English as a foreign language (efl) teachers’ beliefs and practices of using active learning strategies in teaching writing to grade 10 students in rural schools in ben tre province

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAININGCAN THO UNIVERSITY NGUYEN THI NGOC TIEN ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE EFL TEACHERS’ BELIEFS AND PRACTICES OF USING ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES IN TEACHIN

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

CAN THO UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN THI NGOC TIEN

ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (EFL) TEACHERS’ BELIEFS AND PRACTICES OF USING ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES IN TEACHING WRITING TO GRADE 10 STUDENTS IN RURAL

SCHOOLS IN BEN TRE PROVINCE

MASTER OF EDUCATION PROGRAM: PRINCIPLES AND METHODS IN ENGLISH

LANGUAGE EDUCATION PROGRAM CODE: 8140111 COHORT 29: 2022-2024

2024 MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

CAN THO UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN THI NGOC TIEN Student code: M1622061

ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (EFL) TEACHERS’ BELIEFS AND PRACTICES OF USING ACTIVE LEARNING STRATEGIES IN TEACHING WRITING TO GRADE 10 STUDENTS IN RURAL

SCHOOLS IN BEN TRE PROVINCE

MASTER OF EDUCATION PROGRAM: PRINCIPLES AND METHODS IN ENGLISH

LANGUAGE EDUCATION PROGRAM CODE: 8140111 COHORT 29: 2022-2024

SUPERVISOR:

ASSOC PROF NGUYEN BUU HUAN

2024

This research would not have been completed without the substantial assistance fromspecial people throughout my master’s journey Therefore, I would like to extend myheartfelt gratitude to all of them

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor,Associate Professor Nguyễn Bửu Huân, for his great inspiration, wholehearted support,invaluable materials, constructive feedback and advice throughout my learning and

thesis journey His encouragement and timely support are highly appreciated.

Second, I would like to extend my thanks to all lecturers’ instruction during mymaster’s program In particular, they have provided me with profound knowledge,valuable pieces of writing, and innovative ideas for my learning and teaching journey

I am grateful to colleagues and teachers who participated in my study Their

considerable time, enthusiasm and support were invaluable to my thesis

Finally, I owe my heartfelt thanks to my family for their endless love, care, andunconditional support Particularly, I would like to extend my long-lasting gratefulness

to my mother for her unconditional love and support for my learning journey

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TÓM LƯỢC

Trong những năm gần đây, có rất nhiều sự quan tâm từ các học giả và giáo viên tiếngAnh đối với các chiến lược học tập tích cực Tuy nhiên, có rất ít nghiên cứu về cácchiến lược học tập tích cực trong bối cảnh các trường học ở nông thôn Việt Nam, đặcbiệt là trong việc dạy viết cho học sinh lớp 10 Điều này nhấn mạnh nhu cầu gia tăngtrong việc điều tra niềm tin và thực hành của các giáo viên tiếng Anh như một ngoạingữ (EFL) trong việc triển khai các chiến lược này cho học sinh lớp 10 ở các khu vựcnông thôn Nghiên cứu hiện tại báo cáo một nghiên cứu mô tả về niềm tin và thực hànhcủa các giáo viên tiếng Anh liên quan đến các chiến lược học tập tích cực trong việcdạy viết cho học sinh lớp 10 tại các trường học ở tỉnh Bến Tre, nằm ở đồng bằng sôngCửu Long, Việt Nam Dữ liệu được thu thập bằng ba công cụ: bảng câu hỏi, quan sátlớp học, và phỏng vấn bán cấu trúc, với sự tham gia của sáu mươi ba giáo viên tiếng

Anh Kết quả nghiên cứu đưa ra những hiểu biết về cách các giáo viên áp dụng cácchiến lược học tập tích cực như động não, lập sơ đồ tư duy, làm việc theo cặp, và đặtcâu hỏi, với học sinh lớp 10 tại các trường học ở nông thôn ở tỉnh này Bài báo kết luậnvới những gợi ý sư phạm cho việc giảng dạy và học tập thông qua các chiến lược họctập tích cực.

Từ khóa: niềm tin của giáo viên, thực hành, những chiến lược dạy học tích cực, việc

pedagogical implications for teaching and learning through active learning strategies.

Keywords: teachers’ beliefs, practices, active learning strategies, teaching writing

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i

TÓM LƯỢC

ii ABSTRACT

iii DECLARATION

v LIST OF TABLES vii LIST OF FIGURES viii LIST OF

ABBREVIATIONS ix

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction .1 1.2 Rationale 1 1.3 Significance of the study 3

1.4 Summary 4

1.5 Organization of the study .4

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 5

2.1 Introduction 5

2.2 Teachers’ beliefs 5

2.3 Active learning 6

2.3.1 Defining Active Learning 6

2.3.2 Characteristics of Active Learning 7

2.3.3 Active Learning Strategies 7

2.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages of active learning 11

2.4 Writing 12

2.4.1 Defining writing .12 2.4.2 Process of writing 12 2.4.3 Elements of Writing 13 2.4.4 Characteristics of good writing 14

2.5 Related studies 14

2.5.1 International context 14

2.5.2 Vietnamese context 16

2.6 Summary 18

2.7 Research aims 19

2.8 Research questions 19

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 20

3.1 Research design 20

3.2 Research site and participants 20

3.3 Instruments 22

3.3.1 Questionnaire 22

v 3.3.1.1 Rationale for using questionnaires 22

3.3.1.2 Questionnaire design .22 3.3.1.3 Piloting the questionnaires 23 3.3.1.4 Delivering the questionnaires 24

3.3.2 Classroom observations 24

3.3.2.1 Rationale for using observations 24

3.3.2.2 Observations design 24

3.3.2.3 Conducting observations 25

3.3.3 Interviews 25

3.3.3.1 Rationale for using interviews 25

3.3.3.2 Interview design .26 3.3.3.3 Piloting the interviews 26 3.3.3.4 Conducting semi-structured interviews 26

3.4 Data collection procedure 27

3.5 Data analysis 28

3.5.1 Analysis of the questionnaire 28

3.5.2 Analysis of classroom observations 29

3.5.3 Analysis of semi-structured interviews 29 3.6 Ethical considerations 29

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS 31

4.1 Teachers’ beliefs about using active learning strategies in teaching writing 31

4.1.1 Findings from the questionnaire 31

4.1.2 Findings from the interviews 37 4.2 Teachers’ practices of using active learning strategies in teaching writing 42 4.2.1 Findings from the questionnaire 42 4.2.2 Findings from the interviews 46

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 60

5.1 Summary of key findings 60

5.2 Discussion 61

5.3 Pedagogical implications 65

5.4 Limitations and recommendations for further research 66

5.5 Conclusions 66

REFERENCES APPENDICES vi LIST OF TABLES List of Tables in Chapter Three Table 3.1 Summary of the questionnaires 23

Table 3.2 Summary of the research instruments 26

Table 3.3 An overview of data collection procedures 28

Table 3.4 Interpretation of the mean scores 28

List of Tables in Chapter Four

Table 4.1 Mean score of teachers’ beliefs about using ALS in teaching writing 31

Table 4.2 One Sample t-Test for teachers’ beliefs 32

Table 4.3 Teachers’ beliefs about using brainstorming in teaching writing 33

Table 4.4 Teachers’ beliefs about using mind mapping in teaching writing 34

Table 4.5 Teachers’ beliefs about questioning in teaching writing 35

Table 4.6 Teachers’ beliefs about using pair work in teaching writing 36

Table 4.7 Mean scores of teachers’ practices 42

Table 4.8 One-Sample t-Test for teachers’ practices 42

Table 4.9 Mean scores of four clusters of teachers’ practices 42

Table 4.10 Mean scores of teachers’ practices of brainstorming in teaching writing 43

Table 4.11 Mean scores of teachers’ practices of mind-mapping in teaching writing 44 Table 4.12 Mean scores of teachers’ practices of questioning in teaching writing 45

Table 4.13 Mean scores of teachers’ practices of pair work in teaching writing 46

Table 4.14 Distribution of Units 49

vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1 Brainstorming benefits for Viet Nam as a member of international organisations.51 Figure 4.2 Diagram of benefits for Viet Nam as a member of international organisations 53

Figure 4.3 Diagram of benefits of blended learning 56

Figure 4.4 Brainstorming types of learning 58

Figure 4.5 Brainstorming benefits when Viet Nam participates in international organizations .59

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

MOET - Ministry of Education and Training

NFLP - National Foreign Languages Projects

HERA - Higher Education Reform Agenda

EFL - English as a Foreign Language

SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

AL- Active Learning

ALS - Active Learning Strategies

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION _ 1.1 Introduction

This chapter provides the rationale for the research and describes a detailed account ofthe educational context in Vietnam It details the current government policy on activelearning, which underpins this study The chapter concludes with a summary of keypoints and an outline of the thesis structure

1.2 Rationale

English plays a crucial role in global integration due to its widespread use in variousaspects of life worldwide such as politics, economics, health care, education, andentertainment Its importance has grown, mirroring the interconnectedness of our global

society Consequently, teaching and learning English have become critical issues ineducational systems worldwide, including in non-native English-speaking countries likeVietnam (Nguyen & Nguyen, 2007).

In Vietnam, English language education is not merely a personal interest but anational strategy, as outlined in the period from 2017 to 2025 (Prime Minister, 2017).The Prime Minister’s strategic plan underscores the significance of English education,mandating it as a compulsory subject from primary through tertiary levels (Nguyen etal., 2015) Each educational stage sets expectations for students to achieve standardizedlevels of English proficiency A study by Trinh and Mai (2018) highlighted therequirement for English proficiency at different educational levels

Vietnam's educational system has gradually evolved in response to social changesand global development in recent years Recognizing the importance of the Englishlanguage, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET, 2008) of Vietnam launchedthe National Foreign Languages Project (NFLP) to enhance the quality of languageteaching and learning, including English since 2008 The current Vietnamesegovernment emphasizes the urgent need to improve foreign language education at alllevels to meet students' needs, aligning with the 2020 vision for higher education inVietnam (The Government of Vietnam, 2008) In 2005, the government adoptedHERA, a reform plan aimed at establishing a higher education system by 2020 that is

“advanced by international standards, highly competitive, and appropriate to thesocialist-oriented market mechanism” (Dao and Martin, 2010, p 132)

Despite spending at least seven years studying English at the general educationlevel, several Vietnamese students struggle to achieve proficiency (Nguyen et al.,2015) This issue can be attributed to numerous factors, including the prevalent use oftraditional teaching methods Stone (2017) notes that the teacher-centered approach

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often leads to student boredom and demotivation, resulting in passive learning devoid

of passion or purpose (Jeno, 2015) This traditional teaching method focuses on thetransmission of knowledge through teacher-directed, well-structured, and organizedinformation delivery, which is often seen as efficient for managing large classes

(Rodriguez, 2008)

Although the Vietnamese government has raised awareness about the need forchanges in teaching and learning English to better meet the learners’ needs, severalproblems persist in English language teaching First, Pham and Jonathan (2010) haveshown that traditional teaching methods are still prevalent, with students passivelyrecording information as teachers verbally present it to them Similarly, Nguyen andKay (2009) state that the passive transmission of information in a lecture format, wherelecturers speak and students listen, does not promote student-teacher interaction or deeplearning Second, Dao and Martin (2010) highlight a significant challenge for theeducation system: developing an infrastructure for institutional self-governance,building expertise, and harmonizing relevant legislative and regulatory provisions.Third, Trinh and Mai (2018) identify several challenges in the Vietnamese context,including large class sizes, lack of teaching facilities, inappropriate materials, lowstudent motivation, and a testing-oriented system

In most Vietnamese classes, the standard teaching model involves teachers

providing information while students focus on understanding and memorizing it

(Nguyen, 2014) Consequently, students tend to be passive and reluctant to engageactively in classroom activities Although the Ministry of Teaching and Training

(MoET) in Vietnam has advocated for reforms to emphasize communicative-oriented,hands-on training in language education, testing still heavily measures students’

achievement through form-based tests Therefore, teachers often revert to traditionalform-based teaching methods rather than applying MoET recommended approacheslike communicative or task-based language teaching (Nguyen & Phuong, 2020)

Stephen and colleagues (2006) claim the teaching and learning of English byVietnamese teachers and students as primarily a teacher-centered approach, whichinvolves listening to lectures, taking notes, and replicating knowledge for examinations.Thompson (2009) explains the rationale behind this traditional approach by pointing tothe influence of Confucian ethics, which encourage students from an early age to beobedient and quiet in the classroom As a result, a docile, respectful, and peacefullearning style is promoted, discouraging students from asking questions, talking, andexpressing their opinions This dynamic positions the teacher as the dominant figure inthe classroom, providing few opportunities for students to engage creatively inmeaningful activities and constructing new knowledge independently (Nguyen, 2014).Thus, the active learning (AL) approach has emerged as a potentially successfulalternative for communicative language teaching because of its essential characteristics

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(Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Lumpkin et al., 2015; Silberman, 1996) It has beeneffectively implemented in some Asian contexts (Nonkukhetkhong et al., 2006; Yusuk,2020) Active learning is considered learner-centered education method (Pedersen &Liu, 2003) and promotes student motivation (Harasim et al., 1997) Active learninggenerally yields beneficial results for both students and teachers It allows students topractice language skills, improve retention, and develop critical thinking According toDole and colleagues (2007), students engaged in higher-order thinking to solve issuesachieve higher scores than those who learn from traditional textbooks withoutunderstanding, analyzing, and constructing knowledge Additionally, active learningbenefits teachers

by enabling them to access students’ knowledge and hold them accountable for theirlearning process

Active learning strategies are essential for enhancing English language learning asthey encourage student engagement and participation (Bonwell & Eison, 1991) Thesestrategies help improve communication skills by incorporating discussions, roleplaying, and group work, allowing students to practice speaking, listening, reading, andwriting in real-life contexts They also promote critical thinking by fostering debatesand problem-solving activities, prompting students to analyze language and constructmeaning Additionally, active learning boosts students' confidence by providing asupportive environment for language practice, particularly speaking and listening.Moreover, active learning reinforces vocabulary and grammar retention throughinteractive tasks such as brainstorming and collaborative writing (Blaz, 2022) By

offering differentiated instruction tailored to students' individual preferences and needs,active learning can personalize their learning process.

Writing is a crucial skill where students reflect on class materials to deepen theirunderstanding (Bangert-Drowns et al., 2004; Graham & Hebert, 2011) Whilenumerous studies have explored teachers' beliefs and practices of active learning inclassrooms (Teshome, 2013; Mulatu & Bezabih, 2018; Amare & Dagnew, 2020), fewhave specifically addressed the use of active learning strategies in teaching writing inrural high schools in Vietnamese contexts To address this gap, the current studyentitled "English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers’ beliefs and practices of usingactive learning strategies in teaching writing to grade 10 students in rural schools inBen Tre province" aims to examine teachers’ beliefs and practices regarding activelearning approaches and explore whether teachers in rural high schools in Ben Treprovince, located in the Mekong Delta of Vietnam, implemented active learningstrategies Pedagogical implications and insights for implementing active learning inrural high school settings were made

1.3 Significance of the study

This study holds significant implications for teachers, students, school administrators,and educational experts

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For teachers, the research sheds light on their beliefs and practices regardingactive learning strategies in teaching writing, offering insights that can enhance teachertraining programs tailored to the specific needs of EFL teachers

Students benefit from creating an interactive learning environment that fosters active

participation and collaboration Understanding the challenges teachers face inpromoting active learning empowers students to take a more active role in their learningprocess and collaborate effectively with peers, thereby enriching classroom dynamics.School administrators and educational experts can leverage the findings from thisstudy to inform decisions on instructional strategies, curriculum development, andteacher professional development initiatives aimed at enhancing writing skills amonggrade 10 students Insights from the study can guide administrators in creatingsupportive environments conducive to implementing active learning approaches,thereby promoting student engagement and academic achievement in writing.Furthermore, the study addresses the unique needs and circumstances of rural schools,providing valuable guidance for developing targeted resources and support systems.This can aid educational experts in crafting effective professional developmentprograms, instructional materials, and policy recommendations aimed at improvingwriting pedagogy in similar educational contexts

1.4 Summary

This chapter has examined the critical influences on education in Vietnam It hasdescribed the complexities and the challenges after more than two decades of applyingthe policy changes The need for change, particularly in the form of active learningstrategies in EFL classes, sets high demands for the role of teachers They are nowexpected to provide an active learning environment for students to maximize the use of

English to construct their new knowledge The following chapter will present theliterature related to the study.

1.5 Organization of the study

This study is organized into five chapters Chapter One explores the critical nationalinfluences on education in Vietnam, which was the key impact for investigating teacherchange in English practice The need for active learning in high school classes sets highdemands for the role of teachers Chapter Two reviews the literature on teachers’beliefs, active learning, and writing skills and presents research aims and researchquestions that guide the study Chapter Three examines the quantitative and qualitativemethodology and details the investigative tools used to collect data Chapter Fourreports the findings from the questionnaire, interviews, classroom observations and thethree teachers' challenges in EFL teaching practice within the rural high schoolcontext Chapter Five discusses the findings of the study by summarizing the essentialfindings, drawing conclusions, and recommendations for future research

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CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW _ 2.1 Introduction

This chapter begins by defining teacher beliefs and provides a working definition

of teacher beliefs in this study The concept of active learning is then defined ininternational literature Next, a detailed account of active learning strategies isproposed Following this, a synthesis is provided of the key themes in the writingprocess, and finally, there is a brief discussion of previous studies in relation to activelearning The chapter concludes with a summary of the key points, the research aims,and the research questions that frame the methodological design, which will bediscussed in Chapter Three

2.2 Teachers’ beliefs

It has been commonly argued that teacher beliefs can influence instructional practices(Pajares, 1992) and enhance student learning (Nguyen et al., 2019) Teachers’ beliefsare viewed as how teachers think about their actions (Pajares, 1992) This results inunderstanding how teachers can improve their practices (Le & Nguyen, 2017; Nespor,1987) Specifically, there is increased recognition of the importance of teachers' beliefsabout change in the teaching and learning of foreign languages (Nguyen, 2013).Teachers’ beliefs shape how teachers evaluate their actions about student learning(Nespor, 1987; Pajares, 1992) These beliefs can be powerful determinants of teachers’decisions about their actions in their classes (Bandura, 1986; Hall, 2005)

Several previous studies have found that teachers’ beliefs impact theirinstructional practices (Borg and Al-Busaidi, 2012; Feryok, 2008) These scholarssuggest that beliefs significantly affect teachers' actions and teaching practices.However, there have not been any studies that have examined teachers’ beliefs aboutusing active learning strategies in rural schools within the Vietnamese context of

English as a foreign language Therefore, this paper specifically focuses on this area ofinterest and adds to the literature on using active learning in rural schools in a province

of the Mekong Delta As a result, EFL teachers in this study are aware of the increasedexpectation for them to include more active learning practices

For the purposes of this study, teachers' beliefs are defined as their understandingand attitudes towards their actions and decisions in the classroom These beliefs shapehow teachers approach teaching writing using active learning strategies, influencingtheir instructional methods and interactions with students

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2.3 Active learning

2.3.1 Defining Active Learning

There are several definitions of active learning in the literature According to adefinition provided by Bonwell and Eison (1991), active learning activities are

“instructional activities involving students in doing things and thinking about whatthey are doing” (p.2) The active learning approach focuses more on developingstudents’ skills than on transmitting information and makes students do somethingthrough reading, discussing, or writing that requires higher-order thinking throughactivities They tend to place some emphasis on students’ explorations of their ownattitudes and values They suggest some techniques/activities that teachers shouldapply or implement in classrooms to foster active learning and make the learnersactively engage in what they are learning, thus enhancing students’ participation in thelearning process The major ones are presented as the following: brainstorming, groupwork, concept mapping, cooperative learning, inquiry learning, discovery learning,problem-solving, role play, graphic organizing, inductive approach, discussion, projectwork, task-based learning, peer teaching, critical thinking, debate, and games

Bonwell and Eison (1991) emphasize that active learning extends beyondmemorizing to examine, synthesize, and assess complex problems with the possibility

of discovering several answers According to Adler (1999), active learning is a process

in which learners are responsible for their education rather than the instructor As analternative to the traditional method, active learning has been widely used in teachingand learning (Armbruster et al., 2009) In particular, research has indicated that activelearning strategies have positively affected the student learning process (Nguyen, 2014;Prince, 2004)

A relevant literature search identifies two critical active learning featuresapplicable to this study First, active learning generally refers to student participationand interaction Active involvement in the learning process implies that students areowners and generators of new knowledge rather than passive receivers of information(Armstrong, 1983) Second, active learning involves that students are engaged in doingmeaningful activities and thinking about what they are doing (Bonwell & Eison, 1991).This view embraces the importance of higher-order cognitive processes (e.g., analysis,synthesis, and evaluation) as highlighted in Bloom’s (1956) taxonomy

Harasim and colleagues (1997) supported the idea that active learning iscomparable to teachers in promoting the mastery of content but surpasses teachers infostering the development of students' skills in thinking and writing When activelearning is combined with critical thinking abilities, students' attitudes toward theirlearning may improve (Smith et al., 2005) This view implies that much of the learningresponsibility lies with students Therefore, active learning involves a student-centeredapproach and increased learner autonomy, with students being responsible for their

2.3.2 Characteristics of Active Learning

Bonwell and Eison (1991) indicate five characteristics of active learning The first twocharacteristics of active learning are that it engages students in doing more than justlistening to lectures and involves them in activities (Bonwell & Eison, 1991) Thisapproach encourages students to discuss their learning, frequently linking it to theirprior experiences This statement is consistent with Cross's (1987) view, whichsuggests that students actively participate in tasks when they know more than passivelyreceive information from the teacher Additionally, active learning enhancesinformation retention and recall (Berry, 2008; Cherny, 2008; Yazedjian & Kolkhorst,2007)

Thirdly, active learning emphasizes skill development over simple informationdelivery (Bonwell & Eison, 1991) Kember and Leung (2005) found that activelearning environments could enhance students' communication and interpersonalabilities They suggest active learning fosters critical and creative thinking,problem-solving, and flexibility improvements Moreover, group work, a specific type

of active learning, helps students develop practical collaboration skills and find correctanswers (Jackson et al., 2014)

The fourth characteristic of active learning is that it engages students in higherorder thinking (Bonwell & Eison, 1991) Studies by Ramezani and colleagues (2016)and Zare and Biria (2018) found a significant positive correlation between criticalthinking and reading comprehension Students with critical thinking abilities typicallydemonstrate superior comprehension skills

Finally, active learning significantly examines students' attitudes and values(Bonwell & Eison, 1991) The National Council of Educational Research and Traininghighlights that active learning strategies, such as questioning and group discussions,allow students to explore novel ways of thinking These approaches help studentsanswer open-ended questions, become conscious of the diverse views, express theirideas clearly, and work together to solve problems

2.3.3 Active Learning Strategies

In this part, among the growing body of eight active learning strategies, four strategies

are used in writing for the current study: brainstorming, questioning, mind mapping,and pair work These strategies are based on literature of previous studies, including:

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Think-Pair-Share

In the think-pair-share activity, students work in pairs to share ideas on a problem orquestion the lecturer gives The way students work in pairs allows them to exchangeideas, ensuring their lecture participation Such an activity is also helpful in ensuringthat the lecture contains students’ discussion and the sharing of opinions and ideas.Students are given the opportunity to talk to one another, share ideas, and respond toquestions Students are given a relatively short time to think and then share theirthoughts in pairs After sharing ideas in pairs, students are further asked to share themwith the whole class

Sahardin and colleagues (2017) concluded that the Think-Pair-Share technique is

a method that enables students to organize their thoughts and materials beforeproducing the final product In this strategy, students are given time to think andguided to do things through questions posed by the teacher Therefore, during thisphase, they can develop their ideas into complex ones before sharing them with the rest

of the class

Pair work

Storch's (1999, 2005, 2007, 2011) studies examine the effect of pair work on English as

a second language learning Storch (1999) finds that pair work improves grammaticalaccuracy and provides more opportunities for communication than teacher-frontedclassrooms In 2005, Storch indicates that pair work helps students produce moreaccurate text instead of individual work In 2007, Storch examined pair work in textediting tasks, revealing that pair work allows students to use the second language forvarious functions and, in turn, for learning Storch's (2011) study explores the context,process, and outcomes of pair work in writing, concluding that it facilitates writingthrough peer discussion

Moreover, pair work activities allow students to interact with each other, use thelanguage, and solve language-related problems Pair work assists the students inproducing a more linguistically accurate text Thus, students are allowed to questiontheir language use and give feedback to one another (Dobao, 2012)

Group work

Group work includes more than two members There are four to six members in groupwork It is often referred to as small or cluster grouping Harmer (2006) states that ingroup work, the students can discuss the text together in a team of more than threepersons In this model, the students can share their knowledge, ideas, and arguments onone topic and respect others’ ideas Learners can also apply their expertise and remindthemselves about their responsibilities in working in groups (Alemu, 2010) It fostersstudent engagement and autonomy in their learning experience

Questioning

Teachers and students interested in probing thinking at a deep level should constructSocratic questions (Etemadzadeh et al., 2013; Paul & Elder, 2019) Well-knownAthenian philosopher Socrates believed that a disciplined practice of thoughtfulquestioning enables learners to produce ideas logically Socratic questions can bephrased in three ways:

•Exploring a general aspect of course material

•Encouraging creativity and brainstorming

•Focusing attention on a specific problem

Moreover, the teachers in a study conducted by Pham and Hamid (2013) asked

questions for three main purposes:

• The questioning aimed to highlight important information for students and almosthalf of the teachers’ questions were formulated in two parts: the information thatthe teachers wanted to draw students’ attention to and ‘Right/OK’ at the end

• Teacher questions would like to elicit students’ responses by helping them toexpress their ideas and opinions on various issues The teachers often arousedstudents’ interest and curiosity in the lead-in part

• Teacher questions gave students the recast feedback

Teachers repeated students’ answers with rising intonation so they might be aware oftheir mistakes and self-correct In addition, Bonwell and Eison (1991) state that thethree most productive types of questions were structured to raise students’ criticalthinking, including playground questions, brainstorming questions, and focalquestions

One-minute paper

Stead (2005) states that a one-minute paper is recognized as a highly successfultechnique for tracking learners' progress and interacting with them since it provides theinstructor and the class with fast and thorough feedback Specifically, student repliesreveal which concepts need to be understood or are misconstrued In addition, the oneminute paper can be done individually or in small groups and conducted at thebeginning, middle, or end of a lesson Furthermore, students’ opinions of this strategyare favorable in both small and large-group teaching (Stead, 2005) Questions in theone-minute paper model should be open-ended and used purposefully to achieve welldefined goals

Discussion

According to Reznitskaya and colleagues (2001), discussions can expose learners todifferent viewpoints, encourage them to express their own thoughts and provideopportunities for their views to be debated by their peers Social interaction can lead to

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the acquisition of cognitive and social skills that an individual can apply in manysituations independently Moreover, students can discuss activities in groups orcomplete them individually Students can discuss aspects of the activity with others ormay be asked to write about their understanding alone or with one team memberresponsible for composing the group's answer (Linton et al., 2014) Bonwell and Eison(1991) concluded that a good discussion demands careful planning, thoughtfulimplementation, and a supportive classroom environment It requires an instructor'sknowledge of questioning techniques, strategies, and styles for involving discussion.

Mind Mapping

Buzan (2006, 2018) explained that mind mapping is a simpler and more enjoyable wayfor students to memorize information while processing information more creatively,analytically, and multidimensionally than conventional note-taking Therefore, Davies(2011) commented that mind mapping allows students to explore and imagineassociations between concepts and comprise a network of connected and relatedconcepts Spontaneous thinking is required when creating a mind map, and mindmapping aims to find creative associations between ideas ‘Free-form’ andunconstrained structure are the advantages of mind mapping The ideas and links areunlimited, and retaining an ideal structure or format in mind mapping is unnecessary.Therefore, it promotes creative thinking and encourages ‘brainstorming’

Moreover, Isa and colleagues (2019) found that mind mapping can inspirestudents to write, help them become self-regulated in what they write, and motivatethem to complete their writing tasks Creating an association of ideas is the main use ofmind mapping

Brainstorming

Some defining characteristics of brainstorming include several ways of thinking,breaking old thoughts, linking different concepts, expanding the borders of thoughts,and seeking problem-solving (Shirvani & Porkar, 2021; Tsai et al., 2020) In addition,brainstorming is a cooperative activity teachers use to develop ideas for sharing andgroup activities in their classes However, it can be implemented with even oneindividual and may cultivate perspective-taking (Shirvani & Porkar, 2021) Teachersencourage students to reflect on a topic and help them access plenty of ideas bybrainstorming (Rashtchi & Porkar, 2020) Several researchers have allocated differentroles to brainstorming, such as activating prior knowledge (Mantra et al., 2023;Nugraha & Indihadi, 2019) and creating ideas (Hidayanti et al., 2018; Rahmawati,2019)

Rashtchi and Porkar (2020) suggested that brainstorming in L2 writing facilitatesidea generation and assists in structuring learners' thoughts for writing Amoush (2015)examined the role of brainstorming in EFL learners’ writing and showed itseffectiveness and priority over traditional teaching methods This problem-solvingmode

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is considered to be of different types, including nominal, conventional, and electronic.Brainstorming typically involves various groups presenting related ideas to be

categorized while fulfilling a task Engaged learners in brainstorming encountervarious viewpoints by sharing ideas with peers Brainstorming stimulates their thinkingskills and curiosity for new ideas (Amoush, 2015; Ryoo et al., 2018).

2.3.4 Advantages and disadvantages of active learning

Several studies demonstrate that active learning positively impacts students' learningoutcomes In particular, active learning in the classroom has distinct advantages, asBonwell and Eison (1991) and Malik (2011) suggest These features are shown in thefollowing section

• Active learning enhances content knowledge, critical thinking, and problemsolving abilities

• Active learning promotes motivation and attention to learning for students andinstructors

• Active learning enhances the development of critical and creative thinking,problem-solving, adaptability, communication, and interpersonal skills •

Active learning promotes students' positive attitudes toward learning • Activelearning promotes learning through engaging more deeply with the coursecontent, building invaluable social skills, and collaboration and interaction withother students

• Active learning promotes learning with real-life situations, as activities in theclass allow students to use language in authentic settings

• Through involvement in activities, students develop their self-esteem In otherwords, the activities increase the concept of self as they perceive that theycan perform well in class and contribute to the group

• Active learning enhances the development of knowledge retaliation

However, long-term retention, understanding, and transfer result from

learners’ effortful work for those engaged in active learning with sensemaking activities

However, Bonwell and Eison (1991) indicate that there are disadvantages to the use ofactive learning These include:

• One cannot cover as much content in the time available;

• Devising strategies promoting active learning takes too much preparationbefore class;

• Large classes prevent implementation of such strategies; and

• Materials or equipment needed to support active learning are lacking

of words and sentences (Oshima & Hogue, 2002) It means the writer must consider theway of combining and arranging sentences Meanwhile, Hyland (2003) states thatwriting is an activity to express ideas and share the writer’s experience with the readerusing written language By writing, the author can deliver information and messages tothe reader without meeting the writer directly The information might be in the form ofpictures, words, codes, and sentences.

Writing is the nature of the composing process Written products are often theresult of thinking, drafting, and revising procedures that require specialized skills thatnot every speaker develops naturally (Brown, 2003) Based on the explanation above, itcan be concluded that the definition of writing is the process of exploring ideas,thinking about how to express them, and organizing them into statements andparagraphs which the purpose is used to communicate something with other peopleindirectly, the student gets effort to express mind through language in writing Thisidea is also supported by Nunan, which explains that writing is the process of thinking

to discover ideas, thinking about how to express ideas into good writing, and arrangingideas into statement and paragraph clearly (Nunan, 2003)

For the purposes of this study, writing is defined as an individual’s ability to

communicate with others through written language

2.4.2 Process of writing

Teachers interact with their students to encourage and make them more enthusiasticabout the writing-learning process Teachers become facilitators in improving anddiscovering students’ writing processes According to Gebhard (2000), there are fourstages in the writing process: prewriting, drafting, revising, and editing

Prewriting

The first stage is Prewriting In this stage, before the students write, they will choosethe topic they will write about Then, the students will collect information and ideasbased on the topic

• Choose a topic: Students choose a topic they like, which will get students excited

to write about the data on their topic

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• Make an outline

• Use the 5 W and H grid to learn more about the data on their topic •

Form a group to discuss and discuss our ideas with others

• Find out what you already know and what you still need to learn

Drafting

The second stage of the writing process is the draft In the second stage, students begindrafting or writing after gathering data and some sources from the first stage This iswhere students need to think about grammar and writing They focus on designing andcollecting their ideas

Revising is the third stage in the writing process This stage can be called the re-seestage The students will re-see their writing, which was written in stage two In thisstage, the students need to go back into drafting to check whether the topic is coherence

or not with their draft

Editing

The fourth stage in the writing process is editing Here, after the students revise theirwriting, the students should see for mistakes in their writing, such as punctuation,spelling, capitalization, etc It would be better if the students asked someone to readtheir writing because it could help them identify mistakes and which parts still needclarification

2.4.3 Elements of Writing

The writing process includes and combines some elements to create a good product.Thus, Cohen (1994) proposes that there are five elements in the writing process, thoseare:

• Content

This element consists of information related to the topic, the development thesis,the development of information, and so on The topic should be in the writer'sopinion

• Grammar

The students must show how they use grammar because it is essential in writingactivities It is supported by Harmer (2006), who said that grammar plays a vitalrole in writing because oral and written language is constructed by grammar •

Vocabulary

Vocabulary is words that the writer uses in their texts They need to understandthe meanings, forms, and functions of the words, and know how they are used insentences and how they relate to one another in vocabulary

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• Organization

This element shows how well students organize texts well, fluently and

coherently to form a good text, as each type of text has different ways of

organization; often this is referred to as the general structure of the text

Mechanism

It shows the student’s ability to use spelling, punctuation, capitalization,

paragraphing, and handwriting

2.4.4 Characteristics of good writing

Harmer (2006) believes that coherence and unity contribute to well-organized writing.One should follow the mentioned characteristics to write in a more coherent, united

way

• Coherence

If all supporting sentences are in good order, the paragraph is based on

coherence The order principle depends on the type of paragraph As a firstexample, the coherence of a descriptive paragraph is based on spatial order.Positional prepositions (in, over, behind, beside, under, etc.) help us achievespatial order Secondly, the coherence of a narrative paragraph is based ontemporal order Time-related transitions help us increase the coherence of anarrative paragraph.

• Unity

The last characteristic of good paragraph writing is unity When all thesupporting sentences are related to the topic sentence, in this case the paragraphhas unity If a paragraph has a sentence unrelated to the topic sentence, it is anirrelevant sentence, and it must be omitted (Boardman & Frydenberg, 2008)

to compose the raw materials into a text Moreover, moving from a product-basedapproach to a process-focused approach should focus on EFL teachers at universities or

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colleges in their teaching of writing This shift may contribute to activating students’thinking and creating ideas for a writing task However, the findings from this study didnot focus on teachers’ practices of using brainstorming in writing; rather it only focused

on the effects of brainstorming on students’ performance in a university

In a Malaysian context, Etemadzadeh and colleagues (2013) conducted anexperimental study to examine whether asking questions before writing improvesstudents' writing quality The participants were included 60 secondary students studying

in a school in Malaysia The findings reveal that participants who received two weeks

of treatment demonstrated a 17% improvement in their writing skills Therefore, thefindings suggested that questioning is an effective technique in provoking students towrite It was found that by using the questioning technique in the experimental group,the student’s confidence and critical thinking were aroused by answering the questionsgiven to them The students were responsible for participating in the discussion andengaged in meaningful communicative language while the activity was conducted inthe classroom However, this study failed to discuss teachers’ practices ofimplementing questioning in writing; it focused only on the role of the questioningtechnique in developing thinking skills for secondary students in Malaysia

A study conducted by Mulatu and Bezabih (2018) examined the perceptions andpractices of EFL teachers in implementing active learning in English lessons with threesecondary schools in Genna Bossa Woreda of Dawro Zone A total of 12 teachers and

60 students of high, medium, and low achievers participated in the study throughavailability and purposive sampling techniques Data collected include observationchecklists, questionnaires, and interviews The findings indicate that most of theteachers involved in the study have perceived active learning as positive in theirpractices The findings reveal that school teachers often used explanations/lectures,discussions, group or pair work, and independent student work through homework orassignments However, other active learning techniques that promote critical thinking,such as brainstorming, discovery learning, problem-solving, inquiry learning, casestudies, and project methods, were rarely used in teaching English

Another study conducted by Abedianpour and Omidvari (2018) examined theimpact of employing a brainstorming strategy as a pre-writing strategy on the writingperformance of Iranian advanced EFL learners In addition, the study sought toinvestigate the participants' attitudes regarding the efficacy of brainstorming fordeveloping writing performance The findings indicate that learners who were treatedwith brainstorming made significant progress in writing Additionally, questionnairescores indicate that most learners found brainstorming helpful in enhancing theirwriting skills The findings highlight brainstorming as a pre-writing strategy indeveloping EFL students’ writing skills is effective However, this study failed todiscuss teachers’ practices of using brainstorming in writing; rather it focused on thelearners' attitudes

in secondary classrooms to meet students’ needs and a personal examination of one’sown beliefs However, the findings from this study did not focus on teachers’ practices

in writing, and the research reported here relied only on self-reporting beliefs

A study conducted by Hsiang and colleagues (2020) surveyed 782 Chineselanguage arts teachers in Taiwan from grades 1 to 3 about teachers’ beliefs and theirwriting teaching practices The findings show that 37% of teachers taught writing daily,with an average lesson duration of 52 minutes, but 60% taught writing only once aweek or less Teachers felt inadequately prepared to teach writing but had a slightlypositive attitude toward their own writing, teaching efficacy, and their students'progress Teachers agreed that explicit instruction is essential when teaching writingbut disagreed that natural learning approaches are true They slightly agreed that effort

and process are crucial ingredients to becoming a good writer but disagreed thatlearning and knowledge in writing are fixed However, this study only focused onteachers’ practices through self-report and did not employ classroom observations.

In a Thai context, Tarin and Yawiloeng (2022) conducted a study to explore thelinks between the use of mind mapping and writing development in writing processeswith 30 high school students Data collected include test, observation, and semistructured interview The findings reveal that using mind-mapping and writingstrategies by EFL students to enhance their writing abilities through translating,memorizing, revising, and evaluating Mind-mapping strategies also encouraged theEFL students’ English vocabulary skills, writing processes, and positive attitudestoward L2 writing In addition, this study suggested that Thai EFL students canaccomplish higher writing scores after using the mind map while engaging in writingactivities Thus, the key findings result in educational suggestions regarding theimportance of thinking tools regarding the connections between pictorial and writteninformation However, the findings of this study focused on the effectiveness of using

a mind map on EFL students, and did not discuss teachers’ beliefs and practices

in this study The findings from this study show that although there was a generalcongruence between teachers’ beliefs and practices, there were discrepancies-frommoderate to substantial-between what the teachers believed and what they did in theclass concerning four kinds of knowledge, including conceptual knowledge, factualknowledge, and procedural knowledge, and meta-cognitive knowledge However, thisstudy focused on investigating thirteen beginning tertiary EFL teachers; it failed todiscuss other levels, such as high schools, secondary schools, or language centers

In a Vietnamese context, Tran and Phuong (2018) conducted a study to investigatethe impact and attitudes of the Questioning and Semantic map in the pre-reading stage

on EFL-gifted high school students’ reading comprehension on 52 gifted students fromtwo science classes for twelfth graders Two reading proficiency tests and individualinterviews were used to collect data The findings reveal that both Questioning andSemantic maps positively impacted gifted students’ reading comprehension Especiallythe students who received Semantic treatment had significantly better improvement intheir reading skills The findings shed light on what could be done to improve EFLstudents’ reading performance However, the study was centered on the impact ofquestioning and semantic maps on reading skills for gifted students Thus, further studyneeds to focus on other language skills for rural students

Nguyen and his colleagues (2019) conducted a study to provide insights into howparticipating in qualitative study challenged traditional beliefs about teaching practices

in Specific Purposes (ESP) Science classes at a university in Vietnam Interviews,

observations, and planning meetings were used with eight Science lecturers teachingESP for an English action research approach The findings reveal that lecturers wereencouraged to use positive pedagogical shifts from traditional lecturing to moreconstructivist approaches to teaching and learning over the time of the study However,the findings from this study did not address high school EFL teachers’ practices.Rather,

it focused on ESP Science lecturers for all four English skills in general

Another study conducted by Ngo and Tran (2021) aimed to investigate thepractices of mind maps regarding the rate of occurrence, the phases in writing, and theperceptions of first-year students at the Faculty of English, University of Danang, whenusing mind maps to boost their writing skills Data collection techniques are classroomobservation, interviews, and questionnaires for freshmen students The findings showthat using the mind mapping technique significantly impacted the improvement ofwriting skills among first-year students The research highlights that the freshmenfavored the effectiveness of using mind mapping in writing skills at different rates andthat they frequently used mind maps during the pre-writing stage However, this study

instrument only employed a questionnaire despite considering teachers’ practices

A descriptive study by Nguyen and Le (2022) examined secondary and highschool (K-12) students’ perceptions about the advantages and disadvantages of writtenfeedback by questioning in writing Data collected in their study include questionnairesand focus-group interviews The findings reveal a significant increase in students'motivation due to teachers' use of motivational strategies The findings show thatwritten feedback by questioning took the students a lot of time so as to correct themistakes From the findings, the researchers recognized that the role of administratorswas essential in providing training to EFL K-12 teachers before applying writtenfeedback by questioning in writing in certain K-12s However, the findings from thisstudy were centered on students at a private school in the Mekong Delta, for 16 weeks.Thus, the result could not be generalized to all EFL K-12 students in Vietnam.Moreover, the study results are largely based on self-reported information from thestudents who participated in the research Additionally, there were no observations orother methods to check the self-reported data

2.6 Summary

Various findings have been drawn from the literature review, but gaps still need to beaddressed Firstly, previous studies have relied on self-reports from teachers andstudents, which may not reflect the reality of classroom teaching practices Only a fewstudies have observed active learning strategies in language classrooms Secondly, moststudies have focused only on university teachers’ beliefs Therefore, there is a need toinvestigate EFL teachers' beliefs and practices in using active learning strategies inteaching writing in rural high school settings However, little research has been done toinvestigate teachers' beliefs and practices of using active learning strategies, namelybrainstorming, mind mapping, pair work, and questioning, in teaching writing to grade

10 students in rural schools This current research, therefore, fills the gaps

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2.7 Research aims

The research aims to investigate EFL teachers' beliefs and practices of using activelearning strategies to grade 10 students in rural schools in Ben Tre province in theMekong Delta, Vietnam

2.8 Research questions

The study seeks the answers to two questions:

1 What are teachers’ beliefs about using active learning strategies in teachingwriting to grade 10 students in rural schools in Ben Tre province?

2 How do teachers use active learning strategies in teaching writing to grade

10 students in rural schools in Ben Tre province?

CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY _

This chapter describes the research methodology of the current study The researchdesign is presented in relation to the research questions, followed by a description ofthe participants, the research tools, and the data collection and analysis processes

3.1 Research design

This current research was conducted to explore teachers' beliefs and practices of usingactive learning strategies in teaching writing for grade 10 students in rural schools inBen Tre province, such as brainstorming, mind mapping, pair work, group work, andquestioning The study followed a descriptive research design, combining quantitativeand qualitative methods to understand teachers’ beliefs and practices, as Fraenkel andcolleagues (2012) explained Particularly, quantitative data were used to measure thesampling results to the population, whereas qualitative data were aimed at providing a

detailed explanation for the initial quantitative data (Creswell & Creswell, 2022) Usingboth methods, researchers can fully understand the research problem based onnumerical data and in-depth information analysis.

A quantitative approach using questionnaires was utilized to assemble data aboutEFL teachers’ beliefs about using active learning strategies in teaching writing All ofthe participants were asked to respond to the 42-item questionnaire The results wereanalyzed using the Statistic Test of SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences).Observations were conducted to validate the data sources and provide the actualhappenings in the teachers' writing classes The semi-structured interview wasemployed to gather qualitative data and provide more insight into teachers’ practices ofusing active learning strategies in teaching writing

3.2 Research site and participants

to conduct lessons

Students were particularly disinterested in learning English due to their perception

of its difficulty Additionally, teachers primarily focused on test-related skills, such asreading and grammar, while other skills like listening, speaking, and writing, were

Active learning strategies are particularly beneficial for rural high school students

in both teaching and learning writing Four strategies that have been identified as

effective include brainstorming, questioning, mind mapping, and pair work In thisstudy, a descriptive analysis was conducted to examine how these active learningstrategies are implemented in writing classes

3.2.2 Participants

The participants involved in the research were 63 teachers of English from differentrural high schools in Ben Tre Province where active learning strategies wereimplemented in teaching writing To protect identities, all names used in this article arepseudonyms As qualitative research is concerned with smaller samples (Fraenkel et al.,2012), the participant selection criteria were focused on using active learning inteaching writing to grade 10 students in rural schools All teachers participating in thisstudy were teaching at rural high schools in Ben Tre province The teacher

participants’ demographics refer to genders, age ranges, teaching experience, andeducational qualifications from different rural high schools.

This study was conducted with teachers from rural high schools in Ben Treprovince The researcher chose this location because of her 11-year tenure at the school,where she has built a close rapport with the administration and teachers A total of 63high school teachers participated, all of whom were teaching grade 10 students, aged

16, whose first language is Vietnamese These rural students had been learning English

as a foreign language, though their English proficiency remained limited due tominimal exposure to the English language outside the classroom

All English classes lasted 45 minutes per period, and the curriculum was based onEnglish 10-Global Success textbook, which included ten units to be taught throughoutthe school year Each class had between 35 to 45 students At the time of the study,teachers were teaching their students during the second semester of the 2023-2024academic year While none of the teachers had formal training in active learningstrategies, they had varying years of teaching experience and had gained knowledge ofthe English language through professional development courses during previousacademic school years

Of this sample, 23 male teachers (36.5%) and 40 female teachers (63.5%) wereinvited in this study At the time of the study, the number of years they had taughtranged from at least 1 year to 5 years (n = 6), constituting 9.5% of participants Thosewho had

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taught for 5-10 years (n = 7) made up 11.1% Participants who had taught for 11-15years (n = 11) accounted for 17.5% Those with more than 15 years of teachingexperience (n = 39) made up 61.9% Their ages ranged from 26 to 30 (n = 16),constituting 25.4% of participants Those over 35 (n = 47) made up 74.6%

3.3 Instruments

Questionnaires, interviews, and classroom observations were employed to answer theresearch questions These instruments are described in the following section

3.3.1 Questionnaire

3.3.1.1 Rationale for using questionnaires

Questionnaires were used in this study since they were a common instrument forcollecting data in educational research (Fraenkel et al., 2012) This approach allowedfor the collection of a large amount of data from many participants relatively quickly(Creswell, 2014) Moreover, electronic questionnaires were distributed to participantsvia email or online platforms, and the data can be automatically collected and analyzedusing software programs Consequently, this instrument was deemed appropriate tocollect data for this study

3.3.1.2 Questionnaire design

A demographic part was included to gather information on participants’ gender, age,years of experience teaching English, years of experience teaching English to grade 10students, degree, and current high school location At the end of the demographic part,there were closed-ended questions, including two clusters to investigate the teachers'

beliefs and practices about using active learning strategies such as brainstorming, mindmapping, pair work, and questioning in teaching writing skills According to Fraenkeland colleagues (2012), closed-ended questions are easy to use, score, and code foranalysis on a computer Moreover, participants completing the questionnaire are asked

to indicate their agreement with items using from one (strongly disagree) to five(strongly agree) in cluster one: Teachers' beliefs about using active learning strategies

in teaching writing (items 1 to 20) Additionally, cluster two was teachers' practices ofusing active learning strategies in teaching writing (items 21 to 40) with Likert scalesabout frequency from always to never

Apart from the personal information section, the questionnaire has 40 Likert itemsdivided into two main sections

The second section includes twenty items from four clusters that investigated EFLteachers’ beliefs about using active learning strategies in teaching writing, namelybrainstorming, mind mapping, pair work, and questioning These items wereconstructed based on related studies and definitions from the literature review Theparticipants were asked to express their opinions on the statements based on the format

In addition, there were two open-ended questions, allowing participants to share theiropinions on active learning strategies and the difficulties of using brainstorming, mindmapping, pair work, and questioning in teaching writing Additionally, two open-endedquestions allowed participants to share opinions and challenges related to thesestrategies The mix of question formats was based on Fraenkel et al.'s (2012)recommendations for effective data analysis

Table 3.1 Summary of the questionnaires

Cluster Items

Teachers’ beliefs brainstorming (1), (2), (3), (4), (5) mind mapping (6), (7),

(8), (9), (10)

pair work (11), (12), (13), (14), (15)questioning (16), (17), (18), (19), (20)

(33), (34), (35) using questioning (36), (37), (38), (39), (40) (41), (42)

3.3.1.3 Piloting the questionnaires

A pilot questionnaire was conducted to determine the validity and internal reliabilitybefore being used in the main research Once the questions in the questionnaire havebeen written, the researcher is well advised to try them out with a small sample similar

to the potential participants (Fraenkel et al., 2012) The pilot study tested thequestionnaire on a small group of participants (32 teachers) The goal was to refine thewording and format of the questionnaire, making it easier for respondents tounderstand The SPSS program calculated the piloted results of the questionnaires.Additionally, the

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pilot study assessed the reliability of the questionnaire using Cronbach's Alpha formula.The questionnaire's Cronbach alpha coefficient (α) was 0.88 It means that thequestionnaire is confirmed to be reliable

3.3.1.4 Delivering the questionnaires

The questionnaire was administered to explore EFL teachers’ beliefs and practices ofusing active learning strategies, including brainstorming, mind mapping, pair work, andquestioning, in teaching writing Participants were informed about the purposes of thequestionnaire They were encouraged to provide honest responses, and theconfidentiality of their answers was ensured To enhance understanding and increaseparticipant completion, Vietnamese teachers were given a version of the questionnaire

in Vietnamese to ensure clarity in the questions A snowball sample was conducted inthe current study, so participants were recommended to share the links to thequestionnaire with those who were particularly knowledgeable about the subject of theresearch

3.3.2 Classroom observations

3.3.2.1 Rationale for using observations

Observation was an instrument that enabled the researchers to know how a teacher acts

or if a language teaching activity was used (Fraenkel et al., 2012) Using classroomobservation, the researcher can explore the actual happenings of teachers' practices ofusing active learning strategies in teaching writing This research was based onnaturalistic observation, which involves observing individuals in their natural settings

in classrooms (Fraenkel et al., 2012) These authors note that naturalistic observationallows the researcher to look at specific strategies that could engage students in theirwriting lessons

The second part was a checklist table designed to capture specific teaching strategiesemployed during the writing lesson This table had three columns: the first listed activelearning strategies, particularly during the different stages of the writing lesson Thesecond and third columns were used to indicate whether each observed strategy waspresent (‘Yes’) or absent (‘No’) during the observation The final column was reservedfor additional notes.

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3.3.2.3 Conducting observations

Six classes were selected for observation based on availability at the researcher'sworkplace and from other districts within the province This purposeful selection(Fraenkel et al., 2012) was designed to ensure that the sample represented rural schoolswhile remaining logistically feasible By including classes from different districts, thestudy aimed to capture a diverse range of teaching practices and challenges Thisapproach provided a comprehensive understanding of how active learning strategieswere implemented in rural EFL classrooms

To investigate the teachers’ practices of using active learning strategies in writing,

a classroom observation was carried out using a checklist prepared based on theliterature and in line with the items of the teachers’ questionnaire that focused on theirwriting Six classes of grade ten in four rural high schools selected based on thetextbook Global Success were observed for three weeks, and important activitiespertaining to how writing was taught were recorded in the form of notes Six teacherswere observed under their permission for a three-week period The researcheremphasized teachers’ practices of using active learning strategies (brainstorming, mindmapping, pair work, and questioning) in teaching writing for grade 10 students;therefore, each observation was within forty-five minutes During the observation,video and note-taking were employed to guide the researcher in obtaining detailedinformation Using recording devices to record their observations had severaladvantages (Fraenkel et al., 2012) These authors claimed that the tapes or digital filesmight be replayed many times for continued study and analysis, and a permanentrecord of certain kinds of behaviors was obtained for comparison with later or differentsamples

3.3.3 Semi-structured interviews

3.3.3.1 Rationale for using semi-structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews include questions designed to elicit specific answers fromrespondents (Fraenkel et al., 2012) These authors claim that semi-structured interviewswere used to obtain information that could be compared and contrasted later Therefore,semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect information about teachers’practices of using active learning strategies in teaching writing, namely brainstorming,mind mapping, pair work, and questioning The advantages of an interview were thatthe interviewer could clarify any questions that were obscure and also ask therespondent to expand on answers that were particularly important or revealing(Fraenkel et al., 2012) These authors suggested that interviewing was an important

way for a researcher to check the accuracy of the impressions he or she has gainedthrough observation They indicated that the purpose of interviewing people was todiscover what is on participants’ minds-what they think or how they feel aboutsomething Therefore, the semi-structured interview proved the teachers' advantagesand disadvantages when using active learning

In the introduction section, the interviewer needed to introduce themselves and discussthe purpose of the study The content questions were related to four active learningstrategies such as brainstorming, mind mapping, pair work, and questioning Moreover,interviewer focused on advantages and disadvantages of using active learning strategies

In closing instructions, thanking the interviewee for their time and responding to anyfinal questions was important

The interview questions were related to teachers' experiences with specificstrategies like brainstorming, mind mapping, pair work, and questioning, including howlong they had used each one The questions also focused on the advantages anddisadvantages of these strategies in rural high school settings and sought teachers'suggestions for overcoming difficulties Additionally, the interview explored otheractive learning techniques teachers might use, such as discussion or freewriting, andasked for recommendations to help grade 10 students improve their writing skills inrural schools

3.3.3.3 Piloting the interviews

Piloting the semi-structured interview was an essential step in data collection It isconsistent with Fraenkel and colleagues’ (2012) view that telephone and face-to-faceinterviewers must be trained before administering the survey instrument Furthermore,piloting the interviews helped identify potential issues with the interview questionsused in this study Therefore, it positively supported appropriate modification forresearch questions, making them relevant and focused on the target participants(Creswell, 2014) Two high school teachers were invited to engage in the pilotinterview to assess whether or not the list of interview questions allowed theresearchers to obtain essential information to answer two research questions.Following the pilot phase, the researcher made extensive modifications to ensuredetailed and accurate data collection

3.3.3.4 Conducting semi-structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six high school teachers selected based

on their teaching experience using active learning strategies and their willingness toparticipate Interviewees were informed of the purposes of the study and the importance

of their participation in the current study before the interview The interviews wereconducted in Vietnamese, beginning with open-ended questions, followed by probes to

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elaborate on what each participant said (Cresswell, 2014) Each interview took

approximately 40 to 50 minutes It was carried out in the classroom after the teacher

finished classes or at their convenience A portable recorder recorded six interviews,then transcribed and translated into English for later analysis data

Table 3.2 Summary of the research instruments

Instruments Questionnaires Observation Interview

Functions To collect data

Elicitation format 42 items

including eight clustersFollowing Likert

Observationchecklist and note taking

To gain insights intoteachers’ beliefs andpractices of using activelearning strategies inteaching writingEighteen questions

Response format Written and

online Observed actual happenings

inclassroom

3.4 Data collection procedure

Spoken

The study was carried out within 15 weeks The first two weeks prioritized the pilotedquestionnaires and interviews to check the reliability and comprehensibility of theseresearch instruments During these weeks, an observation checklist and the formulation

of interview questions were formed Two weeks later, the observed participants andinterviewees were invited to the current study to explain the objectives Six participantswere invited to the observation classroom and to participate in face-to-face interviews.While this period, the questionnaires were sent to the participants via email and onlineplatform to collect data to answer the questions related to teachers' beliefs about usingactive learning strategies Six weeks later, data collections were conducted in parallel.Observations were conducted with the six teacher participants in four rural high schoolswhere they taught writing to grade 10 students The data recorded by a digital devicewere transcribed into scenarios after each observation The participants were theninvited to join the interview at their convenience Six teachers were invited tointerviews to deepen their practices in the actual classrooms Data analysis wasconducted five weeks later after the data collection procedure The data were collected

in the second semester of the academic school year 2023-2024 Table 3.3 shows theprocedure of this current study

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