Energy and the Environment James A. Fay Dan S. Golomb OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT MIT-PAPPALARDO SERIES IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Series Editors: ROHAN C. ABEYARATNE AND NAM P. SUH ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT James A. Fay and Dan S. Golomb A XIOMATIC DESIGN:ADVANCES AND APPLICATIONS Nam P. Suh ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT James A. Fay Department of Mechanical Engineering Massachusetts Institute of Technology Dan S. Golomb Department of Environmental, Earth, and Atmospheric Sciences University of Massachusetts Lowell New York ◆ Oxford OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 2002 Oxford University Press Oxford New York Athens Auckland Bangkok Bogot´a Buenos Aires Cape Town Chennai Dar es Salaam Delhi Florence Hong Kong Istanbul Karachi Kolkata Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Mumbai Nairobi Paris S˜ao Paulo Shanghai Singapore Taipei Tokyo Toronto Warsaw and associated companies in Berlin Ibadan Copyright © 2002 MIT Published by Oxford University Press, Inc. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York, 10016 http://www.oup-usa.org Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fay, James A. Energy and the environment / James A. Fay, Dan S. Golomb. p. cm.—(The MIT-Pappalardo Series in Mechanical Engineering) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-19-515092-9 1. Power resources—Environmental aspects. I. Golomb, D. II. Title. III. Series. TD195.E49 F39 2002 333.79 14–dc21 2001036249 Printing number:987654321 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper To Gay and Claire This page intentionally left blank CONTENTS List of Tables xv Foreword xvii Preface xix 1 Energy and the Environment 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.1.1 An Overview of This Text 2 1.2 Energy 6 1.2.1 Electric Power 7 1.2.2 Transportation Energy 8 1.2.3 Energy as a Commodity 9 1.3 The Environment 10 1.3.1 Managing Industrial Pollution 11 2 Global Energy Use and Supply 12 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 Global Energy Consumption 12 2.3 Global Energy Sources 14 2.4 Global Electricity Consumption 16 2.5 Global Carbon Emissions 18 2.6 End-Use Energy Consumption in the United States 19 2.6.1 Industrial Sector 20 2.6.2 Residential Sector 21 2.6.3 Commercial Sector 21 2.6.4 Transportation Sector 22 2.7 Global Energy Supply 22 2.7.1 Coal Reserves 22 2.7.2 Petroleum Reserves 24 2.7.3 Unconventional Petroleum Resources 25 vii viii ◆ CONTENTS 2.7.4 Natural Gas Reserves 25 2.7.5 Unconventional Gas Resources 26 2.7.6 Summary of Fossil Reserves 27 2.8 Conclusion 27 Problems 28 Bibliography 29 3 Thermodynamic Principles of Energy Conversion 30 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 The Forms of Energy 31 3.2.1 The Mechanical Energy of Macroscopic Bodies 31 3.2.2 The Energy of Atoms and Molecules 32 3.2.3 Chemical and Nuclear Energy 32 3.2.4 Electric and Magnetic Energy 33 3.2.5 Total Energy 33 3.3 Work and Heat Interactions 33 3.3.1 Work Interaction 34 3.3.2 Heat Interaction 35 3.4 The First Law of Thermodynamics 35 3.5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 36 3.6 Thermodynamic Properties 37 3.7 Steady Flow 39 3.8 Heat Transfer and Heat Exchange 39 3.9 Combustion of Fossil Fuel 41 3.9.1 Fuel Heating Value 42 3.10 Ideal Heat Engine Cycles 45 3.10.1 The Carnot Cycle 46 3.10.2 The Rankine Cycle 48 3.10.3 The Otto Cycle 51 3.10.4 The Brayton Cycle 53 3.10.5 Combined Brayton and Rankine Cycles 55 3.11 The Vapor Compression Cycle: Refrigeration and Heat Pumps 56 3.12 Fuel Cells 58 3.13 Fuel (Thermal) Efficiency 62 3.14 Synthetic Fuels 63 3.14.1 The Hydrogen Economy 64 3.15 Conclusion 65 Problems 66 Bibliography 68 Contents ◆ ix 4 Electrical Energy Generation, Transmission, and Storage 69 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 Electromechanical Power Transformation 72 4.3 Electric Power Transmission 76 4.3.1 AC/DC Conversion 78 4.4 Energy Storage 78 4.4.1 Electrostatic Energy Storage 78 4.4.2 Magnetic Energy Storage 80 4.4.3 Electrochemical Energy Storage 81 4.4.4 Mechanical Energy Storage 83 4.4.5 Properties of Energy Storage Systems 84 4.5 Conclusion 85 Problems 86 Bibliography 87 5 Fossil-Fueled Power Plants 88 5.1 Introduction 88 5.2 Fossil-Fueled Power Plant Components 89 5.2.1 Fuel Storage and Preparation 89 5.2.2 Burner 90 5.2.3 Boiler 91 5.2.4 Steam Turbine 93 5.2.4.1 Impulse Turbine 93 5.2.4.2 Reaction Turbine 94 5.2.5 Gas Turbine 95 5.2.6 Condenser 96 5.2.7 Cooling Tower 97 5.2.7.1 Wet Cooling Tower 97 5.2.7.2 Dry Cooling Tower 98 5.2.8 Generator 98 5.2.9 Emission Control 99 5.2.9.1 Control of Products of Incomplete Combustion and Carbon Monoxide 99 5.2.9.2 Particle Control 99 5.2.9.3 Sulfur Control 104 5.2.9.4 Nitrogen Oxide Control 109 5.2.9.5 Toxic Emissions 112 5.2.10 Waste Disposal 112 5.3 Advanced Cycles 113 5.3.1 Combined Cycle 113 [...]... country, by energy use sector, and by proportion to population and gross domestic product The inequalities of global energy supply and consumption are discussed Chapter 3 is a refresher of thermodynamics It reviews the laws that govern the conversion of energy from one form to another—that is, the first and second laws of thermodynamics and the concepts of work, heat, internal energy, free energy, and entropy... Furthermore, the population of the world increased severalfold since the preindustrial era, thus requiring the recovery of everincreasing amounts of energy resources However, these resources are not evenly distributed among the countries of the world, and they are finite The principal sources of energy in present societies are fossil energy (coal, petroleum, and natural gas), nuclear energy, and hydroenergy... thinking and problem solving Chapter 1 is a general introduction to the subject of energy, its use, and its environmental effects It is a preview of the subsequent chapters and sets the context of their development In Chapter 2 we survey the world’s energy reserves and resources We review historic trends of energy usage and estimates of future supply and demand This is done globally, by continent and country,... the understanding achieved in core studies Equally important is the quantitative understanding of the contamination of the atmosphere and surface waters by the toxic byproducts of energy use, their effects upon human health and natural ecological systems, and how these effects can be ameliorated by improvements in the technology of energy use We expect that the addition of this volume to the others of... Engineering and Arts and Sciences In all those years a diligent search did not unearth a suitable textbook to match the syllabus of that course To be sure, numerous texts exist on the subjects of energy, energy systems, energy conversion, energy resources, and fossil, nuclear, and renewable energy Also, there are texts on air pollution and its control, effluents and solid waste from energy mining and usage, the. .. renewable energy sources is desirable because they are deemed to cause less environmental damage, and their use would extend the available resources of fossil and nuclear energy In this chapter we describe the supply and consumption patterns of energy in the world today, along with the historical trends, with emphasis on available resources and their rate of depletion In recent years the effects of the global... Q) and India (30.6 Q) The United States consumes 23.2% of the world’s energy with 4.6% of the world’s population; western Europe consumes 16.7% of the world’s energy with 6.5% of the world’s population China consumes about 10% of the world’s energy with 21% of the world’s population, whereas India consumes 3% of the energy with 16.3% of the population Among the listed countries, Canada, Norway, and the. .. ◆ ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 1.3 THE ENVIRONMENT The twentieth century, during which industrialization proceeded even faster than population growth, marked the beginning of an understanding, both popular and scientific, that human activity was having deleterious effects upon the natural world, including human health and welfare These effects included increasing pollution of air, water, and land by the. .. compare it with the minimum energy needed to sustain an individual human life, that of the caloric value of food needed for a healthy diet In the United States, which is among the most intensive users of energy, the average daily fossil fuel use per capita amounts to 56 times the necessary daily food energy intake On the other hand, in India, a developing nation, the energy used is only 3 times the daily... course, improving the use efficiency of energy can result in the lowering of fossil fuel use while 6 ◆ ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT not reducing the social utility of energy availability By combination of all these methods, the rate of rise of atmospheric carbon dioxide can be ameliorated at an economic and social cost that may be acceptable The amelioration of environmental degradation caused by energy use . of energy from one form to another—that is, the first and second laws of thermodynamics and the concepts of work, heat, internal energy, free energy, and entropy. Special attention is given to the combustion. of lecturing on the subject of energy and the environment for the past 10 years at the University of Massachusetts Lowell to students in the Colleges of Engineering and Arts and Sciences. In. to the subject of energy, its use, and its environmental effects. It is a preview of the subsequent chapters and sets the context of their development. In Chapter 2 we survey the world’s energy