6 Noun Phrases /k/ back-backs; leak-leaks; trick-tricks; bike-bikes; lake-lakes /f/ cliff-cliffs; cough-coughs; laugh-laughs; cuff-cuffs; sniff-sniffs /θ/ path-paths; lath-laths; monolith-monoliths, bath-baths 2. If the noun ends in a voiced consonant sound (except a sibilant) or any vowel (all vowels in English are voiced), then the plural is formed with the voiced sibilant /z/, which is also spelled -s. Here are examples of all the consonant sounds that this rule applies to: /b/ lab-labs; web-webs; blob-blobs; globe-globes; tube-tubes /d/ bed-beds; fl uid-fl uids; fl ood-fl oods; code-codes; shade-shades /g/ bug-bugs; rag-rags; fl ag-fl ags, pig-pigs; hog-hogs /v/ wave-waves; hive-hives; love-loves; live-lives; cove-coves /l/ girl-girls; pill-pills; wheel-wheels; role-roles; rule-rules /m/ ham-hams; farm-farms; room-rooms; fl ame-fl ames; home-homes /n/ hen-hens; teen-teens; moon-moons; loan-loans; tune-tunes; throne-thrones /ŋ/ ring-rings; thing-things; throng-throngs; rung-rungs; song-songs Since all vowels are voiced in English, this rule also governs the plural of all words ending in a vowel sound. For example: sea-seas; zoo-zoos; cow-cows; bee-bees; show-shows; tree-trees Words ending in the letter y are little more complicated. When the singular form of a word ends in a consonant ϩ the letter y (that is, when the letter y represents a vowel sound), we form the regular plural by changing the y to i and adding -es. (There is a schoolroom saying that goes like this: “Change the y to i and add -es.”) The plural -s is pronounced /z/ in the expected way. The change of y to ie does not affect pro- nunciation—it is a graphic change only. Here are some examples (all with a /z/ pronunciation): Singular Plural baby babies family families lady ladies sky skies story stories When the letter y is combined with a vowel, a different spelling rule applies. To see the differ- ence, compare the spellings of the plurals of the words fl y and toy: (i-viiiB,001-328B) whl bk.indd 6 3/16/09 12:33:54 PM Nouns 7 Singular Plural fl y fl ies toy toys In the word fl y, the y by itself represents a vowel sound. That is why the spelling rule that changes the y to i states that the y must be preceded by a consonant—this is just a way of ensuring that we are talking about y used by itself to represent a vowel sound. In the word toy, the vowel sound is represented by a combination of the two letters o ϩ y, which is sometimes called a blend. Think of the oy spelling as a fi xed unit that cannot be changed. To form its plural we merely add an s (pronounced /z/) as we would with any other vowel spelling. Combinations of other vowels with y follow the same rule. Here are some more examples of oy, ey, and ay plural spellings: Singular Plural boy boys key keys subway subways tray trays Exercise 1.2 All of the nouns in the following list form their plural in the regular way with a single sibilant sound spelled -s. Depending on the nature of the fi nal sound in the singular form of the noun, the -s can be pronounced either /s/ or /z/. Write the entire plural form of the noun in the /s/ or /z/ column that shows the pronunciation of the plural -s. (Hint: Say the words out loud. If you whisper or say them to yourself, voiced sounds will be automatically de-voiced so they will sound the same as voiceless sounds.) Singular form /s/ /z/ fl ame fl ames 1. three 2. trick 3. stool 4. history 5. wall 6. rake 7. play (i-viiiB,001-328B) whl bk.indd 7 3/16/09 12:33:54 PM 8 Noun Phrases 8. stove 9. cough 10. moth 11. day 12. note 13. delay 14. hike 15. tire 16. rain 17. plate 18. grove 19. show 20. pipe 3. If the noun ends in a sibilant sound, either voiceless or voiced, then the plural is pro- nounced as a separate unstressed syllable /ǝz/ rhyming with “buzz,” spelled -es. (Of course, if the singular already ends in a silent e, we would add just an -s as in horse-horses, or else we would have crazy spellings like X horse-es.) Here are examples of the most common consonant sounds that this rule applies to: /s/ (often spelled -ce) glass-glasses; bus-buses; face-faces; prince-princes; rinse-rinses; fox-foxes /š/ (often spelled -sh) wish-wishes; rash-rashes; McIntosh-McIntoshes; bush-bushes /č/ (spelled -ch or -tch) watch-watches; switch-switches; bunch-bunches /ǰ/ (spelled -ge or -dge) rage-rages; page-pages; dodge-dodges /z/ buzz-buzzes; phase-phases; blaze-blazes; nose-noses; cruise-cruises Exercise 1.3 All of the nouns in the following list form their plural in the regular way with a single sibilant sound spelled -s (pronounced /s/ or /z/) or with a separate unstressed syllable spelled -es (pro- nounced /ǝz/). Write the entire plural form of the noun in the /s/, /z/, or /ǝz/ column depending (i-viiiB,001-328B) whl bk.indd 8 3/16/09 12:33:54 PM Nouns 9 on the pronunciation of the plural -s or -es. (Hint: Say the words out loud. If you whisper or say them to yourself, voiced sounds will be automatically devoiced so they will sound the same as voiceless sounds.) Singular form /s/ /z/ / әz/ beach beaches 1. race 2. bay 3. box 4. clock 5. rose 6. mist 7. dish 8. try 9. cottage 10. colleague 11. clause 12. clash 13. hedge 14. phone 15. freeze 16. share 17. duty 18. patch 19. allowance 20. sheet For a variety of historical reasons, English has some plurals that are formed in an irregular way. (i-viiiB,001-328B) whl bk.indd 9 3/16/09 12:33:54 PM 10 Noun Phrases Seven words form their plural by a vowel change alone: Singular Plural foot feet* goose geese louse lice man men mouse mice tooth teeth woman women** Notes: *In addition to the usual plural form feet, the noun foot has a second plural form foot when we use the word to refer to length or measurement. For example: I bought a six foot ladder. He is six foot three inches tall. **Despite the spelling of women, it is the pronunciation of the fi rst syllable rather than the second that changes: woman is pronounced /wo mǝn/; women is pronounced /w I mǝn/; the second syl- lables, -man and -men, are pronounced exactly alike with an unstressed vowel /mǝn/. Two words retain an old plural ending, -en: Singular Plural ox oxen child children The long vowel in the singular child also changes to a short vowel in the fi rst syllable of the plural children. Some words ending in f form their plurals by changing the f to v and adding -es. Here are the most common words that follow this pattern: Singular Plural half halves knife knives leaf leaves life lives loaf loaves self selves (i-viiiB,001-328B) whl bk.indd 10 3/16/09 12:33:54 PM Nouns 11 thief thieves wolf wolves Some words have a plural form that is identical to their singular form. Most of these words refer to animals or fi sh. For example: Singular Plural a cod two cod a deer two deer a fi sh two fi sh a sheep two sheep a shrimp two shrimp a trout two trout Since the singular and plural forms of these nouns are identical, the actual number of the noun can only be determined by subject-verb agreement or by the use of an indefi nite article. For example: Singular: The deer was standing in the middle of the road. Plural: The deer were moving across the fi eld. Singular: I saw a deer in the backyard. Plural: I saw some deer in the backyard. If one of these words is used as an object with a defi nite article, then the number is ambiguous. For example: Look at the deer! (one deer or many deer?) Exercise 1.4 The following sentences contain one or more incorrect irregular plurals. Draw a line through each incorrect plural and write the correct form above it. loaves knives I sliced the loafs and put the knifes back in the drawer. 1. My niece has a farm where she raises disease-resistant varieties of sheeps. 2. Like all farmers, she has a constant problem with mouses and rats. 3. She and her husband run the farm by themselfes, so it is a lot of work for them. (i-viiiB,001-328B) whl bk.indd 11 3/16/09 12:33:54 PM 12 Noun Phrases 4. There are coyotes and wolfs in the area, but their dogs help keep them away. 5. The coyotes in particular are like thiefs, always waiting and watching. 6. If a coyote gets just a few feets inside the fence, the horses will drive it away. 7. Once they lost some sheeps when some childs left a gate open. 8. Their valley is full of deers, which also support a large population of coyotes. 9. The river in the valley is full of salmons in the fall. 10. Farming is terribly hard work, but we all choose the lifes we want to live. Noncount nouns The types of noncount nouns that you are most likely to encounter fall into the semantic catego- ries listed below: Abstractions: beauty, charity, faith, hope, knowledge, justice, luck, reliability Food: butter, cheese, chicken, pepper, rice, salt Liquids and gases: beer, blood, coffee, gasoline, water, air, oxygen Materials: cement, glass, gold, paper, plastic, silk, wood, wool Natural phenomena: electricity, gravity, matter, space Weather words: fog, pollution, rain, snow, wind With certain exceptions that are discussed below, these noncount nouns are ungrammatical if they are used in the plural. For example: X Please get some more butters. X We need to stop and get gasolines. X The cements on the garage fl oors are cracking. X The electricities have been turned off in all the apartments. X Everyone has noticed the worsening pollutions around major cities. Many noncount nouns can be used as count nouns with a predictable shift in meaning to some- thing like “different kinds of.” Here are some examples: gasoline (noncount): The price of gasoline is outrageous. (liquid) gasoline (count): The station sells three gasolines. (different kinds or grades of gasoline) (i-viiiB,001-328B) whl bk.indd 12 3/16/09 12:33:55 PM . trick 3. stool 4. history 5. wall 6. rake 7. play (i-viiiB,001 -32 8B) whl bk.indd 7 3/ 16/09 12 :33 :54 PM 8 Noun Phrases 8. stove 9. cough 10. moth 11. day 12. note 13. delay. sheet For a variety of historical reasons, English has some plurals that are formed in an irregular way. (i-viiiB,001 -32 8B) whl bk.indd 9 3/ 16/09 12 :33 :54 PM 10 Noun Phrases Seven words form. problem with mouses and rats. 3. She and her husband run the farm by themselfes, so it is a lot of work for them. (i-viiiB,001 -32 8B) whl bk.indd 11 3/ 16/09 12 :33 :54 PM 12 Noun Phrases 4. There