Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary - Part 50 doc

Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary Certification Consortium (ISC2), offering comprehensive certification for information security profession- als. http://www.issa.org/ Information Technology Association of America ITAA. A trade association representing the u.s. information technology (IT) industry. The ITAA responds to developments in governmental and international IT policy, promotes the interests of its members, and participates with other organizations in developing Internet policies. http://www.itaa.org/ Information Technology Association of Canada ITAC. A trade organization supporting Canadian information technology providers, ITAC identifies and focuses on issues affecting the IT industry and advo- cates initiatives promoting its growth and development. http://www.itac.ca/ Information Technology Industry Council ITI, ITIC. Formerly CBEMA, the Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association, ITIC is a trade organization representing leading U.S. providers of information technology (IT) products and services. It includes well-known vendors such as 3Com, Amazon.com, Apple, Computer, Inc., Cisco Systems, Inc., Hewlett-Packard Company, mM Corporation, and many more well-known finns. ITIC produces an industry Data Book with statistical information on computers and telecommunications equipment and services. See Information Security Exploratory Com- mittee. http://www.itic.org/ Information Technology Research Center ITRC. There are many research centers operating under this name (or slight variations of the name), so only examples are listed in the Information Technology Re- search Centers chart, but since most of them are directly concerned with advancements in telecommunications technologies, this selection gives an overview of some of the Information Technology (IT) centers accessible on the Web, along with their goals, and their geographic distribution. information theory The pioneer studies in queuing theory were developed and described by A.K. Erlang, a Danish engineer, in the early 1900s. Information theory, an evolutionary cousin to queuing theory, is a field of inquiry and mathematical modeling that was largely developed and disseminated by Claude E. Shannon while working at Bell Laboratories in 1948. Shannon took a theoretical, mathematical look at information, in terms of not only its content and structure, but also its source and purpose. Thus, signals and their frequencies, bandwidths, physical components, and electromagnetic characteristics were set in the broader framework of information and its human sources. This provided a broader view of communications and groundwork for more specific measures and descriptors of content and capacity that have real world usefulness. Information theory can be used to develop more objective system evaluation tools, compression techniques, and practical applications such as voice-over IP systems. See erlang, queuing theory. InfoWattA new electrical conductor technology that includes a fiber optics transmission cable in its core. This new conductor was intended to solve the prob- lem of getting generated power more efficiently to consumers to alleviate existing distribution bottle- necks and, since fiber optics are not affected by electrical current in the same way as other electrical wires, a fiber optic conductor can be bundled into the cable in an electrically neutral core, saving space and opening up new opportunities for communications network delivery. The cable consists ofa fiber optic core, a surrounding layer of thermoplastic composite strength members, and an outer wrapping of conductive aluminum. The structural components are non- conducting thermoplastic composite materials. Test- ing is undetway and initial deployment is expected around 2003. InfoWatt was developed by W. Brandt Goldsworthy & Associates, Inc. infrared Electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths which, in terms of frequencies, fall between the red part of the visible spectrum and radio waves. Although it cannot be seen by humans, infrared radiation is of commercial importance in remote sensing systems, remote control devices, video game consoles, and fiber optic transmissions. It is also being exploited for local area wireless networks (LAWNs). Infrared serial data link standards are being adapted by a number of manufacturers. Infrared technology can be used to detect differences in heat and, conse- quently, movement of bodies emitting heat. Infrared detectors are used in many industries including electronics, construction (structural fault detection, heating, and insulation testing), and medical imaging. Infrared film is used in specialized photographic ap- IrDA Network Protocol Layers Layer/Protocol Notes IrLMP A mandatory link management protocol which manages resources and services and higher-level protocols which are made available to other devices. IrLMP sets up and maintains multiple connections. IrLAP layer Link establishment, maintenance, and termination. Similar to the half-duplex link control (HDLC) protocol. physical layer Provides point-to-point connections and communications between devices with cordless/wireless serial infrared half-duplex links. 482 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC plications. See Infrared Serial Data Link, snooper- scope, ultraviolet. InfraredCommunicationSystems StudyCommit- tee ICSC. A research committee of the Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB), studying and promoting awareness and use of infrared communications systems. Centered in Tokyo, Japan. Infrared Data Association IrDA. An organization established in 1993 to support and promote software and hardware standards for cordless/wireless infrared communications links. IrDA is headquartered in California. Infrared can be used with remote controls to control various consumer electronics devices and can also be used for data transmission between devices such as laptops, desktop computers, and peripherals. See Infrared Data Association Protocol. Infrared DataAssociation Protocol IrDA Protocol. A multilayered networking structure from IrDA for defining hardware and software needs for infrared network communications. The IrDA protocol stack covers physical transfer of information, guidelines for link access, and link management. The layers are briefly described in the IrDA Network Protocol Lay- ers chart. Infrared LinkAccess Protocol IrLAP. A serial link access protocol from IrDA which provides three types of connectionless services and six types ofconnec- tion-oriented services with four types of service primitives. IrLAP provides discovery, address con- flict, and unit data services over connectionless services and connect, sniffing, data, status, reset, and disconnect services or connection-oriented services. IrLAP is primary-secondary or primary-multiple sta- tion oriented. The IrLAP layer is intended to facilitate interconnection of computers and peripherals over a directed half- duplex medium provided through the physical layer. IrLAP stations can be operated in Normal Response Mode (NRM) or Normal Disconnect Mode (NOM), which correspond to connection state and contention state. IrLAP data and control are frame-oriented, with a frame including an address, a control field for de- termining frame content, and an optional information field. infrastructure The structural underpinning or base that supports the other physical/conceptual layers and components associated with a system. InGaAsN See indium gallium arsenide nitride. INGECEP See Integrated Next Generation Elec- tronic Commerce Environment Project. ingress 1. Entrance, point of entry, way in, opening, doolWay. 2. In Frame Relay networks, frames that are entering toward the Frame Relay from an access device. The opposite of egress. initial address message lAM. In Signaling System 7 (SS7) networks, a signaling message sent in the fOlWard direction that initiates seizure ofa circuit, and provides address and routing information for the connection of the requested call. See Signaling System 7. InitialDefense Communications SatelliteProgram IDCSP. A project of the u.S. military, IDCSP first launched three satellites in 1967. They included X- band transponders in the 26-MHz bandwidth, and supported experimental terminals for evaluating images, voices, digital data, and teletype channels using a variety of modulation schemes. The IDCSPwas designed to shut down after five years of useful life. InitialMAC ProtocolData Unit IMPDU. In packet- switched networking, the IMPDU encodes Media Access Control (MAC) Service Data Unit information. A number of MAC Protocol Data Units (pDU s) are derived from the segmentation of the IMPDU. See Media Access Control, Protocol Data Unit. initial program load IPL. The bootstrapping of a system in that the operating system is loaded up first to make it possible to bring the other hardware and software systems online (monitors, disk drives, interface applications, etc.). Some systems provide a means to "soft boot" a machine (reloading the initialization software and OS without turning the power off and on again). Many systems will now allow the user to set the device from which the computer will boot, especially if the computer has several possible boot devices such as hard drives, CD-ROM drives, and floppy diskette drives. At the present time, most systems have mini- mal startup programs stored in ROM chips and then default to boot the rest of the initialization of the OS from hard drives. They will typically seek operating system software on other devices if it is not found on the default drive and may be set to boot from a CD- ROM or diskette first (rather than the hard drive) ifa disc/diskette is present. In a more specific sense, this same bootstrapping process occurs with many computer subsystems. For example, there may be components or peripherals associated with a computer system that store initial parameters in ROM chips or on other storage devices that make it possible to bring the rest of the device's capabilities online. Initial Public Offering IPO. A Securities Commis- sion government-regulated mechanism for a company to offer a variety of types of shares (usually common and preferred stock) to the general public. There are a number of categories of public offerings, both state and federal, with levels of restrictions and guidelines depending upon the amount of investment sought. Telecommunications and biotech are two of the hot areas of recent years, and some high-profile stock offerings have been carried out in the technology industry, one of the most visible being Netscape Communications, developers of Web browsers/serv- ers and other applications. injection laser diode !LD. See laser diode. inkjet printing An inexpensive color printing process in which inks from a series of ink ''wells' are fired through a tiny opening called a nozzle. The fir- ing is accomplished through heating the ink cham- bers to a high temperature so a vapor bubble is formed, which rapidly ejects the ink through the end of the nozzle onto the printing medium, where it cools and adheres. See dye sublimation printing, thermal wax printing. 483 ·,·····:.'.'.:I1·.~,·· I. \~f: ~~~,' , © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary InmarsatJllternational Maritime Satellite Organiza- tion. Originally an international cooperative agency established in 1979, Inmarsat was then slated for privatization for I January 1999. It launched in 1992 and has provided global mobile satellite communications services (voice, data, facsimile), especially maritime services, since 1993. Inmarsat now serves over 80 member countries. Inmarsat has a system offour geostationary satellites orbiting at 35,786 Ian using frequency division multiple access (FDMA). It provides transportation communications and Internet connect services. Five more are scheduled to be launched by the end of the cen- tury. Twelve medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites are also planned. Customers purchase services from avariety of packages depending upon whether they need phone, facsimile, Internet, emergency services, telemedicine, etc. The ICONET satellite system is a spin-off ofInmar- sat communications services, originally known as Project 21. See Inmarsat Service Categories chart. See ICO Global Communications. http://www.inmarsat.orgl INN I. See InterNet News. 2. InterNode Network. INP See Interim Number Portability. InPerson A consumer-priced SGl-based videoconferencing system supporting video, audio, white- boarding, and file transfers over analog phone lines and Ethernet networks. Video encoding is accomplished through HDCC compression developed in- house at Silicon Graphics with several audio compression formats. input Information, in the form ofa communication or signal, provided to a person, system, or circuit. Computer software input mechanisms include graphi- cal user interfaces, shell windows, buttons, icons, dia- log boxes, etc. Computer hardware input mechanisms include keyboards, mice, trackballs, touchscreens, joysticks, video cameras, and microphones. The input device on a telephone is relatively simple: a small speakerphone or diaphragm (microphone) in the telephone handset. input device illev (ill is sometimes used but may be confused with identification). An interface device for receiving and transmitting information from an input source (frequently human) to aprocessing system or remote location, usually a computing machine or electromechanical device. The input sensor and the transmissions unit are often housed together (e.g., telephone). There are a great variety of input devices including keyboards, mice, joysticks, light pens, touch screens, microphones (especially with speech recognition systems), infrared sensors, video cams, etc. The invention ofthe mouse, one of the most common computer input devices, is attributed to Doug Engelbart in the 1960s. Many of the input devices in common use today were pioneered by Ivan Suther- land in the early 1960s. See individual input devices. INSPEC The world's largest English-language bib- liographic database in physics, computing, and electronics. INSPEC evolved from Science Abstracts, which was first published in January 1898. The da- 484 tabase regularly catalogs the contents of over 4000 technology journals, in addition to conference pro- ceedings and other relevant literature. It currently holds more than 6 million records. See Institution of Electrical Engineers. Institute for Advanced Commerce IAC. An IBM forum for studying fundamental aspects and trends in business. Through academic partnerships and con- ferences, the Institute tracks business and market characteristics with the goal of creating long-term corporate solutions. An important focus ofadvanced commerce is the application of computer and communications technologies, collectively known as e- commerce. Institute for Telecommunication Sciences ITS. The applied research division of the U.S. National Tele- communications and Information Administration (NTIA). The ITS develops, tests, evaluates, and promotes advanced communications networks and do- mestic standards through its Boulder, Colorado, fa- cility. Institute of Radio Engineers IRE. The IRE was a historic professional organization formed as a result of the merger of the Society of Wireless Telegraph Engineers (SWTE) and The Wireless Institute in 1912, in order to establish and promote an international orientation for the consolidated organization. It served as a standards body, in cooperation with the U.S. federal government, and aprofessional support group for its members and the radio community at large. See American Institute ofElectrical Engineers, IEEE. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc. See IEEE. Institution of Electrical Engineers lEE. A U.K based professional engineering society founded in 1871 that now has almost 140,000 members worldwide. The LEE supports and promotes advancements in electrical, electronic, and manufacturing sciences and engineering and provides publications, historical archives, research databases, exhibitions, and educational activities for its membership and, in some cases, for the general public. LEE prod~ces the INSPEC engineering science database. See INSPEC. http://www.iee.org.uk/ Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Soci- ety ISA. Astandards-setting, international, nonprofit, professional society supporting instrumentation and systems engineers in more than 100 countries. ISA provides a number ofpublications and awards relat- ing to the fields ofinstrumentation and automation, as well as certification resources. http://www.isa.orgl Insulated Cable EngineersAssociation, Inc. ICEA. Anot-for-profit professional trade association dedicated to developing cable standards for the various control, power, and telecommunications industries, founded in 1925. ICEA generates documents of interest to cable designers, manufacturers, and vendors. http://www.icea.netl· insulated wire Conductive wire that has been coated, sealed, rubberized, clad, sheathed, or otherwise cov- ered or processed to protect it from electrical leak- © 2003 by CRC Press LLC age and external electromagnetic interference or corrosion. It may also be internally insulated if the wire is bundled with other wires or fabricated in layers that could interfere with one another if not separated with nonconductive materials. insulation A material or particulate environment composed of atoms that do not readily give up their electrons. This inertial property can be exploited to create industrial materials resistant to the flow of current and exchange of heat between environments with disparate temperatures. Examples of common insulating materials include rubber, glass, and porcelain, but other substances can be insulators because insulation is somewhat contextual. The Earth's atmo- sphere is an insulator, shielding the planet from ultraviolet radiation, for example. When a storm occurs and electrical charges accumulate around clouds, they may overcome the air's insulating properties and manifest as lightning. Historically, insulation was crucial to the successful installation of underwater telegraph cables, beginning in the 1800s. Gutta-percha, a rubberlike substance with excellent industrial properties for the time, made it possible to lay cables in corrosive salt environments, where attempts with other materials had failed. Insulation also made it possible to install underground telegraph and telephone wires and wires that could be used in harsh wilderness environments. In the 1930s, AT&T introduced a wire with improved insulation for telephone transmissions. There are many primary and secondary ways in which insulation is used in telecommunications, including shielding conductive materials from heat or electrical interference, • providing protection from external physical damage (erosion, corrosion, abrasion, tamper- ing), • providing protection and spacing among or between proximate or layered electromagnetic influences, • providing a surface upon which marks or colors can be imprinted to aid in installation and maintenance, and • providing protection to humans handling current-carrying wires. There are some differences between insulating wires and fiber optic bundles. Wired telecommunications typically carry one signal per wire and wire is somewhat resistant to breakage if it is bent (a 180°+ bend can often be straightened out again without breaking a wire). While several wires may be bundled together (e.g., transatlantic telegraph cables were acollection of bundled wires), wire assemblages typically don't have the high number of strands found in fiber optic cables, and tiny fiber optic strands can break or easily become separated from the assemblage at junc- tion points. Wires and optical fibers are also subject to different forms of environmental damage, result- ing in different choices for the types and thicknesses of materials used to protect them. A small gouge or scratch may not significantly alter the overall current-carrying characteristics ofa wire but can significantly impair a tiny fiber from transmitting a consistent optical signal. Insulation has to be designed to accommodate these differences and stripping tools must be suitable for removing optical fiber insulating sleeves. Further, installers must be aware of electrical shock hazards when working around current-carrying wires, which is not a prob- lem with optical fibers. Industrial insulation is used for purposes other than covering wires. It may also be used to regulate the air temperature in facilities where material temperatures or operating temperatures are important, as in supercomputing applications or fabrication plants, where the room or chamber environments are important. Insulation is further used in atomic research facilities, as in supercooled environments, for studying specialized computing functions (e.g., quantum computing). See dielectric. insulator See insulation. Utility Pole Insulators Insulators commonly sed to shedmoisture andsup- portconductive wires on utilitypoles. They were once constructed of glass (the early ones handmade), but now ceramic insulators are generally used and old glass insulators are collectibles. insulator, utility pole Historically, the fact that glass would make a good insulator was suggested by E. Cornell, who assisted Samuel Morse in installing the historic 1843 Washington, D.C to-Baltimore telegraph line. He originally proposed glass plates and later described a more knob-like design, a larger version ofwhich eventually became standard and widely used on utility poles until the 1970s. Utility pole glass insulators are thick, threaded, mug- or thermos-sized objects, in clear glass or a variety of colors, most often blue or green. A number of hand- blown insulators were created in the late 1880s. The oldest commercial mass-produced ones, originating some time in the early 1850s, lacked threads but were colored. Molding processes for creating insulators were patented in the 1870s. The Oakman beehive insulator was favored by Western Union for telegraph poles. Western Union used many thousands ofBrookfield and Hemingray insulators over the years. The move to standardize insulators occurred around 1910; clear insulators were not produced until the 1930s. Ceramic 485 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary insulators were introduced around 1908 by Locke In- sulator, in order to undercut the cost of glass insulators. Insulators were developed in many shapes and sizes, in a rainbow of gem-like hues. They provide a legacy of poetically descriptive category names such as slashtops, bat ears, eggs, beehives, and teapots. Well-known glass insulator manufacturers, like Hemingray, shut down by the mid-1960s. Historic glass and ceramic insulators are found occasionally in secondhand stores and antique auctions, and older or more interesting ones are favored by collectors and sometimes sell for hundreds of dollars. INTEGRAL International Gamma Ray Astrophys- ics Laboratory. A medium-size scientific mission se- lected in June 1993 by the European Space Agency (ESA) for the Horizon 2000 program. The ESA-Ied orbiting observatory mission is being carried out with contributions by NASA and the Russian Federation. INTEGRAL is involved in imaging and spectroscopy of celestial gamma-ray sources. Observations will be telecommunicated to ground-stations and made available to the global scientific community. IntegratedAccess Device lAD. A data communications device that provides data and voice services, usually to small- and medium-sized businesses. lADs have generally been used to provide circuit-switched services, but as of January 2001, lADs supporting migration to packet-switched IP services were being offered commercially by Cisco Systems, Inc. Integrated Broadband Communications mc. A European Community-wide system of communications capable of supporting a wide range of service providers that was emerging in the mid-1980s and whose development was formally supported in a decision of the European Community (EC) in Decem- ber 1978. It was felt by the European Council that telecommunications systems would benefit the EC's international competitiveness in general and the telecommunications sector in particular. It was also stated that a system that united rather than regionalized communications would be preferable and that common specifications were necessary but not sufficient to bring this about. The Single European Act was ex- pressed to provide a good political and legal base for developing a European-wide scientific and techno- logical strategy and industrial competitiveness in telecommunications. One of the important contributors to the development of the mc is the Research and Development in Ad- vanced Communications in Europe (RACE) program. RACE was involved in overall mc development and more specifically, the development of the Mobile Broadband System (MBS) being integrated with the mc. In 1995, at the end of its specified term, RACE evolved into Advanced Communications Technologies and Services (ACTS) to represent the third phase of IBC implementation. See Mobile Broadband System, Research in Advanced Commu- nications in Europe. Now that many of the initial steps in establishing mc have been taken, it is expected that more Europeans 486 will stay at home to work, study, and socialize over computer networks, etc., thus increasing the importance of and demands on mc. It is also expected that individuals with limited mobility can benefit from IBC and that educational, government, and health care services will be an important aspect offfiC. integrated circuit IC. A single electronic component that incorporates what would normally require many traditional electrical circuits. This enables complex, sophisticated capabilities to be bundled into tiny packages and also often increases the speed of inter- actions and processing. A computer central processing (CPU) chip is one particular type of integrated circuit; a combination of circuits and chips included on a single card, like a peripheral card, is also an ex- tension of the concept of an IC. Very large scale integration (VLSI) technology is the combination and interaction of many circuits in a combined package. In Canada, the Integrated Circuit Topography Act (1990) exists to protect registered integrated circuit designs as a form of intellectual property. Various U.S. and foreign copyright and patent laws also protect and publicly disseminate information on unique ICs. Pioneer Integrated Ciruit In 1958, JackKilby constructeda historicintegrated circuit (IC) using germanium as the semiconductor, at about the same time that R. Noyce was working on the Ie concept at FairchildSemiconductor. Kilbyscir- cuit wasprimitive bytoday sstandards, mountedon a transparent synthetic base with four wire leads pro- truding from one side, but the invention was one of the most important in electronics history, following the milestoneinventions of the triode in the early 1900s and the transistor in the 1940s. The concept for making resistors, capacitors, and other common hardware on circuit boards out ofsili- con was new in the 1950s. Engineers from the old school evolving out of decades of experience with vacuum tubes and discrete components didn't imme- diately conceive the idea of using the new semiconductor technology for modeling all (or many) aspects ofa circuit design. The earliest ICs included only a single transistor. Now, astonishingly, more than 100 million transistors can be packed into an IC. Credit for the introduction of ICs, in 1959, has long been attributed to Robert N. Noyce, a Dane who was working at Fairchild Semiconductor and who helped © 2003 by CRC Press LLC form the Intel Corporation in America. Noyce was awarded a u.s. patent in 1961. However, it appears Jack St. Clair Kilby, a Texan, is the original "Father of the IC." Kilby apparently introduced the concept in September 1958, and Texas Instruments Incorpo- rated (TI) applied for a patent on Kilby's concept a few months later. It has been reported that Kilby's patent was still being assessed as the Noyce patent was granted. In recent years, Kilby's contribution has been acknowledged and lauded and Texas Instru- ments has named a research center in his honor. His- torians generally consider the two inventors to have independently developed their ideas at about the same time. In engineering circles, the abbreviation IC is often used as a pun to refer to both integrated circuit and "I see." See semiconductor, very large scale integration. See Kilby, Jack; Noyce, Robert. integrated dataaccess IDA. A phrase usually applied to database access through shared resources or automated lookup tools that facilitate information- find- ing. A number of Web-accessible government archives are said to be IDAs. IDA also applies to a number of commercial database products that have various database discovery, search, and retrieval functions built into the product so that it can be readily deployed by an institution to set up information delivery services without a lot of time spent on in-house programming. Integrated Digital Loop Carrier IDLC. A system designed to integrate Digital Loop Carrier (DLC) systems with existing digital switches as in a SONET network system. A basic installation consists of intelligent remote digital terminals (ROTs) and digital switch elements known as integrated digital terminals (lOTs), interconnected by a digital line. See Digi- tal Loop Carrier. Integrated Digital Network IDN. A digital network in which both the switching and the transmission are digital. Traditionally, communications switching has been analog, even if the data transmission was digital, necessitating modulation and conversion that limited transmission integrity and speeds. Gradually digital switches began to replace analog and digital phone; data services for general consumers began to become widely available in the late 1990s. A computer with a modem is an example ofa hybrid digital/analog transmission system. A computer generates digital data that is sent to the modem for conversion to analog signals for transmission through traditional copper phone lines. At the destination, it is remodulated back to digital data and interpreted by a computer. While the transmission was in effect, the phone line would be tied up to preclude voice transmissions. With the evolution and installation of digital circuitry throughout the phone system, a gradual transition to digital services such as ISDN and ATM is enabling enhanced communications services for business and residential customers as end-to-end digital transmissions systems are gradually supplanting analog or hybrid systems. It is now possible to trans- mit data and digital voice services over the same subscriber line. Terminal devices rather than traditional modems are used to interconnect subscriber premises to digital services over public networks through both copper and fiber optic media. See ISDN, Signaling System 7. Integrated Dispatch ID. In general, computer-enhanced dispatch administration and/or messaging services integrated with traditional radio dispatch communications. This is of particular interest to emergency services call centers, where accountability and response times are important, and also to companies that have sophisticated dispatch tracking needs. See Enhanced Specialized Mobile Radio. integrated injection logic IlL. A form of bipolar logic, reduced power circuit intended to provide greater efficiency over TTL chips. IntegrateIS-IS A proprietary routing protocol using ~l~i;:{{~~;~:~~~E!Z:~~:~;:~i~~~i. routing protocol called IS-IS. The DEC implementation provides support for a number of other open and proprietary protocols by encapsulating them into Internet Protocol (IP). Integrated Internet Information Architecture IlIA. An effort by Weider, Mitra, Sollins, et al. to develop protocol specifications and enhancements for some of the widely used Internet information systems. Based on the concepts that one solution will not fit all users and that users need a way to transition to other systems as their needs mature or change, the developers have focused on creating object-oriented informational and functional models for an Internet information architecture. integrated messaging, unified messagingA term to describe the combination and consolidation of messaging services such as voice, video, facsimile, email, etc. through a networked computer system. With a computer phone set, a scanner, and a printer attached to a microcomputer, it is possible to have all the capabilities of these various technologies integrated into one system. In fact, setting up the system this way provides more capabilities than these services have individually, since the computer software can be configured to monitor the calls, store ac- counting information, transfer data among the vari- 0us systems, and use files directly, as in directly fax- ing a document from the word processor, without printing it and sending it through a dedicated facsimile machine. When a facsimile is received, it can be processed to tum it into text and images, or document and PostScript-format files can be sent directly, without any scanning or translation. By attaching an Internet phone set to the computer, the computer can check the time at the desired destination, dial the call automatically from a database of names, connect the call, signal an alert when it is con- nected, keep track of the duration of the connection, alert you while making the call if you are attending to other business, and log the call, if desired, for fu- ture reference or statistical or business tracking. By using an integrated voice, file, email service, you 487 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary can speak into the headset or a microphone and record a mail message, send it the same as normal email, which means the recipient can access it whenever he or she is online, and listen to it played on the destination computer as a sound file. This message can easily be combined with text files with binary files as attachments. The NeXTStep operating system has had this flexible type of voice/emaiVfile capability built into its email system since the late 1980s, and Smalltalk object-oriented systems had it even sooner, so it is by no means a new concept. Unfortunately, it is not yet implemented on many commonly used plat- forms. integrated model A network traffic routing solution supporting an exchange of routing information between ATM routing and higher level routing. This provides timely external routing information within the ATM routing and provides transit of external routing information through the ATM routing between external routing domains. Integrated Next Generation Electronic Commerce Environment Project INGECEP. A trio of experimental projects to test online business/financial environments. INGECEP was proposed by the Telecom Services Association of Japan (TELESEA) to the APEC Telecommunications Working Group as an international interconnection of electronic commerce test-beds. In Japan project funding is provided by the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications. INGECEP is promoted by the member companies of the Cyber Business Association (CBA) as follows: • a debit-based commerce system introduced as a pilot project in 1995. It is associated with multimedia information (online malls, educational institutions, government sites, muse- ums, etc.) provided by regional SMEs in cooperation with the Telecom Services Associa- tion of Japan (TELESA) on the backbone network using TCP/IP over ATM. • a secure electronic credit-based commerce system utilizing Japanese cryptologic technology, HTTP, and MOSS carried out at the Ja- pan Electronic Messaging Association (JEMA) an electronic money system launched to promote content-based business. The fIrst INGECEP trials between Japan and Singa- pore were conducted in July 1998. Increased interest after this trial necessitated guidelines for intercon- necting multiple cross-border economies. This is an important electronic commerce globaliza- tion effort. It defines, specifies, and tests cross-border remote technologies in the context of consumer trust, privacy, and language differences while also taking into consideration consumer protection, cur- rency differences, import/export regulations, and money transfer transactions. After initial testing, a new approach labeled the Electronic Market system was employed to increase the scope of the project around the Asia-Pacific Region, including South Korea, Malaysia, and the United States. 488 Integrated Services Digital Network See ISDN, Signaling System 7. integrated service A type of service more recently being designed and deployed on the Internet in addition to best effort services traditionally provided. integrated services support special traffic handling based upon bandwidth, network latency, and other requirements not usually handled with best effort services. Examples include guaranteed service and con- trolled load service. Intel Corporation One of the best known of the chip manufacturers serving the desktop computer market, rivalled mainly by Motorola. Intel's chips are widely installed in microcomputers worldwide. Intel evolved out of an earlier company founded by Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce, who had worked together at the Schockley lab in Palo Alto. They founded a division of Fairchild Camera to exploit semiconductor technology, called Fairchild Semicon- ductor. They later cofounded Intel Corporation, which continues today as one of the world's leading chip design and manufacture firms. The Intel4-bit 108 kilohertz 4004 microprocessor became an important historical impetus in the design of desktop computers, with its successor, the 8008, becoming the world's first commercially significant programmable central processing unit (CPU). The 4004 was developed by Marcian (Ted) Hoff, introduced in November 1971. Three other chips accom- panied the 4004, offered as the MCS-4 chip family. The Scelbi computer, first promoted in 1974, and the Altair, which came out as a kit a few months later, incorporated the successor to the MCS-4 family, the MCS-8, based around the 200-kHz 8008 (the 8008 was an enhanced version of the 4040) 8-bit microprocessor. The 4004 was incorporated into many automated systems, including light controls, appliances, calculators, musical instruments, etc. Gary Kildall developed a programming language for the early Intel processors called PL/M. The 8080 was incorporated into the Altair 8800, as it was in some of the S-100 bus (Altair bus) computers that became competitive with the historic Altair. Since then, the most significant evolution in Intel desktop computer chips is the Pentium series, introduced in the early 1990s. The Intel Overview table is not comprehensive, but it provides an encapsulated look at some of the high- lights in Intel chip development for microcomputer CPUs since the mid-1970s. See Hoff, Marcian; integrated circuit; International Business Machines; Kildall, Gary; Moore, Gordon; Motorola; Noyce, Robert. Intel Video Interactive IVI. Intel purchased the Digi- tal Video Interactive (DVI) chipset technology and developed it into Indeo 2 and Indeo 3, now known as IVI. IVI has a number of interesting features, including transparency (e.g., for background overlays), scaling, and the use of an interframe codec for compression, based on relatively new wavelet compression, encod- © 2003 by CRC Press LLC ing the images into frequency bands so the image data can be represented at different resolution levels. Data can be password-embedded for protection. Key frames can be incorporated as reference points for random access. Brightness and contrast settings can be adjusted to adapt to the characteristics of the play- back system. intelligent agent A software application precon- figured or trained to handle tasks dynamically, or that has been trained to recognize certain characteristics of the input, which might be a person's voice, hand- writing, or other specialized type of input that may vary from user to user. An intelligent email agent may be configured to screen out "spam," unsolicited commercial messages, to sort messages into folders according to sender or priority, or to forward messages to another address if the user is traveling or reading mail at another location. The difference between a custom agent and an intelligent agent is that the custom agent is explicitly configured by the user, whereas the intelligent agent con- figures itself on the basis of monitoring the user's habits and interaction history. The agent then estab- lishes actions and parameters based on intelligent analysis of the user's actions and preferences. In other words, a custom agent would require that the user explicitly instruct the email client to put all messages with "make money fast" in the subject line into a spam bucket, a file that contains unsolicited email. An intelligent agent would notice that 15 messages in a row with "make money fast" in the subject line were moved to the other file area, and would subse- quently do the transfer automatically on behalfof the user, perhaps prompting the first time it makes this decision in order to confinn that it is canying out user preferences. See artificial intelligence, expert system. intelligent answering A telephony industry marketing phrase for telephony-computer applications that pop up an information box on a computer screen based on the number that has been called or answered. The pop-up box provides information about the caller/callee contained within publicly available databases or in-house client lists or contact databases. Intelligent 110 An open standard designed to provide a device-independent device driver architecture. Ap- plied to redundant array of inexpensive disks (RAID) systems, Intelligent I/O provided faster drive access. intelligent load balancing In computer telephony integration (CTI) applications, a mechanism for balancing call volume in centers that handle many calls or that forward calls to subsidiary call centers. Load balancing is based on statistical models for evaluating queues, call durations, call priorities, and the number of agents available to handle the calls. The intent, of course, is to streamline the service so that calls are handled quickly and efficiently, and distributed well over the types and numbers of agents available. Overview of Some Common Intel Desktop Computer Central Processing Units Processor Data Data Address Clock Year Notes Int. Bus Ext. Bus Bus Speed Introd. 4004 4/8 4 12 1 MHz 1971 Separate program and data memory; 46 instructions 4040 1972 Enhanced 4004 with 14 additional instructions, and more space for programming and stack 8008 8 8 14 2 MHz 1972 Similar to 4040 8080 8 8 16 2 MHz 1974 Seven 8-bit registers, some of which could be combined into 16-bit register pairs; 256 I/O ports 8085 1976 An update to the 8080 8086 8 8 20 5 MHz 1978 Based upon the 8080 and 8085; 8-bit 64K I/O 80286 16 16 24 8 MHz 1982 80386DX 32 32 32 16 MHz 1985 80386SX 32 16 24 16 MHz 1988 80486DX 32 32 32 25 MHz 1989 On-board cache, pipelines, integrated floating point unit 80486SX 32 32 32 20 MHz 1991 Pentium 32 64 32 66 MHz 1993 Separate caches; superscalar Pentium Pro 64 32 133-200 MHz 1995 CISC-RISC Pentium IT 64 32 233-333 MHz 1997 MMX Pentium ill 500 MHz 1999 MMX2 Pentium IV 1400 MHz 2000 489 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary Intelligent Music Workstation IMW. A five-year- long project which resulted in the 1994 release of a musical software/hardware environment in which commercial products can be integrated as modules. Developed at the Laboratory for Musical Informatics of the Department ofInformation Sciences of the Uni- versity of Milan, Italy, funded by the Italian National Research Council. Intelligent Network LN. See Advanced Intelligent etwork. Intelligent Networks Call ModeILNCM. Gaddis et al. described a Call Model for multipoint communications in switched networks in the early 1990s. The model provided dynamic multipoint, multi connection communication channels (calls) for network clients. Protocols were defined for clients to create, manage, and manipulate telecommunications calls. The Model provided basic interconnection services for local and wide area networks. At about the same time, Hill and Ishizaki described a Cal1 Model for distributed multimedia communications intended to encompass a number of types ofmedia rather than being restricted to aspecific type of data communication (e.g., videoconferencing). In current practice, the LNCM is asignificant telecommunications Call Model central to advanced intelligent networks (AINs) that are typically implemented over SS7 networks. In general, this Call Model is a representation ofservice switching point (SSP) cal1- processing functions for establishing, maintaining, and taking down a cal1. The Call Model incorporates Points in Call (PICs), Trigger Detection Points (TDPs), and the triggers themselves. LNCM is also sometimes called the Basic Cal1 Model. See Univer- sal Call Model. intelligent routing I. In data networks, an automated, dynamic, self-configuring routing system that takes most of the workload of configuration and maintenance from the human operator and handles it through software algorithms. These days, most routers and switchers are designed to handle routing intelligently and the distinction between routing and intelligent routing may gradually disappear. 2. In telephony call servicing, a marketing phrase to describe the auto- matic routing ofa call to an appropriate operator or sales rep based on information and criteria contained in a list or more complex database. As an example, if a call comes in from ABC Copy Machines, from which a company leases equipment, a scenario can be set up to route ABC Copy Machines' calls to the equipment department or the print room, depending upon who usually talks to that vendor. Similarly a new caller, with a number that is not yet recognized by the system, might be routed to the information desk or to a new client sales rep. intelligent transportation systems ITS. Transpor- tation systems that incorporate new computer technologies, such as Global Positioning System (GPS), to improve efficiency. See Intelligent Vehicle High- way Systems. intelligent vehicle highway systems IVHS. Ad- vanced navigational systems which incorporate 490 computer technologies such as Global Positioning System (GPS) and navigational databases. IVHS ve- hicles include sensors and compasses to interface with the computer control mechanisms and incorporate dead reckoning, maps, and GPS data to control direction and sometimes velocity. IVH systems can be configured for optimum efficiency and safety and could apply extremely well to specially designed mass transit pods or automated commuter systems. Even regular traffic could benefit from IVHsystems. See guidance system. intelligentworkstation IW. Acomputer system with advanced features or knowledge bases suitable for business or scientific applications beyond that which a home user mi'ght need, for example, but which com- bines these enhanced features with accessible interface design so that the user need not be a computer expert to take advantage of their features. Intelligent Workstation Architecture IWA. A framework for a computing system with advanced functions or applications such as expert knowledge bases, decision-making algorithms, intelligent search and retrieval functions, and other features that offer advanced computing wrapped up within an interactive, streamlined user interface design. Knowledge bases for complex data sets (scientific, medical, financial, etc.) that can be accessed and used by com- puterusers with normal computer operating skills, but without computer technical-expert skills are good candidates for development within an IWA framework. intelligibility In communications, the degree to which a message can be understood by sound and context. While articulation refers to the specific ability to make out a communication, intelligibility is the ability to make out sentences and phrases based not only on articulation, but also on context and infer- ence. Thus, a poorly articulated transmission might still be decipherable in context, especially when enough information is given to figure out the nature of the communication. Intelligibility does not require perfect articulation or good fidelity. If a listener hears "Rog ov out" at the end of a CB radio conversa- tion with a lot of noise on the line, it is still intel1i- gible as "Roger, over and out" to an experienced radio operator. See articulation, fidelity. International Federation for Information Process- ing IFIP. An international, nongovernmental, nonprofit organization comprised of organizations in the field of information processing. IFIP was established in 1960 under UNESCO as a result of discussions at the World Computer Congress, Paris, 1959. IFIP supports and promotes the research and development of information technologies for the benefit of all people. It hosts a number of Technical Committees to help fulfil these aims. hrtp://www.ifip.or.atl INTELSAT International Telecommunications Sat- ellites. The largest commercial not-for-profit satellite communications services provider, founded in 1964.LNTELSAT is a cooperative of more than 140 member nations and has 20 communications satellites in geostationary orbit, with further launches © 2003 by CRC Press LLC planned. INTELSAT operates as a wholesaler, with subscribers, many of them major broadcasting and telephone companies, paying for services according to their type and duration. INTELSAT lays claim to having launched the world's first commercial communications satellite in 1965 (Early Bird) and the first global communications system in 1969. In 1980, they launched INTELSAT V, the first to use dual-polarization transmissions equipment. INTELSAT VI was a subsequent series of five satellites built by Hughes Aircraft Company. In 1995, INTELSAT began providing global Inter- net access services through its satellite system. See Early Bird. http://www.intelsat.intl Intelsat Business Service ms. A commercial telecommunications service based on the INTEL SAT satellite communications capabilities. ms provides almost 10,000 communications channels for a wide variety of services, including voice, facsimile, data, videoconferencing, and telex. Inter Exchange Carrier IEC, IXC. A telephony service provider permitted to provide long-distance services between Local Access and Transport Areas (LATAs), but not within a LATA region. It is also often written as Interexchange Carrier. The category is important as IECs are bound by a number of regulations to support their provision of services while still safeguarding competitive opportunities for other telecommunications providers who do not fit the defini- tion for IECs. See Local Exchange Carrier. inter- Prefix for between, usually between external and internal systems. Inter-Access Point Protocol lAPP. A specification developed by Lucent Technologies, Aironet Wireless Communications, and Digital Ocean, lAPP is a means for different vendors to communicate with one another through roaming wireless mobile communications. lAPP describes a backbone-based handover process for mobile stations when implemented in conjunction with the IEEE 802.11 standard. interactive 1. Reciprocal communication, that is, with a back-and-forth, or query-and-answer charac- ter. 2. Software which responds to the individual's input, usually in realtime or near realtime, as in multimedia applications. Video games are highly interactive, whereas archive searches over the Internet may be extremely slow (sophisticated searches can take days). Depending upon the circumstances, programs with slow interactivity may be better processed as batch files. Contrast with batch processing. interactive asynchronous communications lAC. A means of interactively communicating over an asynchronous network connection that allows control of and communication with devices such as a computer modem over a serial connection. Typically the transmission line (e.g., serial line ) will be initialized to set up communications parameters before carrying out interactive communications. lAC is useful in situa- tions where the status and operating parameters ofa device are broadcast back to the user. Interactive Media Alliance, The TIMA. A nonprofit professional organization supporting various levels of technical and artistic expertise. TIMA fosters the exchange of ideas and knowledge regarding interactive media and promotes the advancement of the technology. TlMA is affiliated with the Technology As- sociation of Georgia. http://www.tima.org/ interactive television Interactive TV, I-TV, lTV. TV broadcasting configured to provide a two-way dia- log between the user and the broadcaster, enabled by computerization and two-way transmission circuits. Interactive TV has been implemented in a number of ways since the late 1970s, from educational programming to interactive music concerts and on-demand video, but the potential of this technology has only been hinted at so far. One of the earliest interactive TV networks was the QUBE system from Warner Communications, which was first tested in Columbus, Ohio. Time Warner developed subsequent versions of this technology. De- pending upon how it is implemented, interactive TV has been of more interest to educators than traditional passive-interactive TV for distance and self-directed education. See QUBE. Interactive Television Association See Association for Interactive Media. interactive video services IVS. Interactive video, in its broadest sense, is public or private image and sound broadcasting through public or private networks that is available upon request by the user. Due to the convergence ofbroadcast and computer technologies, it is now feasible to provide partial- and full- service interactive video services through a number of transmissions media: twisted copper pair, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, and wireless. However, with the exception of fiber optic cable, the use of existing technologies, which were designed for other services, means that none of them are ideally configured for IVS, and vendors are hurrying to find ways to deploy services ahead of their competitors. Thus, a variety of technologies are emerging, in spite of the fact that the marketability of these services is not yet fully proven. Interactive video services potentially include games, movies, and specialized channeling, such as stock quotations and industry-specific news. Some of these have been tried with varying success in different industries and regions, and some companies are devis- ing ways to offer them over the Internet. interactive voice response IVR. Systems that respond to voice commands or voice characteristics and may also prompt the user for further information or clarification. Phone systems that can recognize and respond to simple spoken commands are becoming more common, and software programs can interpret spoken commands and prompt users through synthe- sized speech. Interagency Management Council for Federal Communications IMC. A representative body for telecommunications executives at key U.S. federal agencies, including the Department of Commerce, the Department of Defense, the Department of Educa- tion, the Department of Justice, NASA, the U.S. Postal Service, and others. It was established to 491 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC . superscalar Pentium Pro 64 32 13 3-2 00 MHz 1995 CISC-RISC Pentium IT 64 32 23 3-3 33 MHz 1997 MMX Pentium ill 500 MHz 1999 MMX2 Pentium IV 1400 MHz 2000 489 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary Intelligent Music Workstation IMW. A five-year- long. insulators were patented in the 1870s. The Oakman beehive insulator was favored by Western Union for telegraph poles. Western Union used many thousands ofBrookfield and Hemingray insulators over the years. The move to standardize insulators occurred around 1910; clear insulators were not produced until the 1930s. Ceramic 485 © 2003 by CRC Press LLC Fiber Optics Illustrated Dictionary insulators were introduced around 1908 by Locke In- sulator, in order to undercut the cost of glass insulators. Insulators were developed in many shapes and sizes, in a rainbow of gem-like hues. They provide a legacy of poetically. dataaccess IDA. A phrase usually applied to database access through shared resources or automated lookup tools that facilitate information- find- ing. A number of Web-accessible government archives are said to be IDAs. IDA also applies to a number of commercial database products that have various database discovery, search, and retrieval functions built into the product so that it can be readily deployed by an institution to set up information delivery services without a lot of time spent on in-house programming. Integrated

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