770 Glossary Conjugation: the phenomenon that a lexical verb can be used in a number of different forms, expressing such notions as person, number (ϭ singular or plu- ral), tense and grammatical aspect, e. g. work, works, worked, will work, has worked, is working, etc. Constituent negation (or narrow scope negation): i. e. negation which has only one constituent of the clause in its scope (e. g. I told her nothing about it; It wasn’t John who was responsible). Constitution reading (or constitution interpretation): particular type of up-to- now reading of a clause in the present perfect, namely that reading in which the speaker focuses on the situational constitution of the pre-present zone and not only on the temporal location of a situation in that zone. The speaker as it were looks back on the pre-present to ‘measure’ it (e. g. Nearly a year has gone by since then) or to see how this period has been filled ‘situationwise’ (e. g. What have you been doing?; How many times have you met him in the past week?). Contain: verb indicating the temporal relation of containment that holds be- tween the time of the full situation and the situation time or between an Adv- time (ϭ time indicated by an adverbial like yesterday) and a situation time (or other binding time). The temporal relation in question may be one of (strict) coincidence or (proper) inclusion. Thus, in At five o’clock I was jogging, the Adv-time contains the situation time in terms of coincidence, and the time of the full situation is interpreted as including the (punctual) situation time. In I was there from two to four o’clock the Adv-time (indicated by a bounding bifunctional temporal adverbial) coincides with the situation time, and, because it is bounded, the time of the full situation also coincides with the situation time. In both these examples the Adv-time thus ‘contains’ the situation time in the sense that the two coincide with each other; in contrast, in John left yester- day the Adv-time ‘contains’ the situation time in terms of inclusion. (See also containment.) Contained orientation time: orientation time that is specified (i. e. ‘contained’ in terms of either inclusion or coincidence) by an Adv-time. For example, in John left yesterday, the contained orientation time is the situation time, i. e. the time of John’s leaving. In At five o’clock John had already left the office, the contained orientation time is not the situation time but another (nonlexi- calized) orientation time to which the situation time is T-anterior. See also contained orientation time of the head clause. Contained orientation time of the head clause: in a complex sentence with a {when / after / before}-clause, the contained orientation time of the head clause is that orientation time from the tense structure of the head clause that Glossary 771 is contained by the Adv-time established by the time clause. For example, in John had already left when Bill arrived, the contained orientation time of the head clause is the orientation time to which the situation time of the head clause is T-anterior. Contained orientation time of the when -clause: in a complex sentence with a when-clause, the orientation time which is part of the tense structure in the when-clause and which is contained by the common Adv-time. This contained orientation time is either the situation time of the when-clause (as in John left when Bill arrived) or another orientation time to which the situation time of the when-clause is T-related (as in John left when Bill had already arrived). Containment: (a) temporal relation between the time of the full situation and the situation time: the time of the full situation contains the situation time in terms of either inclusion or coincidence. In bounded clauses the time of the full situation coincides with the situation time (e. g. Yesterday John ran two miles before breakfast), whereas in nonbounded clauses it may either coincide with or include the situation time (e. g. [“What was John doing from 5 to 5.30?”] Ϫ “From 5 to 5.30 John was running his usual two miles before breakfast.”). (b) There is also a containment relation (again in terms of inclusion or coincidence) between an Adv-time (ϭ adverbially specified time interval) and a contained orientation time. Continuative interpretation (or continuative reading): one of three possible W- interpretations of a clause in the present perfect, namely that on which the full situation is taken not only to fill the entire pre-present (ϭ period leading up to t 0 ) but also to extend beyond t 0 , so that the time of the full situation is taken to include the situation time (which coincides with the pre-present zone). Such a reading is realized, for example, in Ian’s been living in Lincoln since 1998, which implies that Ian is still living in Lincoln. Continuative perfect: present perfect tense form used in a clause receiving a continuative reading. Continuous form: see progressive form. Coordinate (adj.): said of two or more constituents of equal rank. For example, in a compound sentence like John was angry and Mary was shocked, the two clauses are ‘coordinate clauses’: the relation between them is one of ‘coordina- tion’, not syntactic subordination. Coordination: the phenomenon that a syntactic unit (construction) is formed which consists of coordinate constituents only. Copula (or copular verb, linking verb): verb like be, seem, become, etc., which has to be followed by a subject complement (as in John is {ill / a nerd} and which is incompatible with any other type of verb complement. 772 Glossary Copular verb: see copula. Core meaning: the semantics of a tense, i. e. the tense structure expressed by the tense in question. For example, the core meaning of the present perfect is: ‘The situation time is contained in the pre-present zone of the present time- sphere’. Given that containment can be defined in terms of either ‘inclusion’ or ‘coincidence’, there are two T-interpretations that are compatible with this core meaning: the ‘before now’ T-interpretation , which gives rise to the ‘indefi- nite’ W-interpretation (e. g. I have seen that girl before), and the co-extensive T-interpretation which gives rise either to an ‘up-to-now’ W-interpretation (e. g. Where have you been?) or to a ‘continuative’ W-interpretation (e. g. I’ve been polishing this furniture for over an hour now). Counterfactual: contrary to fact; incompatible with the actual world and there- fore belonging to a counterfactual world. The situation referred to in the counterfactual conditional clause If John had been here … is a ‘counterfac- tual situation’. Counterfactual world: possible world which is assumed by the speaker to be incompatible with the actual world or with any future possible world which might (or might not) eventually become the actual world. For example, If I were you … creates a counterfactual world: it refers to a situation which is incompatible with what is the actual world at any time. Declarative question: sentence that combines the form (word order) of a declar- ative sentence with an interrogative meaning (e. g. You’re his father?). Declarative sentence (or statement): sentence which is not interrogative or im- perative in form and makes an assertion rather than having the illocutionary force of another speech act (such as a question or imperative). De dicto interpretation: see intensional interpretation. Defective verb: verb which has only one or two forms, e. g. must, ought to, can / could. Definite: said of a referring expression which is assumed by the speaker to be sufficient for the hearer to identify the referent. Yesterday, in 1983, the day before, etc. are definite time-specifying adverbials. The man is a definite noun phrase. Donnellan (1966) distinguishes between two kinds of definite noun phrases: attributive noun phrases and referential noun phrases. Deictic adverbial: see deictic time-specifying adverbial. Deictic time-specifying adverbial (or anchored time-specifying adverbial): time- specifying adverbial which relates the Adv-time which it specifies to an anchor time. For example: in I heard that name yesterday, the temporal anchor is the Glossary 773 temporal zero-point, since yesterday means ‘the day before t 0 ’. The anchor time may also be another time: see nondeictic time-specifying adverbial versus deic- tic time-specifying adverbial. Denotation: meaning of a linguistic unit (a word, a phrase, a clause, etc.). The denotation of a verb (e. g. walk) is a simple situation-template; the denotation of a verb phrase (e. g. walk to the church) is an enriched situation-template, and the denotation of a clause is a situation. The denotation of a linguistic unit is to be distinguished from its reference (or referential meaning): in John walked to the church, the denotation of walk to the church is ‘go to the church on foot’, whereas the referential meaning of John walked to the church is the particular actualization of this kind of situation on a given past occasion. This particular actualization is the referent of the clause John walked to the church. Denote: ‘mean’, in the specific sense of ‘have as its denotation’. See denotation. Dependent clause: alternative term for subclause. De re interpretation: see transparent interpretation. Direct binding: the phenomenon that the situation time of a subclause is T- bound by the situation time of its own head clause. Consider the following example: [The police knew that] the girl had told her friends once or twice that she was afraid to go home. Here, the situation time of the second that- clause is represented as T-simultaneous with that of the first that-clause, whose situation time is itself represented as T-anterior to the situation time of the matrix clause. The fact that the situation time of the second that-clause is also W-anterior to the situation time of the matrix clause is not expressed by its tense form (was afraid). Direct reported speech: reported speech in which the reported utterance or thought is not reported in the form of a subordinate clause (e. g. He said that he was ill) but is quoted as an independent sentence (as in He said: ‘I am ill.’). Direct result: resultant state that inevitably comes about when the actualization of a situation is completed. For example, in I’ve locked up the shop, the com- pletion of the action of locking up the shop automatically (and immediately) produces the state of the shop being locked up (even though this state is not likely to be a lasting one). Discontinuation: the phenomenon that (the actualization of) a situation is no longer continuing at a given orientation time. See also implicature of discontin- uation. Dissective: typical characteristic of homogeneous clauses or homogeneous time adverbials. It means that any part of the referent of the clause or adverbial (i. e. 774 Glossary the actualization of a situation or an Adv-time, respectively) can be referred to by the same clause or adverbial that refers to the actualization or Adv-time as a whole. Do -insertion: insertion of the periphrastic auxiliary do in clauses that require an auxiliary but would not contain one if there were no do-support. Domain (or temporal domain): set of orientation times each of which is tempo- rally related to another by means of a tense. At least one of these orientation times is a situation time (since any tense form locates a situation in time). A domain is normally established by an absolute tense form and expanded by one or more relative tense forms. The latter establish temporal subdomains. Thus, in John said he had prayed, the tense form said establishes a past domain and had prayed creates a subdomain within that domain. Do -support: the phenomenon that in cases where an auxiliary is required the periphrastic auxiliary do is added to a lexical verb (except to be) because other- wise the clause would not contain an auxiliary. For example, because sentences like *I smoke not or *Smoke you? are ungrammatical, we have to apply do- insertion: I don’t smoke, Do you smoke?. Double pluperfect: the form ‘had ϩ perfect infinitive’, which is sometimes found instead of the past perfect in the conditional clause of a conditional sentence of the type illustrated by I would have been happier if she had come. For example: Had he have lost this frame [it would have been all over for him]. Duration adverbial: nontechnical term for any temporal adverbial that specifies the length of a situation. In other words, a cover term for pure duration adver- bials (e. g. for a split second, for two hours) and bifunctional temporal adverbi- als (e. g. from six to eight). (The latter specify both time and duration.) Duration-quantifying constitution reading (or interpretation): particular type of constitution reading of a clause in the present perfect, which arises when the speaker is specifically concerned with the length of the pre-present zone and indicates this by a bounded sentence referring to a duration-specifying situation (e. g. Nearly a year has gone by since then). Durative (or nonpunctual): ontological feature, the opposite of punctual. Said of a situation-template which is conceived of as having a certain duration. By extension, the term can also be applied to a verb phrase (e. g. write a book) denoting such a situation-template, as well as to a situation that is conceived of as having duration, even if this situation is in fact a durative hypersituation consisting of consecutive punctual subsituations (e. g. Someone was knocking at the door). The term durative is also applied to time-specifying adverbials that indicate a specific time which has some duration (e. g. yesterday) – see Glossary 775 durative time-specifying adverbial – and to nonpunctual duration adverbials (e. g. for two hours). Durative situation verb: verb which denotes a durative situation-template. Durative time-specifying adverbial: time-specifying adverbial which specifies an Adv-time that has some duration (e. g. yesterday). Durative verb phrase: verb phrase which denotes a durative situation-template. Dynamic (or nonstatic): ontological feature of some (punctual or durative) situ- ation-templates. It means that the kind of situation referred to is not a state, and therefore involves change and requires an input of fresh energy to continue (e. g. walking). The term ‘dynamic’ is also applied to a verb phrase or predicate constituent lexicalizing a dynamic situation-template (e. g. walked a mile), as well as to the actualization of a dynamic situation (e. g. John’s walking a mile yesterday) and to a clause referring to such a concrete actualization (e. g. John walked a mile yesterday). Effected NP: noun phrase referring to the entity that comes into existence as a result of an action (typically expressed by a verb of creation). For example, in I’ve written a poem, the direct object refers to an effected NP. Egressive aspect (or terminative aspect): kind of grammatical aspect. A speaker expresses egressive aspect when he uses a special verb form to represent the actualization of a situation as ending. Since English lacks a special verb form to express egressive meaning, this aspect is not grammaticalized in English. (If we want to refer to the terminal part of a situation, we have to add an aspectu- alizer like stop, finish, end, leave off, etc. to the verb referring to the situation.) Embedded clause: alternative term for subclause. Enriched situation-template: what is denoted by a multi-word verb phrase (e. g. walk to the church). An enriched situation-template can be further enriched by elements that do not belong to the verb phrase proper but to the predicate constituent (e. g. walk to the church merrily on Sundays). Epistemic: see epistemic modality. Epistemic modality: modality having to do with the possible degrees of the speaker’s commitment to the truth of a proposition. For example, This must be the answer! expresses epistemic necessity, while This cannot be the answer! expresses epistemic impossibility (which can also, of course, be seen as a kind of epistemic necessity). Epistemic modality can be expressed by modal adverbs like certainly, perhaps, possibly, etc. or by auxiliaries like must, should, ought to, will, can, could and need. The representation of (the actualization of) a situation as factual, counterfactual or not-yet-factual also belongs to the realm of epistemic modality. 776 Glossary Event: type of dynamic situation (i. e. a dynamic situation type), e. g. bursting, exploding, falling off a ladder, snowing. An event differs from an action in that it does not actualize under the control of an agent but just happens. It differs from a process in that it is not evolving. Event verb: verb denoting an event (e. g. evolve, burst, take place, rain, occur, happen, break down, snow). Evidential because -clause: clause which is introduced by the subordinating con- junction because and which explains the basis on which the speaker comes to the conclusion that the head clause proposition is true. For example: [There must be someone in the house] because there is a light on in one of the rooms. Evolving: ontological feature typical of processes (e. g. growing, getting dark, diminishing, deteriorating, etc.). This means that [ϩ evolving] is a feature of a situation-template which is at the same time dynamic, durative and non- agentive, and which is denoted by a verb phrase representing the kind of situa- tion as gradually developing, i. e. as moving on a (usually implicit) scale. The term evolving can also be applied to the actualization of a process. Expand (a domain): incorporate a new situation time into an existing temporal domain by using a relative tense form. Expanded domain: temporal domain which comprises more than one situa- tion time. Experiential perfect: see perfect of experience. Explanatory-resultative: said of a clause in the present perfect which receives an up-to-now reading and whose communicative function is to explain the origin of a present result. For example, [Sorry I’m dirty.] I’ve been cleaning the cellar. By extension the term is also applied to the tense itself. However, ‘explanatory-resultative (present) perfect’ is really short for ‘clause in the pres- ent perfect having an explanatory-resultative function’. Extensional interpretation: see transparent interpretation. Factual: being, or having become a fact, in the actual world. Synonym of fac- tual at t 0 . Factual at t 0 (or t 0 -factual): said of a situation that has already actualized at the temporal zero-point (t 0 ) or is actualizing at t 0 . For example, John left before Bill arrived represents both situations as having actualized before t 0 and there- fore as being past facts (i. e. as being ‘factual at t 0 ’). (By contrast, in John wanted to leave before Bill arrived, the before-clause is not interpreted as fac- tual at t 0 because it refers to a situation which may or may not have actualized in the past: the situation of Bill’s arrival was expected to actualize by John, . to the church, the denotation of walk to the church is ‘go to the church on foot’, whereas the referential meaning of John walked to the church is the particular actualization of this kind of. and the situation time: the time of the full situation contains the situation time in terms of either inclusion or coincidence. In bounded clauses the time of the full situation coincides with the. time-specifying adverbial. Denotation: meaning of a linguistic unit (a word, a phrase, a clause, etc.). The denotation of a verb (e. g. walk) is a simple situation-template; the denotation of a verb phrase