546 10. Two tense systems with post-present reference tion presupposed at post-present basic orientation time’ may have a clear effect on the interpretation of the sentence. In clauses with a conditional interpreta- tion it generally corresponds to the distinction between an open condition and a closed one. (We will return to this in 10.6.8 below.) Of the two systems, only the Pseudo-t 0 -System can be used to suggest that the contents of the clause represent how the situation will be evaluated at the future basic orienta- tion time rather than how it is evaluated by the speaker at t 0 . 10.4.8 Another difference between the Absolute Future System and the Pseudo-t 0 -System is that only the latter can be used to suggest that the contents of the clause in question represent how the situation will be evaluated at the future basic orientation time rather than how it is evaluated by the speaker at t 0 . Consider: You will all be arrested because John will do something stupid. (The relevant inter- pretation is ‘I predict that John will do something stupid and that you will all be arrested because of that’.) You will all be arrested because John does something stupid. Out of context, both are equally appropriate, but only the version with the Pseudo-t 0 -System form can be used to create the impression that the situation is represented as it will be experienced and evaluated by some ‘experiencing entity’ located at the future basic orientation time: [The scheme is no good because you cannot rely on John. I am sure he will bungle it. You will see:] you will all be arrested because he does something stupid. (Here you refers to the ‘experiencing entities at the basic orientation time’.) Conversely, the Absolute Future System may be chosen in order to put the ‘temporal focus’ on a post-present orientation time and in doing so represent the situation referred to as it will be evaluated in the future. 10.4.9 As pointed out in 2.8.3, the speaker sometimes uses the future tense to put the ‘ temporal focus’ on a post-present orientation time and in doing so represents the situation as it will be evaluated in the future. For example: That thing rustling in the bushes over there will no doubt be a chipmunk: [let’s wait till it comes out.] (Lakoff 1970:839) President Bush will not have been the only President to defend this policy. II. Theoretical analysis of the Absolute Future System and the Pseudo-t 0 -System 547 The use of will be in the first example (where is would also be possible) means that the speaker puts the temporal focus on the future moment when he and the hearer will see the animal come out and will observe that it is a chipmunk. Similarly, the use of will have been rather than has been in the second example creates the idea of a future time of evaluation: ‘as history will show’. This special interpretation, which is triggered by the use of the Absolute Future System in head clauses, can be achieved by the use of the Pseudo-t 0 -System in subclauses. In subclauses that in principle allow either the Absolute Future System or the Pseudo-t 0 -System, the Pseudo-t 0 -System may be used to suggest that it is the situation time of the head clause that is the time of evaluation. Consider again: [The scheme is no good because you cannot rely on John. I am sure he will bungle it. You will see:] you will all be arrested because he does something stupid. The situation of John doing something stupid is represented here as it will be experienced at the post-present basic orientation time. 10.5 Summary of part II Summarizing part II, we can say that the basic difference between the Absolute Future System and the Pseudo-t 0 -System is the different choice of ‘basic orienta- tion time’ (see 10.4.1): t 0 versus a post-present orientation time. This difference in turn entails the following: (a) An Absolute Future System form creates a post-present temporal domain, which functions as an intensional domain. The Pseudo-t 0 -System expresses a relation in an already existing intensional domain (except on the rare occasions when it is used to establish a post-present domain in an indirect way Ϫ see 9.16 and 9.22.1). (b) The temporal specification effected by an Absolute Future System form is not dependent on the linguistic context, whereas that effected by a Pseudo- t 0 -System form is. A Pseudo-t 0 -System form requires a linguistic context providing a post-present orientation time serving as basic orientation time for the Pseudo-t 0 -System form. (c) The use of the Pseudo-t 0 -System is a sign that the situations of the sub- clause and the head clause are closely related to each other, not only tem- porally but also logically. The subclause is fully integrated within the head clause, and the two situations are presented as forming an interpretive unit. 548 10. Two tense systems with post-present reference III. Factors determining the choice between the two systems In this section we will explore the reasons which may induce the speaker to relate the situation time of a subclause to a future basic orientation time rather than to t 0 . In doing so we will make a distinction between subclauses that in principle allow either system, subclauses that require the Pseudo-t 0 -System and subclauses in which the Pseudo-t 0 -System cannot be used. The text should be read with the continual proviso that we are only talking about subclauses whose head clause have future time reference. Thus when one reads that ‘The Pseudo-t 0 -System must be used in if-clauses expressing an open condition’ or ‘Restrictive relative clauses invariably use the Absolute Future System when their antecedent is in nonrestrictive apposition’, one has to men- tally add ‘when the head clause has future time-reference’. In section III we discuss the typical cases of subclauses requiring either of the two systems as well as those that are compatible with both. As regards the latter, we will point out the main factors that are relevant to the distribution of the two tense systems: (a) Generally speaking, the subclauses that allow or require the use of the Pseudo-t 0 - System belong to one of the following types: subclauses functioning as subject or object of the predicate of the head clause (with the exception of those discussed in 10.4.6), restrictive relative clauses, and subclauses functioning as adverbials that are fully integrated into the head clause. (b) The categories of subclause in which the Pseudo-t 0 -System has to be used express or connote some kind of open condition for the actualization of the head clause sit- uation. Apart from these, there are a lot of minor factors which also play a role. 10.6 Subclauses that allow either system 10.6.1 Typical examples of subclauses that in principle allow either the Pseudo-t 0 ϪSystem or the Absolute Future System are restrictive relative clauses, because-clauses, subclauses of comparison, the wh-clauses of clefts, resultative that-clauses following the degree adverb or manner adverb so, that-clauses depending on the noun time if the noun phrase does not function as an adver- bial, and clauses introduced by a wh-word ending in -ever. In complement clauses (i. e. dependent statements or questions), the rule is that only the Pseudo-t 0 -System is possible. However, in very special cases, where the report- III. Factors determining the choice between the two systems 549 ing verb does not have full semantics, we may find the Absolute Future System as an alternative to the Pseudo-t 0 -System. The following pairs of sentences illustrate the two possibilities for each of these types of subclause. The (a) example each time uses the Absolute Future System, while the (b) example uses the Pseudo-t 0 -System. (Note that there is no suggestion that the two systems can always be used interchangeably: these examples just illustrate the claim that either system is possible in the relevant type of subclause.) (a) [He got a good fat job and we congratulate him on his good luck. We hope that] he will execute it in a manner that will entitle him to credit. (BR) (restrictive relative clause) (b) [There is still one glittering prize to be grasped.] The man who captures it will go down in history as one of the greatest of mortals. (LOB) (id.) (a) Then it will make us think about unity because we will be using church in disunity. (SEU) (because-clause) (The sentence should not be interpreted as a kind of cleft.) (b) If we hide his shoes he will panic because he cannot find them. (id.) (a) [If you take the train and I take the bus], I will probably travel faster than you will. (subclause of comparison) (b) [If you take the train and I take the bus], I will probably travel faster than you do. (id.) (a) [If love, loyalty and courage count for anything,] it won’t be Violet’s marriage that will break up. (LOB) (that-clause of a cleft) (b) [And he’s made it abundantly clear to Steven that] if the two don’t work to- gether, it won’t be Dave who’s shown the door. (www) (wh-clause of a cleft) (a) You and your tarantula will be so happy that you will end up wanting more tarantulas. (www) (resultative that-clause following the degree adverb so: so ϭ ‘to such an extent’) (b) Men will be so frightened that they cry out for the mountains and rocks to fall upon them. (www) (id.) 7 (a) All sprinkler heads will be so constructed that they will not project above ground level where located. (www) (resultative that-clause following the manner adverb so: so ϭ ‘in such a manner’) (b) The case study will be so constructed that no advanced use of techniques is required. (www) (id.) (a) For some, it will be the first time they will have been back since graduation, [so they may find a few changes have occurred over the years!] (www) (that-clause 7. It should be noted, though, that this is the only clear example with the Pseudo-t 0 -System that we have found. When so is a degree adverb meaning ‘to such an extent’, the that- clause is apparently normally followed by the Absolute Future System. 550 10. Two tense systems with post-present reference depending on the noun time, which does not form part of a semi-conjunction like by the time that) (b) For some, it will be the first time they have been back since graduation. (id.) (a) [A relaxing holiday with easy day walks amidst the nature, fields and man- managed landscape with chateaus, Baroque churches, vineyards and tree alleys.] We will find a varied wildlife wherever we will be. (www) (clause introduced by wh … ever) (b) He will go wherever I go. (id.) (a) What the next move will be only time, of course, will tell. (BR) (complement clause: dependent question) (b) [We can charge what we like.] The public will decide whether or not it pays. (LOB) (id.) (a) The man who enjoys his work and approaches it creatively will find that the techniques, the competency and the professional polish will come to him auto- matically. (LOB) (complement clause: dependent statement)) (b) [The negro is Mr Robert Weaver of New York.] One of his tasks will be to see there is no racial discrimination in Government and State housing projects. (LOB) (id.) In subclauses of these types the choice between the Absolute Future System and the Pseudo-t 0 -System is often not entirely free. In the following subsections we explore some reasons why the speaker may decide against using one of them. Because a Pseudo-t 0 -System form depends for its future time interpretation on the head clause, the Pseudo-t 0 -System cannot be used if the head clause does not establish a post-present domain. 10.6.2 As pointed out in 10.4.2Ϫ3, a Pseudo-t 0 -System form depends for its future time interpretation on the head clause, and thus the Pseudo-t 0 -System cannot be used if the head clause does not establish a post-present domain (either explicitly or implicitly): He is worried because he {will be asked /*is asked} for an explanation tonight. The following would seem to be exceptions to this rule: It doesn’t matter much who we hire for this job. I don’t care what you do with these animals [as long as you keep them out of my house]. It is a fact that the use of the present tense is normal in noun clauses depending on expressions like it doesn’t matter, I don’t care, I don’t mind, it’s not impor- III. Factors determining the choice between the two systems 551 tant, etc. However, because the head clause does not establish a post-present domain, the present tense is not a Pseudo-t 0 -System form here. It is an instance of another type of shift of temporal perspective: the post-present situation time of the noun clause is treated as if it coincided with t 0 . 8 The possibility of using the present tense after it doesn’t matter, etc. is limited to ‘nonhomogeneous’ (see 1.45) clauses: the subclause can be interpreted as having future time refer- ence in It doesn’t matter what he tells her but not in It doesn’t matter what he’s telling her. The fact that the nonprogressive present cannot be understood as referring to the present no doubt helps to explain why it can be used to refer to the post-present in this context. The use of the Pseudo-t 0 -System will be avoided in cases where the relevant Pseudo-t 0 - System form would be naturally misinterpreted as an absolute tense form. 10.6.3 A co-operative speaker will not use the Pseudo-t 0 -System when the relevant Pseudo-t 0 -System form would not be interpreted as a Pseudo-t 0 -System form but rather as an absolute tense form. Compare the following (in which the because-clause should not be interpreted as specifying the reason why the speaker utters the head clause): The boy will no doubt be caught because he {steals / will steal} some money. The boy will no doubt be caught because he {is using / will be using} the wrong ink. In the first sentence, steals is clearly a Pseudo-t 0 -System form, because we use is stealing rather than steals to locate a (nonhabitual) situation in the present. However, the present tense form is using in the second example is naturally interpreted as referring to the present. (Generally speaking, a present tense form will naturally invite this interpretation if it is a stative, progressive or passive form, in other words, if the situation is represented as homogeneous.) A co-operative speaker will therefore avoid using is using as Pseudo-t 0 -System form in this because-clause. If future time reference is intended, he will use the Absolute Future System form will be using instead. The following examples further illustrates this principle: Bruce will be very busy tomorrow because his shop assistants will be absent. (Are would suggest that they are already absent at t 0 .) Bruce will be very busy tomorrow because his shop assistants will have left. (Have left would suggest that they have already left.) 8. This is basically the same mechanism as in examples like I’m leaving tomorrow or I’m 24 tomorrow, only it is not applied for the same reason, viz. to represent the post-present situation as pre-determined at t 0 (see 7.16). 552 10. Two tense systems with post-present reference Similarly: [I’ll get there faster] than you {do / will}. [When your father comes back, he will not understand] what {is / will be} going on. [The papers will no doubt report everything] that {is / will be} said. In examples like these the future tense (ϭ Absolute Future System) is used in order to avoid ambiguity, since the present tense may either locate its situation time at t 0 (ϭ absolute tense) or express T-simultaneity (ϭ Pseudo-t 0 -System). As is clear from the examples, it is the fact that there is no formal differenti- ation between the absolute use of the present tense and its use as a Pseudo-t 0 - System form that normally induces the speaker to use the Absolute Future System whenever the Pseudo-t 0 -System might cause confusion. The principle that Pseudo-t 0 -System forms should not be used if they could be misunderstood is a strong pragmatic principle (based on the Gricean Max- ims) which tends to overrule any other considerations in subclauses where the speaker can in principle choose between the Absolute Future System and the Pseudo-t 0 -System. The use of the Absolute Future System in nominal clauses (such as dependent statements or questions) is always due to this principle, since the Pseudo-t 0 -System is the unmarked (or, sometimes, only possible) sys- tem in this type of subclause: [If you steal that money,] I will tell everyone that you {are /#will be} the thief. [If you steal that money,] I will tell everyone what you {have done /#will have done}. [When your father comes back, he will not understand] what {is / will be} going on. (is is ambiguous) In because-clauses, the choice of system depends on whether the because-clause is ‘actu- alization-explaining’, ‘utterance-explaining’ or ‘evidential’. 10.6.4 In because-clauses, the choice of system depends on the discourse func- tion of the clause. In general, we can distinguish between three functional types: (a) Actualization-explaining because -clauses have a content-level func- tion: they express the reason for, or the cause of, the actualization of the head clause situation: He was killed because he knew too much. (b) Utterance-explaining because -clauses function at the speech-act level: they explain why the speaker makes the speech act (i. e. assertion, question, instruction, etc.) that he makes by uttering the head clause: You’d better hurry up, because there’s going to be a storm. . below.) Of the two systems, only the Pseudo-t 0 -System can be used to suggest that the contents of the clause represent how the situation will be evaluated at the future basic orienta- tion time rather. orientation time for the Pseudo-t 0 -System form. (c) The use of the Pseudo-t 0 -System is a sign that the situations of the sub- clause and the head clause are closely related to each other, not only. regards the latter, we will point out the main factors that are relevant to the distribution of the two tense systems: (a) Generally speaking, the subclauses that allow or require the use of the