen- sional space through graphical rendering orray-trac- ing or through NCR-type controller systems that can translate three-dimensional data into physical struc- tures. This opens up a new world of communications. It becomes feasible, given enough speed and re- sources, to model a sculpture remotely. One artist may supply the coordinates (or a model) in one location and another may 'render' the sculpture with, for ex- ample, a milling machine, in another location, per- haps thousands of miles away. Thus, a metalwork- ing shop in the U.S. could conceivably craft a new tool in a remotely controlled milling machine in a rural region in Africa. A physician in Canada could remotely carry out a liver operation on a patient in Germany. An engineer could remotely control a re- pair robot on a space station or space probe, without leaving Earth. Once the 3D world can be represented by data that can be instantly transmitted over great distances, a whole new world of telecommunications applications becomes possible. 3G Wireless Third generation wireless systems for telecommunications services through radio technolo- gies as described by global telecommunications trade associations and standards bodies, and the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). This category encompasses a wide variety of mobile systems that may be linked into terrestrial or satellite-based com- munications relays and implies a general overall com- patibility with existing and emerging systems. For FCC administrative purposes these systems are con- sidered to be capable ofsupporting high bit-rate cir- cuit and packet data transmissions with GPS and roaming capabilities with a reasonable degree of interoperability and standardization. In an October 2000 U.S. Presidential Memorandum the Secretary of Commerce was directed to work with the FCC to develop aplan for the administration of radio spectrum frequencies for third generation wire- less systems so that spectrum frequencies could be allocated in 2001 with licenses auctioned by 2002. The 2500- to 2690- and 1755- to 2690-MHz frequency 1045 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary bands were pinpointed for feasibility studies. Regu- lations arising from these studies can impact exist- ing services (cell phones, PCS, etc.) if reallocation of bandwidth is recommended. Final reports of dis- cussions between the FCC and the NTIA came online in spring 2001. http://www.fcc.gov/3G/ Microprocessors I A processor used in AT &T electronic switching sys- tems, developed by Western Electric in the 1960s. See lA. IA A processor used in AT&T electronic switching systems (ESSs), developed by Western Electric in the 1970s as a successor to the 1 processor. In ESS lA (a.k.a. No.1AESS), a commonly-used elec- tronic switching system, the lA processor provides maintenance and administrative support and inter- faces with the central control. For readouts ofoper- ating and maintenance data, the 1A also can be inter- faced with operator terminals for receiving instruc- tions and outputting status information. Control pan- els may be further used for lA input/output. The No.4ESS digital toll switch also uses this pro- cessor. 4004 An early 4-bit central processing unit (CPU) from Intel as part of the MCS-4 chipset released in 1969. See Intel, MCS-4. 68000, MC68000 A 32-bit central processing unit commonly used in Amiga, Macintosh, and other com- puters, the first in a series by Motorola. See Motorola. 8008 A historic 8-bit central processing unit (CPU) from Intel, released as asuccessor to the 4004 as part of the MCS-8 chipset in 1972. The historic Altair computer was based on this processor. See Altair, Intel. 8080 An 8-bit central processing unit (CPU) released by Intel in 1974. RAM addressing was limited to 64 kilobytes. It was incorporated into a number of early microcomputers including the first model released by International Business Machines (IBM) in 1980. 8086 Asuccessor to the 8080, the 8086 was an Intel 16-bit central processing unit (CPU). It could address I Mbyte of RAM. This chip was quickly incorporated into new versions of the IBM computers and was also used by manufacturers licensing IBM technology in competition with IBM. See Intel and Motorola for charts of other numbered microprocessors. See also listings under Intel and Motorola. Publications 2001 Fiberoptic Undersea Systems Summary A market research summary and CD-ROM database published by KMI Corporation. It includes an over- view of the submarine fiber optics industry, along with information on mergers, acquisitions, new sys- tem developments, installation cost analyses, maps and profiles of fiber optics systems, and regional ac- tivities. See KMI Corporation. 2001 Update to Worldwide Markets forDense Wave- length-Division Multiplexing A market report on DWDM systems worldwide published by KMI Cor- poration, completed in November 2000. The report 1046 describes cyclic trends in the industry and predicts growth and flat periods based upon trends to date. See KMI Corporation. Telephone Prefix Calling Numbers/Services 0345 A 'shared tariff' telephone prefix and service offered by British Telecom to enable callers to pay local call rates no matter where the physical location of the number may be within the area covered by the company offering the service, e.g., within the U.K. This can provide businesses with a way to give in- formation to callers responding to a marketing cam- paign, for example, in such a way that the caller bears part of the cost and thus will probably not call out of idle curiosity alone. It is an alternative to a 0800 num- ber where the callee bears the full cost of the call. 0500 A reverse charge telephone service introduced by Mercury in the U.K. in 1992 that is similar to the British Telecom (BT) 0800 service. See 0800. 0645 A 'shared tariff' telephone service introduced by Mercury in the U.K. that is similar to the British Telecom (BT) 0345 service. See 0345. 070 AEuropean national telephone services provid- ing a subscriber (typically abusiness) with aportable number at which they can be reached from any call- ing location in the country. The caller pays for the call, based upon National Call rates. This is especially useful when a business moves, as directory listings, stationery, and other business identifiers don't have to be changed to reflect a new number. 0800 A European 'FreePhone' service offered by WorldCom, Global Carrier Services, and others, simi- lartoNorthAmerican 800 service, that makes it pos- sible for callers to call the 0800-prefIXed number free of charge, with the company holding the 0800 num- ber bearing the cost. It's essentially a 'collect' or 're- versed charge' call that is put through directly as a continuing service, without going through operators or authorization to accept the call. Golden 0800 num- bers are those that are inherently easy to remember (e.g., 0800 555 0000) or that correspond to a mne- monic (e.g., 0800 callnow). Most phone companies charge apremium for golden numbers but sometimes you get lucky. See 0345, 800. 0990 A national pay telephone service number pre- fix and telephone service offered in the U.K. by Brit- ish Telecom (BT). It is similar to U.S. 900-prefix ser- vices that are typically billed by the minute. 0990 numbers are used for dating services, psychic-style services, and sex services. Not all businesses using these numbers are ethical. They are required to play a recording to infonn customers that they are being billed, but some 'neglect' this requirement. Some keep the caller on the line for a long time by asking personal questions or chatting, in order to increase the call duration and hence the charges. It is possible to make 0990 services accessible from Internet phone gateways (almost 1/3 of the call lines are accessed this way in the U.K.) and, once again, the vendor is required to inform the caller that they are being billed 0990 rates. Due to problems with enforcing ethical and legal 0990 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC services, in 2000 Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) reduced the maximum charges a vendor could accumulate for each 0990 call. 155 In the U.K., the British Telecom (BT) code for connecting with an international operator. 555-1212 In the U.S., a dialing sequence for contact- ing the Directory Assistance service (formerly the Information service) for obtaining long-distance pub- licly listed telephone numbers. It is useful for obtain- ing new numbers that may not yet be listed, or num- bers published elsewhere geographically. Prior to the mid-1960s, the dialing code for Information was 113. Most North American telephone exchanges use this number as a standard. See 555-1212. 611 A telephone dialing code for contacting telephone maintenance and repair services to request assistance with telephone services and equipment. Unlike ser- vices prior to the mid-1960s, 611 numbers were used through a transitional period during which the phone company's monopoly was challenged and subscrib- ers began to select their own telephone equipment from third-party vendors and eventually were permit- ted to install or modify the line extending from the phone company's line attachment point into the pre- mises (depending upon the service and region). Thus, repair services didn't just schedule the repair any more, they would query the 611 caller about the na- ture of the problem and try to guess whether it was being caused by the phone company's line or service or the subscriber's line and equipment. If it was sus- pected that the problem was with subscriber equip- ment, the phone company would warn the subscriber about minimum and hourly charges and then confirm whether they still wanted to call in a repair person. This was more complicated than previous procedures but not nearly as complicated as what happened a couple of decades later with further deregulation and burgeoning carriers and phone services. 800 A service in which calls are billed to the receiver. 800 numbers are widely used by businesses to encour- age potential buyers to contact the company through a toll-free 800 number (or 888 number) without con- cern about long distances charges. These services are sometimes used internally, through an unpublicized 800 number for traveling employees to contact their main office or branch. When 800 began to be in short supply, 888 and 877 prefixes/services were added to extend the available numbers. See 0800. 800 Service Management System (SMS/800) Functions A Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Tariff document published by the Bell Oper- ating Companies (BOCs) to describe the regulations, rates, and charges applicable to the provision ofSMS/ 800 functions and support services through intelligent telephone networks. See SMS/800. 877/877/866/855/844/833/822 To 11- free calling ser- vice prefixes that were developed to extend the avail- ability of 800 numbers when 800 numbers assign- ments were nearing capacity. These numbers are se- quentially opened as needed. See 800. 900/976A set of numbers billed to the caller through a rate determined by the callee. 900 services are used by information brokers, public opinion pollers, advice counsellors, astrologers, other prognosticators, and by vendors offering phone sex. Charges for 900 calls usually range from $1.95 to $4.95 per minute. These calls are not only somewhat expensive, but some of the less scrupulous 900 vendors will keep the caller on the line longer by asking him or her many personal questions at the beginning of the call. It's not unusual for the average call to be around $25 and often they are much more. Because of the abuse or overuse of900 numbers, subscribers demanded a way to disable 900 calling and this is now provided by the phone companies. This is mainly to curtail calls by children, 900-addicts, and 900 calls by unauthorized callers using a phone without permission. See 0900. 911 callingA telephony service designed to expedite connections to emergency services such as medical services, law enforcement, and fire departments. By dialing only three easy-to-remember digits, subscrib- ers can more easily get help when needed. This con- cept was first introduced in the 1970s. The calls are connected quickly to a Public Safety Answering Point (PSAP) where a trained emergency dispatcher records the call, determines the origin and nature of the call, responds to the caller, and dispatches services as needed. 1571 In the U.K., the British Telecom (BT) standard telephone message retrieval number. 1660 In the U.K., the British Telecom (BT) World- com access number. Telephone Quick-Dial Numbers 112 In Europe, the British Telecom (BT) standard emergency telephone number. The number 17099 is an alternate emergency code. See 911. 113 Historically, in the U.S., a telephone dialing se- quence for contacting Information Services, a service that aided subscribers in getting publicly listed phone numbers that were not in the current directory (e.g., new numbers). In the mid-1960s, in North America this code was changed to 411. There are other coun- tries where the use of 113 has been retained. For ex- ample, in Copenhagen, it is used for overseas direc- tory inquiries. See 411. 114 Historically, in the U.S., a telephone dialing se- quence for contacting telephone maintenance and repair services. If you had trouble with your line, you called 114. Since most people had only one phone in those days, you usually went next door to dial from your neighbor's phone while sitting down for a cup of coffee and a chat. The repair people would sched- ule a visit and repair the problem. It was a simpler process in those days. Not only was the telephone net- work far more homogenous than now, but the phone company owned the line and the equipment right up to the phone itself and thus could standardize hard- ware and procedures for making repairs. In the mid- I 960s, the dial sequence was changed to 611 and now local phone companies have a variety of numbers to dial for repair services. See 611. 411 In telephony, a short dialing sequence for con- tacting the Directory Assistance service (formerly the 1047 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary Information service) for obtaining publicly listed telephone numbers that may not be listed in the local directory (or which the caller couldn't find in the lo- cal directory). It is useful for obtaining new numbers that may not yet be listed, or numbers published else- where geographically. Prior to the mid-1960s, the dialing code for Infonnation was 113. Historically, in some areas the service was free, but it became a pay service charged by the call. More recently, some phone companies offer bundled services that pennit up to a specified number of Directory Assistance calls per time period (e.g., per week or month). Most North American telephone exchanges use this number as a standard. Until 200 I, in most areas, a caller could request two numbers for about $.40 but deregulation resulted in increases of up to $1.99 for a single number, depend- ing upon the service provider. (Some carriers still permit two or three calls free per month per sub- scriber.) As charges rise, it is likely that people will migrate to CD-ROM directories and Web-based di- rectory services such as InfoSpace and Switchboard. See 555-1212. Telegraph and Radio 1A short telegraphic shortcut numeric code to express "Wait a moment," "Give me a second," or "Hold on." See 73 for the background to numeric codes. "10-4" radio signal codes Numeric codes used by police departments to describe a situation in short- hand. For example, 11 might mean a burglary, while 34 could signal a suicide. These codes are regional and specific to their industries. In California, for ex- ample, a 10-4 patrol code indicates message received, while 10-15 signals a prisoner in custody, and 10-33 is an alarm or indication of an officer needing help. Radio codes are also used by the rail industry for cross-country trains and subway trains. For example, in the New York City Transit system radio code sig- nal system, 12-6 signals a derailment and 12-12 in- dicates disorderly passengers. Codes are usually used for brevity and consistency, but may also be used to provide a small amount of security. See "Code 3" radio communications codes. 13 A shortcut telegraphic numeric code for "I don't understand." See 73. 30 A short telegraphic shortcut numeric code to ex- press the end ofa communication, thus "Done," "F in- ished." See 73. 73 A number in a telegraph numeric 'shortcut' code dating back to at least the mid-1800s. The number 73 was an abbreviated means of representing vari- ous sentimental, amorous, and fraternal greetings, de- pending upon the time, place, and operator. It was similar to the greeting at the end of a letter written by someone familiar with or fond of the addressee. There is a reference in an 1857 issue of the National Tel~¥,aphic Review and Operator s Guide that lists "73' as a numeric shortkey code. Apparently, a com- mittee was established at a convention in 1859 to as- 1048 sign meanings to the numbers from 1 to 92, so this may have been the original impetus for more broad use of standardized numeric codes. Some have attributed the origin of 73 and other nu- meric shortcuts to Phillips shortcode, but Walter Polk Phillips didn't publish his code until 1879 and the Phillips code emphasized alphabetic rather than nu- meric relationships. Thus, while his contribution was substantial and influential, especially in the news in- dustry, Phillips didn't create an entirely new code; his contribution was to expand, consolidate, and revise existing code practices. So, it appears 73 was likely in use before the Phillips code was developed. Whatever their origin, certain of the numeric shortcodes became widely used and still retain their original meanings, while many have fallen into dis- use and some have mutated in meaning. The railroad still uses some of the code numbers for train-related orders. See Q signal, Z code. 73 key A somewhat unique-looking, historic, palm- sized telegraph key intended to be portable and thus covered with a squarish metal housing with the user parts protruding from two sides. The number 73 was printed on the top of the covers, probably a tongue- in-cheek reference to the number 73 shortcode used in telegraphy to convey greetings or intimate best wishes. The key was distributed and labeled by the Ultimate Transmitter Company, Los Angeles. 73 Magazine A magazine of interest to telegraphers and amateur radio operators originated by Wayne Green and associates in 1960. Topics ranged from hobby projects, to in-depth looks at telegraph keys, to amateur radio enthusiasms, to the history of sub- marine cable communications, and there were even some parody issues. Probably not coincidentally, early issues sold for 37 cents each. In the mid-1970s, controversy over the content of the magazine provoked Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co. to file suit against 73, Inc., due to their concerns that the infonnation provided might make it easy for readers to find ways to avoid phone charges. Given that this was right around the time that 'blue boxing' was beginning to spread, the concerns may have been based on actual phone service thefts. Wayne Green went on to found other magazines, notably 80 Microcomputing, which attracted much of the same audience that had been interested in amateur radio and telegraphy prior to the development of personal com- puters. "Code 3" radio communication codes A system of numeric codes used by police departments as a short- hand for describing a situation to dispatchers and other officers within radio contact. For example, Code 3 might indicate emergency lights and sirens. In Dal- las, Code 5 is shorthand for officer en route to a scene while in California, it signifies a stakeout. In the Dal- las Police Department, Code lOX is shorthand for a stolen vehicle. These are usually prefaced with the word "Code" to distinguish them from similar nu- meric radio signal codes. See"1 0-4" radio signal codes. © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Appendices A. Fiber Optics Timeline . 10~0 B. Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) 1052 C. lTV -T Series Recommendations 1055 D. List of World Wide Web Search Engines 1056 E. List of Intemet Domain Name Extensions 1057 F. Short List of Request for Comments (RFC) 1059 G. National Associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1062 H. Dial Equivalents, Radio Alphabet, Morse Code, Metric PrefixesNalues 1066 I. ASCII Character and Control Codes 1067 1049 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary Appendix A Fiber Optics Timeline Essential Concepts and Evolution of Fiber Optic Technologies 1879 1891 1795 1866 1700s 1775 1872 1874 1876 1878 1800 1800s 1807 1819 1820 -1650 B.C. Ahmose transcribes Egyptian mathematics, which include fractions. -670 B.C. Thales engages in abstract and deductive mathematics and investigates magnetism. -500 B.C. Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans make important contributions to mathematics and the study of sound frequency relationships. -260 B.C. Archimedes establishes many important, basic principles of physics. -800 The concept of zero is used in mathematics in Asia. -140 Ptolemy describes the interaction of light and matter, which was referred to in Arab texts. 1200s L.P. Fibonacci authors LiberAbaci (Book of the Abacus) in which he promotes the use of Arabic numerals and positional notation. 15/1600s Galileo Galilei makes important observations of the laws of physics, especially of gravity and bodies in motion. late 1600s Sir Isaac Newton makes important observations about basic physical laws, now widely known as Newtonian physics or classical physics. These highly significant discoveries form the basis of modem physics. He observes Newton's rings but doesn't fully appreciate their significance. 1676 Ole (Olaf) RiJhmer calculates the velocity oflight as a constant 227,000 kilometers/second. 1669 Rasmus Bartholin receives apiece of Iceland spar and describes double refraction. mid-1700s Benjamin Franklin conducts numerous experiments with electricity, inspires other scientists, and coins many terms associated with the emerging science. Luigi Galvani studies electromagnetism in living tissue and galvanometer is developed. Alessandro Volta invents the electrophorus, the basis of subsequent electrical condensers, replacing the Leyden jar as an energy storage capacitor. F. Salva i Campillo describes a system for an electric telegraph, which he was finally able to construct, in 1804, by incorporating Alessandro Volta's ca. 1800 invention of the voltaic pile. Alessandro Volta invents the voltaic pile, apioneer wet cell, forerunner to capacitors. F. W. Herschel discovers infrared light and J. W. Ritter discovers ultraviolet light. lB. Fourier announces Fourier's theorem, which forms the basis for Fourier transforms, now widely used as analytical tools in mathematics and for analyzing/recomposing waves. Humphry Davy uses battery power to separate out and discover potassium and, about a decade later, invents an arc lamp (arc lamps were also invented by others). H.C. 0rsted demonstrates the relationship ofelectricity and magnetism. A.M. Ampere studies the mathematical characteristics of electromagnetism and announces the right-hand rule. Charles Babbage develops important historic models for 'different engines.' J.N. Niepce develops a primitive type of photography, the forerunner of optical recording. Charles Babbage develops the concept of an 'analytical engine.' Technology has not yet devel- oped to the point where his ideas can be fully carried out, but the design concepts are sound. D J. Colladon demonstrates that a curved jet of water can guide light. The laying of the fust transatlantic telegraph cable. It only lasted a few days. Thomas Young describes and demonstrates wave properties of light. John Tyndall duplicates Colladon's light-guiding principles. The first transcontinental telegraph line is built in arecord four months. At the line's completion in October, the Pony Express ceased operations. P. Reis demonstrates the transmission of tones through wire. See telephone history. The laying of the first successful installation ofatransatlantic telegraph cable, thus revolutioniz- ing communications. Previously, sea voyages of two or three months were necessary to 'trans- mit' overseas messages. A. Loomis demonstrates essential basics ofwireless radio wave transmissions. James Clerk-Maxwell publishes an important paper on electromagnetic wave theories. Elisha Gray submits a caveat to the U.S. patent office after Alexander Graham Bell submits a patent for the 'harmonic telegraph,' the forerunner to the telephone. A. Graham Bell reports having spoken intelligibly over wires to his assistant, Watson. Public telephones make their commercial debut in Connecticut. The first telephone exchange is established in London. American Telephone & Telegraph is founded based on the technology in the Bell patents, later to be known as AT&T. The telephone infrastructure is gradually put in place. Almon B. Strowger invents the automatic telephone switching system so subscribers can dial the desired number, rather than depending upon a human operator to connect a call. 1822 1826 1834 1841 1848 1850s 1854 1861 1050 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Appendix A Essential Concepts and Evolution of Fiber Optic Technologies, cont. 1904 1947 1949 1980s 1880 Bell and Tainter invent the Photophone, communication through light. 1880s Charles Vernon Boys uses quartz fibers to study values for the gravitational constant. 1900 Max Planck states quantum theory and Planck's constant is expressed. 1900s Einstein builds upon the quantum theory foundation established by Planck and describes the par- ticle nature oflight and the photoelectric effect. Fleming releases the two-element Fleming tube, which leads to de Forest's development of the three-element tube, the Audion. Lee de Forest invents the Audion leading to the evolution of three or more element vacuum tubes that revolutionize the electronics industry. R. A. Fessenden broadcasts the frrst voice and music broadcasts, using an Alexanderson alternator to supply the power. Albert Einstein publishes a paper on the special theory of relativity. Bell Laboratories begins transmitting picture phone images. Various types of facsimile transmissions are implemented by different inventors. John Logie Baird carries out pioneer television broadcasting experiments. Hansell works with Baird and investigates the use of fiber for transmitting broadcast images. Scheduled television broadcasts are begun by station WGY in New York state. Bell Laboratories develops pioneer color television technologies. V. Bush's idea for a difference analyzer is constructed at the Massachusetts Institute of Techno 1- ogy(MIT). H. Lamm creates an aligned bundle of optical fibers but distance was limited. Konrad Zuse applies for apatent for 'mechanical memory' in connection with his historic calcu- lating computer devices. John Atanasoff conceives the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). Howard Aiken teams up with mM to produce the Harvard Mark 1, which became operational six years later. Bell Laboratories scientists invent the transistor. The age of vacuum tube calculators and com- puting machines nears an end as the solid-state electronics age is born. Edmund C. Berkeley authors Giant Brains or Machines That Think describing the construction ofa 'personal computer.' He designed and built Simon, GENIAC, and many robots. Hansen, van Heel, Hopkins, Hirschowitz, Curtiss, Kapani, 0 'Brien, and Hicks, and others de- velop lightguides leading to more practical optical fibers. Scientists Dicke, Townes, Schawlow, and others develop laser technology. See laser history. Bell Telephone demonstrates Picturephone technology to the Institute of Radio Engineers. The Russian Sputnik communications satellite is launched into orbit. The capabilities of fibers and lasers come together and now the industry rocks and rolls with Werts, Kao, Roberts, Shaver, and others developing practical embodiments of fiber lightguides. The earliest desktop computers predating the Altair begin to emerge but don't sell well. The concept and design of the ARPANET are born. The ARPANET is put into operation. Coming is at the forefront of many of the new fiber fabrication and commercial technologies. Bell Labs creates fiber processes and improves the speed and distance capabilities offibet Many private and university labs become involved in fiber optics R&D. The Canadian ANIK satellite becomes the first domestic television broadcast communications. The Altair becomes the first desktop computer to be commercially successful, launching the mi- crocomputer age. IMSAI, Apple, TRS-80, and other computers follow in rapid succession. The evolution of lasers, fiber lightguides and more powerful compact computers makes it pos- sible to develop cost-effective light-based telephone and data communications networks. Fiber doping research and applications are developed to improve fiber conducting properties. Fiber-based transatlantic cables are installed and the phone system begins to evolve into fiber for backbone trunk lines. T. Berners-Lee develops Enquire hyptertext system. The ARPANET is split into Milnet and ARPANET, the precursor to the Internet. T. Berners-Lee develops a Web browser, the World Wide Web is born. Everyone gets online. The ARPANET is officially discontinued as the Internet is born. Fiber begins to become an important aspect ofcomputer networks, with protocols and faster/ longer technologies developed. Speed and distance barriers are overcome almost monthly. Federico Capasso et al. make significant contributions to quantum well theory/applications. Lene Hau, a Harvard physicist, stops light and releases it again at full energy. Fiber begins to reach the curb and local area networks begin deploying fiber. Fiber has arrived. 1905 1920s 1937 1937 1972 1974 1930 1936 1967 1969 1970s 1950s 1950s 1956 1957 1960s 1927 1928 1930 1980 1983 1989 1990 1990s 1999 2000s 1051 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC . Networks, Sun Mi- crosystems, and World Wide Packets. http://www.1 Ogea.org/ 1043 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary lOOBase-T A baseband signaling networking stan- dard supporting. stream is divided into three 33-Mbps streams with the 4th twisted pair used for error mechanisms. Half-duplex transmission. 100Base-FX dual-strandedfiber optics Segments may be up to 412 meters. lOOBaseVG-AnyLAN A. and is similar to 1 OOBASE-FX, with the same signal encod- ing structure. lOOBASE-SX differs from 100BASE-FX in that it uses lower cost 850-nm optics, has a local distance of 300+ meters, and does Ethernet Standards -