Students perceptions of learner autonomy in the blended learning environment an exploratory research project at a vocational institution in hanoi

Students perceptions of learner autonomy in the blended learning environment an exploratory research project at a vocational institution in hanoi

INTRODUCTION

Rationale for the study

The integration of ICT in every aspect of life has dramatically changed the operational mechanism of the whole world In education, the introduction of this integration into teaching and learning has resulted in the proliferation of computer- mediated education - known as e-learning with two most popular forms being online learning, making institutions of all across levels especially higher education change the way to conduct their training (Welsh et al., 2003) to take advantages of the advanced technologies as well as equip their learners with necessary skills to improve their future employability On one hand, e-learning is reported to increase productivity, eliminate the time and geographical barriers, and improve the access flexibility Yet e-learning possesses some undeniable shortcomings such as lack of social interaction and face-to-face contact, inadequate learning strategies, difficulties in adopting a technology system (Flood, 2002) and lack of self-learning skills (Huong, 2018)

Vietnam is a developing country with a young population This demographic feature has granted this country many advantages as well as disadvantages in applying e-learning in education Accordingly, the young population can guarantee a high level of internet self - efficacy which seems to be attractive and becoming a popular trend while developing economies cannot ensure a well-established infrastructure for all learners, especially learners in remote areas Besides, Vietnam has a long tradition of Confucian in education, featuring the center of teachers and obedience Particularly, Vietnamese students show high teacher reliance and an authoritarian view of the teacher roles in the classroom (Le, 2013) These features are likely to become barriers to e-learning implementation where learner self- efficacy is vital and learning process is considered to take various forms, teacher‟s lecturing is just one of those

Fortunately, the employment of blended learning in EFL education programs is

2 considered an affirmative answer to the growth in enrollment, as English is one of the compulsory subjects in most Vietnamese higher education institutions, besides being an important component in increasing diversity of students‟ learning needs (Hoang, 2015) Taking the global trend in education, since 2000, the Vietnamese government has issued policies to promote the development of e-learning According to the forecast of Insight (2014), in the period 2013 - 2018 Vietnam has planned to become one of the top ten countries with the highest self-paced e- learning growth rates in the world as well as in the Asia region

In the language teaching field, learner autonomy has caught the attention of many researchers since it has been shown to foster effective learning for language (Ismail, 2016; Lander & Kuramoto, 2013; Phuong & Vo, 2019) However, in the literature, although some studies that have been conducted in non – western cultures reveal students‟ attitudes towards learning as passive, obedient and uncritical (Chan et al., 2002; Gamble et al., 2018; Palfreyman, 2003), others demonstrate that learner autonomy can be an achievable goal for these students (Dickinson, 1996; Hua et al., 2011; Littlewood, 1999; Nalipay et al., 2020) Therefore, rather than making general statements about students‟ behaviors related to their educational cultures, there is a need to explore different learning models suitable for learners‟ needs in promoting learner autonomy (Bitlis, 2011) A number of researchers have developed approaches and methods that foster learner autonomy (Egel, 2009; Zeng,

2009) Similarly, in Vietnam, several attempts have also been made to investigate different methods to enhance autonomy among students (Ba, 2018; Kaur et al., 2017); yet, very few empirical studies have investigated a blended learning environment, which combines online and traditional learning methods, in relation to learner autonomy

Blended learning pedagogical practices have become a very common teaching method in this modern time (Wong et al., 2020) Higher learning autonomy is very important for students to learn effectively in the blended learning environment since it is shown to be a useful predictor of course success and final grade (Yen & Liu,

2009) Whereas blended learning has been proven to promote autonomous learning (Sahni, 2019), in some other studies, this method shows no significant influence in inculcating learner autonomy among students (Wong et al., 2020) These have led to controversial opinions among teachers and scholars on whether and how students‟ autonomous practices are fostered in a blended learning environment

Additionally, the personal reason for conducting this study originates from the transformation of the learning and teaching model that has been applied at the research context from Fall 2021 academic year As a result, the campus-based teaching time allocation has remarkably decreased whereas the students‟ self- studying time has increased more than threefold This adjustment required a lot of effort, especially from students After one semester of implementation, a positive students‟ academic achievement was reported with the pass rate being greater and fail rate together with ineligibility rate being lower compared to prior teaching and learning model However during the course, the researcher could observe students‟ high dependence on teachers, lack of motivation, which shows a low level of learner autonomy In the study, the researcher would like to approach this issue to investigate factors related to the blended learning environment contributing to first year students‟ perceived learner autonomy during a blended course.

Aims of the study

The usage of blended learning in higher education is continuously growing, raising concerns about its efficacy and reliability Learner autonomy, which is considered as one significant indicator to the student‟s academic achievement The study‟s goal is to investigate factors affecting learner autonomy in a blended course Based on the framework proposed by Bitlis (2011), the study examined how students perceived the learner autonomy in a blended course as well as the factor related to blended learning environment affecting those perceptions A deeper investigation of students‟ experience relating to each aspect will also be carried out so as to provide an in-depth understanding about this matter

Key research questions

This thesis focuses on answering the following research questions:

- What are students‟ perceptions of learner autonomy in the blended learning environment?

- What factors of the Blended learning environment affect the students‟ perceptions of learner autonomy?

Scope of the study

With regard to the academic scope, this thesis directed attention to the students‟ perceptions of learner autonomy in the Blended learning environment as well as the factors of the Blended learning environment affect those perceptions In terms of the social scope, the researcher was going to survey, interview as well as observe students studying blended courses at a Polytechnic College in Hanoi during a course in Spring 2022 academic year.

Method of the study

The Triangular explanatory mixed method was applied as the backbone for this research Accordingly, both quantitative and qualitative methods of collecting data were utilized to address the research questions The sequential explanatory mixed method consisted of two phases In the first phase, an adapted survey questionnaire was used to collect data from students about their level of learner autonomy in the blended course The data was then coded, processed and interpreted; then, the findings would be used to direct the second phase of data gathering, which would take the form of qualitative interviews, followed by classroom observations By combining these three sources of data, the triangular method can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the issue, and the triangulation of findings can increase the validity and reliability of the research.

Significance of the study

This study was conducted with a hope to gain a deeper understanding of the learners‟ autonomy in a blended course Being a lecturer, continuously involved in teaching blended learning courses with practical experiences, the writer‟s

5 investigation into these issues is crucial to produce trustworthy answers leading to necessary changes in syllabus development and school policies regarding this field Moreover, this study aimed to aid the existing literature on this developing subject in Vietnam by providing one example from a vocational school in Hanoi.

Design of the study

Chapter 1 – Introduction introduces the study by providing necessary information about the rationale as well as the aims The aim of the study is also included in this chapter together with the key research questions The method of the study is also illustrated and the chapter ends with the study design.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Related terms

Many educationists have defined blended learning in a variety of ways; yet there continues to be no agreed-upon single definition Sharpe et al., (2006) provided a general definition about blended learning as the combination of study time, study locations, technological applications, learning methods, learning contexts, and learning directions This demonstrates an effort to create a multi-dimensional definition which encompasses several dimensions and aspects of pedagogical activities; yet, this definition leads to a too broad view (Hoang, 2015)

Bonk & Graham, (2012) defined blended learning as a combination of several delivery channels, of teaching strategies or of in person and online instruction Another definition came from Horn & Staker, (2011) as any time a student learns both in a supervised location away from home and an online platform in which students can control over time, place, path and/or pace Sanprasert, (2010) added to another definition to the literature Accordingly, blended learning is described as a learning environment which integrates traditional classroom-based learning with technology-based learning In this sense, blended learning is an unique phenomenon, which emphasizes the importance of web-based technology (Garrison

In this paper, the writer adopts the definition brought by Sanprasert (2010) and the suggestion given by Allen & Seaman (2003), which configurates the proportion of

8 the blends such that the course content delivered online ranges between 30 percent and 79 percent This combination provides educators with an understanding of what and how to embed blended learning in their teaching process, providing an overall picture in particular on the choices and indications that can be made in producing blended learning experiences

2.1.1.2 Benefits and drawbacks of Blended learning

While blended learning requires teachers to employ and perform multiple instruction methods to improve learning effectiveness in a specific subject, students and institutions are the ones who greatly benefit from it As for institutions, various research has revealed a positive impact of blended learning on learning outcomes A

2009 meta-analysis by the U.S Department of Education showed that hybrid learning models produce better outcomes than either face-to-face time alone or online learning alone (Bakia et al., as cited in Henson, 2015) Regarding the student side, students are equipped with rich sources of language learning materials of different types (Holmes & Prieto-Rodriguez, 2018; Huong, 2018; Nazarenko, 2015; Szadziewska & Kujawski, 2017) Moreover, e-learning increases access flexibility to work from home and at their own pace (Buran & Evseeva, 2015; Grabinsk et al., 2015; Heinze & Procter, 2004; Poon, 2013) Blended learning has also been claimed to provide students with more opportunities to interact with the teachers (Al Zumor et al., 2013; Ja‟ashan, 2015; Szadziewska & Kujawski, 2017)

Blended learning, however, brings a few challenges One study found that students in blended learning environments reported feeling more isolated and disconnected from their peers than those in traditional face-to-face classrooms (Graham, Woodfield, & Harrison, 2013) Additionally, research has shown that students in blended learning environments may struggle with time management and self- regulation skills, which can lead to decreased academic performance (Kirschner & Merriởnboer, 2013) This is also agreed by Buran & Evseeva (2015) and Huong

(2018), claiming that one challenge faced by students is their‟ lack of knowledge and skills for self-studies

2.1.2 Learner autonomy in language classroom

There have been several attempts to define learner autonomy in connection with language learning over the past few decades The most frequently quoted definition in the field is from Holec (1979), defining autonomy as “the ability to take charge of one‟s own learning” (p.8) Students are considered autonomous as they are

“determining the objectives, defining the contents and progressions, selecting methods and techniques to be used, monitoring the procedures of acquisition, and evaluating what has been acquired” (p.3) Another well accepted definition came from (Little, 1995), who considered autonomy as a matter of psychological relation to the purpose, the content and the learning process According to these definitions, autonomy is treated as an attribute to the learner By this sense, the central concept of the term learner autonomy includes individual aspects (Bitlis, 2011)

In addition, learner autonomy also involves social aspects (Bitlis, 2011) Dam et al

(1990) defines autonomy as a readiness to take charge of one's own learning in the service of one's needs and purposes Similarly, autonomy is linked to „relatedness needs‟, which are the needs for contact, support and community with others Little

(1995) narrows down the term, claiming that learner autonomy depends upon the quality of the pedagogical dialogue between teachers and learners

Autonomy manifests itself in different ways and to differing degrees In this paper, autonomy is defined as the extent to which learners demonstrate the individual ability to „use a set of tactics‟ to foster autonomous behaviors (Cotterall, 1995)

In the literature so far, there have been several attempts to describe the behaviors of autonomous learners, which helps to put forward their characteristics Being aware of their needs, strengths and weaknesses together with determining the objectives to what and how to learn accordingly are the main attributes of autonomous learners (Dickinson, 1993; Holec, 1979; Little, 1991) Selecting techniques to be used and selecting materials to be learned are two other autonomous behaviors mentioned by

10 different scholars (Holec, 1979; Little, 1991) Additionally, autonomous learners are likely to monitor and evaluate the procedures if acquisition (Cotterall, 1995; Holec, 1979; Little, 1991) In addition, these learners seek opportunities to use the language outside of the classroom as well as inside (Benson, 2013) Newman

(2002) also mentioned another autonomous behavior which is to seek help from the teacher Different behaviors have been described by different authors, as summarized below:

Table 2.1 Autonomous behaviors from previous studies

1 Being aware of their needs Dickinson, (2004)

2 Being aware of their strengths and weaknesses

3 Determining the objectives Holec, (1981); Dickinson,

4 Selecting techniques to be used Holec, (1981); Little, (1991);

5 Selecting materials to be learned Little, (1991)

6 Monitoring and evaluating the procedures of acquisition

7 Seeking opportunities to use the language outside of the classroom as well as inside

9 Take control over your learning Holec, (1981)

Perception involves the way one sees the world (McDonald, 2011) Perception is considered to be one of the most important psychological aspects since it allows us to understand the types of phenomena which exist in our environment (KURNIAWAN, 2015) In other words, perception is a process which starts from the sense of the organ, in which the brain accepts the information during the process

11 he continually interacts with his surroundings (Slamento, 2010, as cited in KURNIAWAN, 2015)

The importance of learners‟ perception in the learning process has been highlighted in recent research and theoretical discussion as it can affect students‟ attitudes towards the learning process (Pichugova et al., 2016) as well as their behaviors and practices (Ellis et al., 2008) Cotterall (1995) agreed with this view, claiming that beliefs which learners hold have a significant impact on their learning practices In recent years, several studies have been conducted with the aim of analyzing learners‟ perception of autonomy in the relationship with students‟ attitudes and practices in the blended learning context This context was claimed to change the way students perceived themselves as autonomous learners; thus, students showed positive attitudes towards learning (Kim & Yoon, 2021) and they developed certain types of autonomous behaviors (Snodin, 2013).

Previous studies

2.2.1 Students’ perception of Learner Autonomy in Blended learning environment

During the last three decades, several attempts have also been made to answer the question whether blended learning environment methods enhance students‟ perception of Learner Autonomy; yet, the results are still under debate On one hand, blended learning is thought to positive effect on improving student‟s perception of their own autonomy, which helps in developing their autonomous abilities (Bitlis, 2011; Gülbahar & Madran, 2009; Saeheng, 2017; Sahni, 2019; Snodin, 2013) For example, 374 volunteer students in a private university in Turkey participated in a study conducted by Gülbahar & Madran (2009), which aimed to investigate whether blended learning fostered autonomous learning During the study, an Online Learning Environment Survey (OLES), originally developed by Walker & Fraser (2005), was distributed to the students to gather the students‟ perceptions of learner autonomy in blended ICT courses According to the findings, the majority of students revealed that they considered themselves to be

12 autonomous in the blended learning environment In another study, Snodin (2013) investigated to what extent learner autonomy could be fostered in a blended learning situation The purpose of the study was to identify whether students‟ perception of themselves and their autonomous behaviors changed when blended learning was applied with their regular lessons The results revealed that the integration of the CMS changed the way the students perceived feedback and also the ways in which they perceived themselves as learners The learners became more independent, more confident Moreover, they developed certain types of autonomous behaviors

In contrast, according to a few other studies, blended learning failed to promote autonomous learning A quasi-experimental method was adopted in a study of Wong et al (2020), employing a set of questionnaires to evaluate motivation and learner autonomy The study participants were 116 upper secondary students from a school in northern Malaysia Two classes with 57 students were the control group, while the other two classes with 59 students were the experimental group Two different pedagogies were utilized, including the experimental group attending a blended learning classroom, and meanwhile the control group following a conventional learning classroom The findings of this study concluded that statistically, there was no significant improvement in the level of autonomy after the implementation of blended learning

2.2.2 Autonomous behaviors in Blended learning environment

Different studies have been conducted to investigate different autonomous behaviors in blended learning environment For example, Bitlis (2011) carried out a study on Turkish students‟ autonomous practice The participants included 36 students enrolling in the preparatory school English program in a private university in Turkey A questionnaire, student interviews, learner logs, and the researcher‟s observations were deployed to collect data Both quantitative and qualitative research methods were applied in order to provide more reliable and clearer research findings The results showed that students are able to practice autonomous

13 activities in the blended learning context In more details, learners were able to determine their objectives according to their needs, select materials to accomplish their learning goals, and decide what to learn for the next lesson, most of the time Another study conducted by Snodin (2013) aimed to investigate the learner perceptions after blended learning intervention The participants included a group of

28 university students who enrolled on an English language foundation course at Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand The results concluded that students developed certain types of autonomous behaviors, for instance, setting their own learning goals, seeking opportunities to use English outside classroom, as well as monitoring and evaluating the progress of their learning Bakeer (2018), investigated the students‟ attitudes towards implementing blended learning in teaching English in higher education institutions The subjects of the study, consisting of 60 students, were randomly selected from the undergraduate students enrolled in the general course English 2 The results showed that e-learning could help students take control for their own learning In the nutshell, various behaviors appeared to be more commonly practiced than the others, some of which were to select materials to be learned, determine one‟s own objectives according to one‟s needs and beware of what one needs, seek opportunities to use the language outside of the classroom and finally, take control over their learning

2.2.3 Factors related to Blended learning environment affecting students’ perception of Autonomous Learning

A number of factors in the blended learning environment have been claimed to influence students‟ perception of Autonomous Learning In this study, 3 main factors related to the blended learning environment have been investigated

Wang et al (2021) conducted a research on 1603 Chinese students taking the blended College English course at the University of Science and Technology of Beijing, China The data showed a positive perceptions of the blended learning environment among students and this methodology brings students greater options

14 to develop autonomous learning Students were also at ease in the blended learning environment as it encourages learner-centered interaction and collaboration

Moore (1989) signified three kinds of interaction that support learning in online courses: interaction with content - the ability of learners to access, manipulate, synthesize, and communicate content information; interaction with instructors - the ability of learners to communicate with and receive feedback from their instructors; and interaction with classmates - the ability of learners to communicate with each other about content to create an active learning community) Uribe et al (2003) clarified learners with ability to cooperate with their peers performed way better on an ill-defined problem than did learners who solved the problem by themselves Interaction with content is sometimes confused with the idea of interacting with information which is enormous and available on the internet However, information is not learning In fact, researchers agree that many computer-based educational offerings provide poor learning opportunities Another dominant interaction in online learning courses is learner-teacher interaction Researchers have found that teacher‟s verbal and nonverbal immediacy behaviors can lessen the psychological distance between themselves and their students, leading to greater learning This strength seems to be lessened in the online learning environment as it fails to create social presence of participants, especially teachers Of three types of interaction, interpersonal interactions including learner-teacher and learner-learner were reported to play decisive roles in the online learning environment as increased opportunities for interpersonal interaction resulted in better exam scores and pass rate, which have remarkable influence on learner autonomy (Cung et al., 2018)

Sanprasert (2010) carried out a research to compare a blended learning approach to a traditional classroom setting The aim was to find out Thai students‟ perceptions about the extent to which they believe they are autonomous and whether they would show a change in their behavior towards their language learning This study was conducted at Kasetsart University (KU), Bangkok, Thailand Two groups of Thai

15 university students who enrolled on an English Foundation course participated in the research The study deploys both qualitative and quantitative approaches, which included a questionnaire adapted from Cotterall‟s questionnaire and the students‟ journals It was revealed that the blended learning environment provides greater flexibility, which helps to enhance students‟ perception of learner autonomy

E-learning course flexibility is one of the advantageous features contributing to learner autonomy The convenience in time, location, reduced expense for commuting facilitate learner‟s motivation to sign up for a course This is also agreed by Herlina et al (2019), who conducted a research to investigate the effects or values of blended learning to the General English learning Comprehensive qualitative and quantitative data was collected from 50 nursing students, taking Bachelor degrees at Institute of Health Science in Cirebon, Indonesia During 14 weeks of the study, observation, interview, and English Proficiency Test were utilized It was found out that the students could easily access the materials at any time and at any place before attending face-to-face sessions with their peers and teacher in class time, which reflects convenience and flexibility in the autonomous learning

Daymont et al (2011) figured out in his paper that flexibility was the overwhelming reason given by learners when choosing online learning courses over traditional face-to-face courses The rationale for this preference is based on the fact that the flexibility allows learners to access the course anytime and anywhere, the time thus saved can be arranged for other leisure or business activities Besides, the flexibility that the course offers can be associated with learner autonomy (Houlden & Veletsianos, 2019)

Bitlis (2011) carried out a research on 36 students who enrolled in the preparatory school English program at Fatih University for one year Both quantitative and qualitative data collection tools were conducted in this exploratory study Data was collected via a questionnaire, teacher and student interviews, learner logs, and the

16 researcher‟s observations The study also utilized materials from an online course called „My English Lab‟ (MeLab) It was concluded that all of the students were able to relate the online content to their in-class learning at least some of the time, which helped motivate students to experience their language learning individually Similar results could be found in Shana (2009), claiming that a stronger connection with in-class material and online work is needed in the blended learning context in order to help students gain more learner autonomy

Gaps in the previous studies

A review in literature points out that, a significant focus has been paid to tertiary education and there is no paper being done to investigate vocational school‟s student learner autonomy in a blended course Holding a viewpoint that, like tertiary students, vocational students can join the workforce of a nation right after they graduate, this missingness has been causing a gap in the research population as learners at vocational schools are accounting for a significant number, acquiring themselves an equally stable place in the education sector It is also revealed from the literature that almost all papers published in Vietnam have a tendency in

17 examining the effectiveness of blended learning implementation in a researched school Another attempt in this field is about the learner‟s perception about the blended learning course There are very few publications which invest deeply in factors related to blended learning which affect the students‟ learner autonomy Regarding methodology, a preferred method which can be seen in most papers is merely either qualitative or quantitative, making this study‟s attempt to adopt a mixed method approach a valuable contribution to the current literature Consequently, this study is done with a hope to fill in these gaps, joining hands to help form the whole picture of Vietnam education on this issue.

Chapter summary

It can be seen from the literature review that blended learning has offered a lot of promising aspects to educational institutions in terms of cost effectiveness, lecturer‟s productivity, and huge student enrollment As for learners, they are equipped with rich sources of language learning materials, more opportunities to interact with teachers as well as much flexibility However some drawbacks still exist, such as the lack of inequivalent technology together with the lack of self- studying skills There are many factors affecting learner‟s autonomous learning behaviors in an e-learning environment According to the selected framework, factors affecting learner‟s autonomy include online content quality, interaction and flexibility A clearer illustration on how the study was carried out will be presented in the next chapter

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

A quantitative survey and qualitative interviews together with observation were utilized in this study's mixed-methods approach to examine students' opinions of learner autonomy in their blended classrooms The mixed method used in this study is called Sequential Explanatory Strategy as an initial quantitative data collection is involved, then followed by a secondary qualitative data collection (Creswell & Creswell, 2017) This study consisted of two phases In the first phase, the writer employed a questionnaire which was adapted from Bitlis (2011) to collect and analyze the quantitative (numeric) data on students‟ perceived learner autonomy toward blended courses After being analyzed and interpreted, the results of the first

19 phase would be utilized to help refocus and designate the interview questions of phase two Consequently, qualitative (text) data collection and analysis were employed in the second stage, which helps to provide a deeper understanding about the current problems Finally, the findings of the two phases would be combined to interpret the results of the entire study

A combination of two sampling strategies were employed in this study: random sampling and convenience sampling to choose the number of participants in each phase of the research In the first stage, random sampling was utilized as the writer aims to focus on only a selected group in the population to investigate their specific features and needs Accordingly, a group of students were randomly chosen to participate in the study and the result generated by them represented the students of the whole school Random classes of four English levels were chosen, depending on their number in the class-list released by the Training Department Students in classes number 1, 5, 10, 15, were approached and offered to participate in the study for the first phase The link of the survey was provided to the English teachers of these classes who afterwards would share the link to each member of the class through the class‟s zalo group or Facebook group The second phase employed convenience sampling as the writer wished to approach the individuals who just happened to situated in the class of the interview day In particular, 3 or 4 students on each level recommended by their English teachers on a specific school day were selected to join in a 10-15 minute length interview As for the observation, convenience sampling technique was also applied as the teacher of the observed class agreed to participate in the study and was informed at the beginning of the course

The study is carried out at a vocational school in Hanoi The Polytechnic was founded in July 2010 and began its operation in early 2011 As a dynamic educational institution, the institution has applied blended learning for teaching

English from the very early stage of its establishment Numerous adjustments have been made to English teaching and learning activities since 2012

Since its establishment in 2010, this vocational school has used a variety of teaching and learning strategies, including blended learning, project-based learning, and traditional teaching and learning Virtual learning environment has been established and has gained a huge interest from administrative staff whose aim was to innovate learning and teaching activities A virtual platform has been introduced and developed to improve the experience of students and teachers in this school Until now, numerous general subjects have been transitioned from project-based learning into blended learning such as General English courses, Law and Politics, and Basic Computer Science In the past, these subjects utilized the project-based learning and teaching approach, which included teaching and learning, on-going assessment tests, and project defending as final assessment On the other hand, the amount of time spent on-campus teaching these subjects has significantly decreased since they were converted to online courses As a result, the assessment frameworks for those online courses have undergone significant changes to reflect these changes A system of quizzes is integrated into the course with the goal of tracking learners' progress and achievement The course's original written materials have been replaced by a series of recorded videos with teachers lecturing the lessons In order to assess students' progress and determine if they have completed the course requirements, the midterm and final exams are still used A basic English course, abbreviated as ENT and divided into four levels, ENT 1.1, ENT 1.2, ENT 2.1, and ENT 2.2, was employed in this study There are 36 online hours and 18 offline hours in each of these courses

A content management system (CMS) is utilized to deliver the courses and quizzes to learners All course materials, including the syllabus, lecture videos, quizzes, and other information, are available on the CMS homepage and are available to both teachers and students Learners are given the access to learning materials in the form of video files and multiple choice quizzes and are available for anytime,

21 anywhere Along with CMS, Google classroom platform is also compulsory to all teachers, which offers the discussion board and the forums and becomes the main communication channel between learners and teachers The stream screen can be used by the teachers to post documents (in Word or PDF format), electronic books, audio recordings, lecture notes, and even notifications In addition, teachers can assign homework, and group work on this page Besides, Google Classroom can also assist the scoring, assessment and gradebook The students, on the other hand, can post questions about assigned tasks or lessons on the forums and their classmates would respond This platform will send notifications to members‟ emails as soon as students or teachers make any comments or assign homework

The course has nine in-person sessions over the course of ten weeks, including lectures and a midterm exam Each in-person session is followed by two online sessions that include a 15-item quiz and a mix of lecture videos In this study, the teacher is also the facilitator and examiner Her job is to mentor and support pupils in their learning and to make sure they have finished the required homework Activities for review and communicative practice that improve students' communication abilities are meant to be included in the in-class session The students must enroll in the CMS in order to study the material, complete the quizzes before the deadline and they need to achieve 10 points (15/15 correct answers) each quiz It‟s also the students' duty to participate their class on google classroom and submit their weekly writing assignments to get feedback from the teacher

Every week, students are required to complete 5 to 6 online lectures videos and 1 Quiz on CMS, together with 2 Quizzes on Quizizz.com Besides, a set of different Quizlet are provided so that students can learn on their own In addition, a writing task must be submitted on Google classroom, which is based on the requirements in advance by the teacher During the self-study time, students are given the opportunity to choose the pace they want

The researcher selected all non-English major students of the semester Summer

2022 in which the research study was in progress This decision came from her own

22 judgment of their typicality and possession of the particular characteristics that she was seeking (Cohen et al., 2013) Accordingly, in order to participate in the study, all participants should be enrolling and attending one of the ENT classes, and any of those who had just finished 4 English levels was not included in the research The participants were chosen for some specific purposes, as follows: The selection of this group of learners helps to produce objective results on learner autonomy toward an blended course Besides, this wide choice of participants helped to create a broader picture and the results it produced can be applicable for the researcher to come up with solutions which are workable for the whole EFL courses An issue arising from these selected samples was the matter of generalization as it failed to characterize the perception of the whole population However, taking into consideration the framework which leads this study, the writer would like to reduce the undesirable results generated from unwanted factors Besides, as the major concern of the writer is to investigate the perception of a specific group of learners which is also a larger part of the population, the sacrifice of a subsector is inevitable

The population of this study included approximately 1000 students of four English levels in the Summer 2022 academic semester at a vocational school in Hanoi The survey was completed by 224 students voluntarily Participants varied in age, gender, field of study and different learning experiences Demographic information was also collected via the survey The convenient sample for the interview phase consisted of 13 participants coming from 4 English levels, 3 from ENT 1.1; 4 from ENT 1.2; 4 from ENT 2.1 and 2 from ENT 2.2

The demographic data of participants collected through is presented in table 3.1 The data on gender, major, marital status, level of English was carefully gathered and analyzed The survey was accessed by 232 students, 224 usable responses of which were employed and analyzed for this study, 5 duplicated responses and 3 ineligible responses using email accounts outside organization were eliminated The data revealed that male respondents greatly outnumbered female participants in

23 this research Of 224 students, 152 male students account for 67.9 % leaving tight space for 32.1 % of female students In terms of marital status, only 5 of them were married, accounting for only 5% The survey was voluntarily completed by learners, the highest responses were obtained from Level 1.1 students (34.8 %) compared to other English levels being 20.2 % of Level 1.2, 21.8 of Level 2.1 and 23.2 % of Level 2.2 More details of participants‟ demographic information are presented in Table 3.1

Data collection

The survey questionnaire of the study which shapes the framework for this thesis was the one developed by Bitlis, (2011), who has conducted a thorough review over the literature related to learners‟ autonomous behaviors Moreover, the study‟s framework also shapes the framework of this thesis More importantly, Bitlis‟s study was carried out in a Turkish learning environment, in which students experience partially similar cultural characteristics as in Vietnam

The questionnaire was utilized as the backbone with original 18 five point Likert- scale items, divided into two sections While answering the questions, students selected one of five options: never, rarely, sometimes, often and always Originally, in the first section, which included 8 items related to learner autonomy The items

24 were intended to find out how often the students were able to practice different autonomous behaviors associated with learner autonomy in a blended learning environment In the second section, the analyses of the items related to the blended learning environment are presented These items, related to the aspects of the blended learning environment believed to support learner autonomy, were designed to find out how often the participants were able to make use of these aspects These items ask about the characteristics of the software program and its incorporation in the classroom environment and how often these characteristics are used by the students The detail questionnaire is illustrated as follows:

Table 3.2 Initial list of adopted survey questionnaire

The frequency of autonomous behaviors undertaken by students in blended learning environment

Flexibility The aspects of blended learning that enhance flexibility in students‟ learning experience

The aspects of blended learning that support Interaction between teachers and students

The availability and the relatability of the materials in Online courses

Due to some difference in context, some adaptation was made by the writer Some initial changes were made to the draft of the questionnaires, for example all the items related to the MeLab program were reworded into CMS to be suitable with the context of the study Moreover, some item of the factor of “Opportunities to interact” stating “use the communication tool in the MedLab” was reworded into

“use social networking such as Zalo, Google classroom, Facebook” as these are the

25 most popular in Vietnam and they were used in the present study Furthermore, the items “identify your weakness in language learning performance charts in the MeLab” and “understand the progress you made using the personalized grade book in the MeLab program” need to be deleted as it was not suitable for the three factors related to Blended learning on which the researcher would like to research The detail of the adaption is included in the Appendix

In addition, based on the literature review and the writer‟s scope of interest, some items were added to the context of the study In more details, 1 item related to students‟ autonomous behaviors together with 3 more items related to different aspects of Blended learning which were believed to support learner autonomy were added to the questionnaire based on the literature reviewed by the researcher The details were as follows

Table 3.3 List of adapted items for survey questionnaire

1 Autonomous behavior Be aware of what you need

3 Interaction Interact with my classmates while working online?

4 Online material quality Be engaged in the online materials?

After the adaptation, the new questionnaire consisted of 18 items The reliability and validity of the instruments were achieved through a pretest and a pilot test Accordingly, 5 full-time English teachers and 2 experts were kindly asked to revise and give comments on the questionnaires, followed by a pilot test which was completed by 63 students with various experience in learning blended courses With some minor changes, the questionnaire was approved by all teachers and experts The questionnaire was then reworded for one last time based on the consultants of the experts and teachers Cronbach‟s Alpha was also run to check the reliability of the questionnaire After the pilot test had been taken by 63 students, two unreliable items which were Behavior4 and Interaction3 were eliminated from the

26 questionnaire as the convergent value generated by these two items in SPSS was not satisfactory The final version of 16 questionnaires then was employed for this study

Table 3.4 shows that all values are over 0.6, and the Correlated Item-Total Correlations are over 0.3 According to Nunnally (1994), the questionnaire is qualified to be studied in our context The table of the final survey items and coding was illustrated in the Appendix of this study

Table 3.4 Cronbach’s Alpha of each variants

Variants Number of items Cronbach’s Alpha

Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) was then used to check convergent value and discriminant value KMO and sig were the most frequently used indicators The KMO signified whether or not enough items were predicted by each factor The Bartlett tested the statistical significance to make sure that the variables were correlated highly enough to provide a reasonable basis for factor analysis Hair

(2009) specified that the KMO measure should range from 50-1 to be adequate and was ideal if this number was greater than 70; the sig Bartlett‟s test should be less than 05 for factor analysis to be acceptable The result of EFA was as followed:

Table 3.5 KMO and Bartlett's Test of factors

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling

Bartlett's Test of Sphericity df 455.831

The table shows that KMO is 673, which is adequate Sig = 000 is lower than 05

After the quantitative data was collected and analyzed, the findings of the quantitative phase enabled the writer to develop the interview questions for phase two 9 questions were used to investigate the overall learner autonomy of the participants Another 7 questions to clarify the strongest factor, the second strongest factor and the weakest factor related to Blended learning were designed to provide a deeper understanding about what factors of the environment affect the Learner Autonomy The interviews were adapted from the set of questions provided by Bitlis (2011) The face validity and content validity were maintained under the consultant of 5 full time English teachers and the approval of an expert

As for the observation, a highly structured type of observation involves attending lessons with a specific focus and with concrete observation aims In addition, it includes completing an observation scheme to be used while observing (Dornyei,

2007) The guidelines to be used while observing the students were written by the researcher and they were written according to the research aims of the study It included items such as how the students used face-to-face sessions and what aspects of the blended learning environment helped students practice autonomous abilities

A list of 100 ENT online classes including number of students (30 students in each class) and names of lecturers was obtained from the Training Department Through English teachers who were in charge of these classes, the survey was made available to students at the end of the course they were taking via google form This 18-item length survey questionnaire could be completed in about 5 - 10 minutes so that it wouldn‟t consume much of participants‟ time

After receiving the list of classes from the Training board, based on the number column on the list the writer chose class number 1,5,10,15,… from each faculty, namely Economics, Technology, Graphic Design, Tourism and Mechanical and Automation engineering 15 classes were selected In the first phase of the study,

Data analysis

The descriptive data of the study was obtained using google form, and was illustrated in the form of charts and columns to describe the overall perception of learner autonomy, and to what extent each factor related to blended learning affects the autonomy of learners Google form is a reliable tool to collect and process data After the due date of the data collection process, quantitative data from the google form was collected An Excel spreadsheet with raw information of demographic information of participants, together with their answers was coded into numeric data and saved in the form of a codebook

In this study, the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was employed to analyze the data Statistical analysis including descriptive statistics and correlation analysis were performed to answer the research questions The descriptive statistics allowed the researcher to have deeper understanding about demographic information of participants (their gender, their major, their English level and time on task), means, standard deviation, and frequencies of variables Demographic data were analyzed using frequencies and percentages The Cronbach‟s Alpha and EFA were also used to test and evaluate the reliability and correlations of the variables Accordingly, the reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed using Cronbach‟s α values, which was aimed to test the consistency of the scale used in the questionnaire (Leech et al., 2013) Together with checking Cronbach‟s α values, exploratory factor analysis was also employed to investigate if the items used in the questionnaire “hang together” as a group (Leech et al., 2013) Correlation analysis was selected to study the relationship between independent variables and dependent variables (Field, 2013) Descriptive statistics including means and standard deviation collected from the survey data were used to answer the first research question “What are students‟ perception of learner autonomy in the blended learning environment?” Correlation analysis was then adopted to answer the second research question: “Which factors of the blended learning environment affects student‟s perception of learner autonomy?”

The interview questions were asked, and information was collected through recording The recording was then transformed into the form of written text for content analysis The researcher transcribed the recordings The transcription was then presented in an Excel form for coding The data was closely looked into Unimportant information was refined and removed, the similarities and differences were highlighted When new information emerged, it would be noted down for further analysis.

Ethical considerations

Students were assured anonymity and that all surveys would be electronically delivered directly to the participants An ethical issue that is highly likely and unavoidably to appear in the personal interview phase as students may feel nervous, confused and tense about talking in person with teachers The common cultural belief, generally accepted social and ethical norm may account for this tension as the teacher-learner relationship is hierarchy with teacher‟s position being superior to learners‟ This fact may lead to “political-correct” answers of interviewees so as to satisfy the interviewer as students may find it‟s hard to expose their real thoughts and opinions toward such sensitive issues, especially when those issues are closely related to the interviewer in a somehow direct or indirect way This problem can be partly solved by the detailed explanation at the beginning of the interview I justified the aim of the study, the structure of the interview so that participants have an idea about the interview I also felt the need to promise to maintain the highest privacy of all personal information of participants as their answers would be coded in the study I also inform the participants that they should be free to cease the interview if they wished to do so and there would be no consequence for that.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The students‟ perception of Learner Autonomy in Blended learning environment

The data obtained from students‟ responses to the questionnaire were entered into SPSS and the frequencies for each of the responses to the items were examined for

34 the analysis related to the research questions of the study Table 4.1 below presents the frequencies for the items related to learner autonomy in the questionnaire

Table 4.1 Frequency Statistics for Learner Autonomy

How often were you able to

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always

Be aware of what you need?

Be aware of your strengths and weaknesses?

Determine own objectives according to your needs?

Select materials to be learned?

Select techniques to be used?

Evaluate and monitor the procedures of acquisition?

Seeking opportunities to use language outside of the classroom?

Take control over your learning?

Table 4.1 demonstrates that most of the students were able to be aware of what they need at least some of the time (Item 1) In more details, only 6 of participants

35 claimed to be unable to realize what they need, accounting for 2.7% The data from the interview also showed that most of the students understand the need to learning English as the language “helps to get a better CV to apply for a job” or “to pass the examination”

I think learning English is very necessary because in a developed society, it is very important to use English to communicate or apply for a job My CV will be much more impressive, and I will have a chance to get a better job Also, this is a required subject so I have to learn it and pass it if I want to graduate That is why I need to improve my English Right now, as a student,

I need to participate enthusiastically in class activities I need to follow the teacher’s instructions and do all the exercises he gave And then when I come home, I need to review those knowledge and apply it in real life situations

According to the researcher‟s observation in the classroom, most students knew what they needed to do during the class If they did not, they would ask their friends For example, in a communicative activity, in which students were required to move around to interview about their classmates‟ hobbies, some of the students were confused at first They then asked their friends in Vietnamese about what they needed to do Right after they got the answer, they stood up and did the activity One time, when the researcher attended a lesson in which the teacher asked students to distinguish between past simple and present perfect Some of the students did the exercises as instructed, but showed lots of confusion, as they did not understand the meaning of the activities The teacher then gave the instruction again and explained the rationale behind the activity Students then got more attention and finished the exercises quickly

However, that was not always the case During one of the final lessons, which was spent for Grammar revision, students were asked to do exercises on Past continuous In the beginning of the activity, the teacher emphasized the importance of the activity, as the questions would be taken again in the test Nevertheless, some

36 students did not pay attention They read something on their phone and did not participate It proved that some students might know what they need to do; yet, did not show motivation in learning, even at the end of the term right before the test

As for Item 2, the majority of the participants showed their understanding of their own strengths and weaknesses In particular, 96.9% of students participating in the survey claimed to be aware of their strengths and weakness, whereas only 7 students claimed to not understand those issues This can be easily seen from the interview responses as all the interviewees gave their own thoughts:

My strong point is going to class to express my opinions, this helps me absorb a lot of knowledge The weak point is that I lost my roots Before I studied English at school, I knew absolutely nothing about English This is my difficulty, my weakness

My strength is reading and writing, while I am weaker in listening and speaking skills I don't feel confident when speaking and communicating in English When I'm facing other people, I'm very nervous with the wrong pronunciation and saying the wrong thing

Surprisingly, most of the interviewees claimed that they had already known their strengths and weaknesses from high school; yet, during the course, as they had to self-study a lot, the issues were much more addressed:

I learned English since I was at grade 6 th , and right from the beginning, I knew that this was not my favorite I could not remember the meanings of the Vocabularies and my pronunciation was terrible And now, every week, I have to learn 25 to 35 words given by the teacher and I have to pronounce them correctly Now, I feel more than ever before that, this is my weakness and I have to do something to change

The data from the observation also supported this idea In one lesson, when the teacher provided some activities required students to use Past Simple and Past Continuous Students were asked to fill in blanks while the teacher moved around to

37 support One student found it difficult to complete the exercise He asked for support from the teacher as he claimed that his weakness was to distinguish between tenses in English In another lesson, a speaking activity was carried out in which students practice a model conversation from the textbook Two students were asked to stand up and present One student‟s pronunciation was pretty bad; hence, the teacher gave some comments and recommendations The student then showed no surprise as he agreed with the teacher, claiming that he had confidence; yet, his biggest weakness was pronunciation

As for Item 3, most of the students (219/224) were able to determine the objectives according to the needs of at least some of their time The data from the interview showed that some students set their own learning goals according to their own needs rather than expecting the teacher to determine goals for everyone and follow them Yet, most of the interviewees only set short term objectives, which is to pass the examination or not to fail the course This as can be seen in the following response:

My goal in the coming time is to pass the subject and complete the 4 skills well After each class, I try to review the lesson well so that I can grasp the knowledge Since I know that my school only tests what I learn in class, I will be fine if I focus on that knowledge I haven't thought of any further goals in the future

Factors related to Blended learning which affects Learner Autonomy

Table 4.3 Factor related to Blended learning which can affect Learner

How often were you able to

Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always

Ask questions to the teacher while working online?

Interact with your classmates while working online?

Define the place of your learning?

Define the time of your learning?

Be engaged in the online materials?

Relate the content in the online materials to in class learning?

As can be seen from Table 4.3 above, most students claimed that they asked their teacher during the time they were working on CMS (97.3%), with 42.9% students who always did it In contrast, 49.6% students never or hardly ever asked their friends when they were assessing CMS 186 over 224 students never implemented different methods of assessing their learning, accounting for 83% whereas 17% students claimed that they never did it

Table 4.4 Interaction Factor which can affect Learner Autonomy

Questionnaire Item Mean Std Deviation Interaction 1 Ask questions to the teacher while working online?

Interaction 2 Interact with your classmates while working online?

Interaction 3 Access to online materials? 3.70 1.196

Similarly, as can be seen from the table above, the lowest mean came to Interaction 2

“Interact with your classmates while working online” (M=3.63) while the highest one was Interaction 1 “Ask questions to the teacher while working online” (M= 3.97) Interaction 3 referred to the online materials accessibility got the mean of 3.70

The majority of students claimed to choose the place and the time of their learning at least some of the time, accounting for 95.5% both

Table 4.5 Flexibility Factor which can affect Learner Autonomy

Questionnaire Item Mean Std Deviation Flexibility 1 Define the place of your learning?

Flexibility 2 Define the time of your learning?

As shown in Table 4.5, the learners rated items about the course flexibility with the mean of 3.78 and 3.84 Accordingly, “Define the place of your learning?” item was better rated compared to “Define the time of your learning?” item

It was surprisingly that all participants in the survey were able to be engaged in online materials at least some of their time The same phenomenon happened with the other item, in which except for one, all participants could relate the online materials to the class learning

Table 4.6 Online material quality factor which can affect Learner Autonomy

Questionnaire Item Mean Std Deviation Material 1 Be engaged in the online materials?

Material 2 Relate the content in the online materials to in class learning?

To answer research question two, “what factors related to blended learning can affect learner autonomy”, it is necessary to clarify the strength of association between independent variables and dependent variables; hence, Spearman correlation was employed The rationale of Spearman correlation over Pearson is due to the fact that learner autonomy was not calculated on actual data value but rather on rank instead of As a result, the researcher chose Spearman to test the coefficient correlation of variables

Table 4.7 Correlation among observed variables

The correlation of refined factors after EFA were tested The three factors related to the Blended learning environment all presented weak correlation to the dependable variable Interaction (Rs = 519, p < 005) and Flexibility (Rs = 548, p < 005) acquired a moderate correlation to the dependent variable The other variable, Materials (Rs = 328, p < 005) showed quite weak correlation with perceived e- learner learner autonomy The p-value of the three factors were all above 0.0 demonstrating a positive impact on the dependent variable In short, different

49 factors of the three factors included in the study (Interaction, Flexibility and Online material quality) do affect learner autonomy, yet in a weak correlation Flexibility was found to be the most important factor and have the most impact on learner autonomy Interaction was in second place Online material quality was the least important variable

The qualitative data is also supportive of the quantitative results mentioned above Three interview questions were made to clarify the learner‟s perception about the course flexibility, the interaction and the online material quality (10) When and where do you usually study English outside the classroom? (11) What are the channels and activities you used to interact with your teacher and your friends during the course? (12) How did the use of the online material enhance your autonomous behaviors?

According to the interview, the majority of students can easily choose the suitable time and place to self-study, as in this student‟s response:

I normally do not have a fixed time to learn English When I feel comfortable, I will learn English Sometimes I also ride the bus while studying English, as long as I feel comfortable In general, my study time and location is quite flexible

Another student also claimed to choose a fixed suitable time and place to learn English:

I usually study by myself in the evening, when it is quiet I live in a dorm, so I usually choose to stay late at night, when everyone is already asleep I only study English at home, but never learn English outside, because I feel it's not very convenient

With regard to the interaction factor, answers from participants showed similarities The most frequently mentioned channels to interact with other students in the class recorded in almost all of the answers included social media channels like Zalo, facebook and google classroom due to its convenience and fast response rate Among them, Zalo was loved because “ … I can reach my teacher and my classmate quickly and conveniently”

Outstandingly, many students mentioned the importance of the support of the teacher

On Zalo, every week, my teacher would send us a lot of useful learning materials, remind us of the assignment, ask us to join in a tutor session, extend the deadline in case there were some students who missed the submission

Online material accessibility was also something mentioned among students in the interview

… online lessons on CMS allowed me to learn better I could replay the videos as many times as I want… I find the CMS operates smoothly and the quizzes were easily accessible

All students admitted the ability to relate online materials to in class activities In fact, as it is clearly stated in the syllabus, in class activities are designed to review the knowledge on CMS after the students have learned the knowledge at home, as can be seen from this interview reply:

Online materials help me a lot while studying in class The vocabulary and grammar notes in the online lesson are checked by the teacher Classroom communication activities also focus on these knowledge

Most of the students showed their engagement to the online materials, claiming that this is an obligatory task required by their teachers Quizlet is frequently mentioned in the interview as a rich and helpful source of online materials

Discussion of main findings

Students’ Perceptions of Learner Autonomy in the Blended learning environment

The first nine questionnaire items were related to autonomous practices, in which students evaluated their perceptions of the ability to perform these behaviors in the blended learning environment The results showed that learners were able to practice different autonomous behaviors, at least some of their time In other words, it was concluded that the blended learning environment support learner autonomy This results were consistent with the findings of various other authors from previous studies (Bitlis, 2011; Gülbahar & Madran, 2009; Saeheng, 2017; Sahni, 2019; Snodin, 2013)

In more details, the quantitative data revealed that the most frequent autonomous behavior among students was to “select materials to be learned” These findings corroborate with those of Nazarenko (2015), in which it was concluded that blended learning provided students easy access to learning materials This resulted from the fact that the CMS system was accessible during the course Numerous videos together with Quizzes were shown to students right after they enrolled the course Consequently, students were able to decide which lessons they would learn These actions can be attributed to the fact that students were able to use the software program in class and they were also able to reach the online content from outside of the classroom This also provided opportunities for learners not to restrict their studies to the classroom setting It was reported that learners could revise what they need at their own pace from the classroom notes put into the program

It was also seen that those students were able to be aware of what they need and

52 determine their own objectives according to their needs This result was consistent with those of Bitlis (2011) Nevertheless, students normally appeared to focus on passing the final examination or learning English to find a stable job In fact, the Vietnamese‟s test oriented system has been mentioned by different authors (Dang, 2010; Le, 2013) With the adoption of the centralized mechanism, the national education system prescribes almost all of school operation practices as well as evaluate the performance of each school (Le, 2013) This results in a common belief and practice among Vietnamese students, in which they are used to taking tests and teachers‟ assessments of students‟ English proficiency are based on their performance in these tests To have better job opportunities as one of the main reasons why Vietnamese students learn English is also mentioned by Ly, C K

Another autonomous behavior frequently conducted by students is to “be aware of their strengths and weaknesses”, at least some of their time This was consistent with the findings of Matukhin & Zhitkova, (2015), claiming that Blended learning encourages students to take charge of and supervise their own independent learning, which raises their self-awareness According to the qualitative data, most of them understood their strong and weak points long before; yet, blended learning helped to foster and enrich those understanding This was partly because before studying English, students had participated in a soft skill course at the studied institution, in which they had an opportunity to deeper understand their strong and weak points in general as well as in language learning in particular Consequently, as soon as they experienced a blended learning environment, which allowed them to deal with their self-studying lots of time, a clearer understanding of their strengths and weaknesses was acquired

Another fascinating result found from the findings shows that most students could be able to use English outside the classroom However, they mostly focus on the online materials provided for them during the course, most of which were reading and writing Conversely, they did not use English outside the classroom to

53 communicate This is mostly due to the fact that before college, the grammar‐translation method adopted at many institutions, which focused on grammatical rules and implementation, has created generations of learners who have a good grasp of English grammar and vocabulary but poor speaking and listening skills As a result, many Vietnamese students had remarkable difficulties in conducting a simple conversation in English As they worry that their English is not good enough for communication, shyness to practice English outside the classroom could be easily found among students This result was consistent with that of Sundkvist & Nguyen, (2020), who claimed a low level of communicative proficiencies among Vietnamese students Nguyen (2009) also concluded that learner autonomy was exercised among Vietnamese learners, but mostly in the classroom environment

There were a very few students who showed passive autonomous behaviors as they claimed they never practice some activities In those cases, they tended to ask for the teacher‟s approval This result emphasizes the role of the teacher in developing autonomous behaviors It is consistent with those of Bitlis (2011), who claimed that blended learning did support learner autonomy and the teacher played an important role in supporting such behaviors However, this study showed a contradictory result compared to that of Wong et al (2020), who concluded that blended learning did not have a significant impact on students‟ perceptions towards the role of teacher In fact, the role of teacher in Vietnamese educational context has been mentioned in different studies For example, Hofstede (1986), claimed that Vietnamese teachers are expected to be a “guru” by students and a reverential superior both inside and outside of the classroom Teachers play the role as the passer of knowledge and students are considered as the receivers of knowledge, resulting in the students‟ high dependence on the teacher

Factors related to Blended learning that affects Students’ perception of learner autonomy

The second question of this study aimed at investigating which factors related to

54 blended learning might affect learner autonomy The results showed that of all the factors in the selected framework, flexibility was found to be the statistically most significant The variable with the second-highest significance was interaction The third most important, also weakest element, was the online material quality

Flexibility was found to be the most influential factor affecting learner autonomy in this study In more detail, the results of this study revealed that most students were able to define the place and time of their learning, at least some of their time This supports the results of Sanprasert (2010), who concluded that the blended learning environment provides greater flexibility, which helps to enhance students‟ perception of learner autonomy Herlina et al (2019) also agreed with this view, claiming that in the blended learning environment, students could easily access the materials at any time and at any place before attending face-to-face sessions with their peers and teacher in class time

In general, blended learning offers flexibility in terms of availability Firstly, this environment enables students to access the online materials from anywhere at any time whereas they still can enjoy the benefits of in class face to face instructions In the context of studied polytechnic, course flexibility is widely experienced by learners Only one in-class lecture is obligatory on a weekly basis, leaving a lot of time for learners to self-study and carry out their own activities The online session is reminded of learner's timetables twice a week of which only purpose is to encourage students to remember to study English Then it is the students who choose the time and the place to study They can study at any time during the day and any place they want

The finding of this study suggests a positive significance between interaction and learner autonomy Firstly, it is concluded that the interaction with other students helps to increase autonomous behaviors The results of this study corroborate those of Asoodar et al (2016), who emphasized the critical value of learner interaction

55 with others and the necessity of setting up group projects, interactive games, and discussion sessions In the context of the blended learning course in the studied institution, students are required to practice individual self-study of Vocabulary and Grammar at home Quizzes and Quizlet have been designed and developed as individual work and are also required to be completed before class During this learning process, students are divided into different groups to support each other Tutor support was also introduced as supplemental interactive activities for all students to participate while they were self-studying at home Then, during in class sessions, different communicative activities have been organized in which students interact with each other through pair work, group work, discussion, etc This helps increase the peer interaction time in class Consequently, students learn from others‟ motivation and engagement, resulting in a higher level of learner autonomy

In addition, according to the findings, the availability of the teacher is also essential in the development of students‟ autonomy This is equivalent to the study conducted by Alonazi (2017), in which the instructor interaction has been proven to have positive impacts on learner autonomy As in studied institution, the teacher is required to apply different channels to interact and support students including Zalo, Facebook, Phone numbers, etc, which has been clearly stated in the syllabus A Zalo group for the whole teachers in the faculty was also created with the purpose to remind them to support students on a weekly basis The official announcements given to students are written uniformly and provided to the teachers in this Zalo group Additionally, a number of seminars have been planned to discuss the appropriate strategies to assist students These ensure that the teacher can fully support students during the course

The final factor related to Blended learning which affects learner autonomy is online material quality, yet, in a weak correlation This finding was partly unable to support the results of different research (Bitlis, 2011; Cheng, 2020; Liu et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2008; Swan, 2010), revealing that course quality has a significantly

56 positive impact between the quality of the online content and learner autonomy Since 2010, various different teaching strategies and curricula have been implemented throughout the history of development of the Faculty Blended learning has always been the base and different videos which give students necessary teacher‟s online instructions have been recorded and uploaded on CMS However, although technology is always evolving, the materials have not been recently updated to gain more content richness Thus, some videos that were shot years ago are not in as good quality as recent videos In addition, all videos are filmed by faculty members of the school Some instructors have had experience appearing in front of the camera, but some have not This has resulted in the teacher's lack of confidence and fluent expressions in some of the videos This is the reason why the online content quality can only weakly affect learner autonomy, compared to other two factors.

Chapter summary

This chapter has illustrated the findings of quantitative phase and qualitative phase The finding of this study showed that most of the students were able to practice autonomous behaviors, at least some of the time This chapter presented the findings of the quantitative and the qualitative data acquired from the questionnaire, interviews and observations Due to these findings, it was concluded that most of the students were able to practice autonomous behaviors, at least some of the time Besides, some behaviors were more frequently taken, including “Select materials to be learned”, “Determine own objectives according to your needs” and “Beware of what you need” Of all factors in the selected framework, Flexibility was found to be statistically the most significant, followed by Interaction, which was the variable with the second strongest significance Online material quality was the third influential factor and was also the weakest Finally, the teacher played an enormous role in improving Learner Autonomy in the Blended learning environment, as students tended to ask questions to the teacher during the learning process as they practiced autonomous behaviors

The finding of this study is in line with the prior study of Bitlis (2011) Besides, the finding of this study is also consistent with those of Sanprasert (2010), who indicated that blended learning environment provides greater flexibility, which helps to enhance students‟ perception of learner autonomy Qualitative interview phase revealed deeper understanding about how learners perceive the current state of the dimensions which had been found significant Recommendations were also provided

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of main findings

The current study has provided information about whether a blended learning environment helps to foster learner autonomy in the Vietnamese EFL context and which factor related to this environment support practicing autonomous activities

224 students participated in the study A quantitative survey and qualitative interviews together with observation were utilized in this study's mixed-methods approach

Through three phases of data collection, the results revealed a moderate level of learner autonomy It was indicated that students were able to use their autonomous abilities, at least some of the time, during the blended learning experience Some autonomous behaviors were frequently practiced by students: they were able to select materials to be learned, to be aware of what you need and to determine the objectives according to their needs In addition, factor analysis approved the positive correlation between learner autonomy and the 3 factors related to blended learning including interaction, flexibility and online material quality However when further data analysis practices were executed, it was concluded that flexibility was the most influential factor, followed by interaction Online material quality affected students‟ learner autonomy but in a weak correlation The teacher played

59 an enormous role in improving Learner Autonomy in the Blended learning environment.

Implication and Recommendation

The survey phase followed by the interview phase and the observation have helped answer the research questions proposed by the writer It can be seen that the students in the researched school show a moderate level of learner autonomy in the EFL blended course In other words, blended learning supported learner autonomy; yet, the level of learner autonomy should still be much improved The findings collected through these three phases have brought to some implications and recommendations as follows:

Firstly, the flexibility of the Blended learning environment was the strongest factor affecting learner autonomy in this context, revealing that the more flexibility students experienced, the more autonomous they became However, it is suggested that although students gained more autonomy as they were able to choose their place and pace of their studies, they still needed guidance and support

Interaction was the second strongest factor affecting learner autonomy in this context The more this dimension is improved, the more autonomous the learners become To improve learners' peer interaction throughout the course, it is proposed that more interactive activities should be offered These activities should be provided wisely and logically organized in order to avoid wasting limited time for in-class sessions It is advised that group discussions, pair projects, and pair work be heavily integrated into the curriculum so that students feel compelled to interact In this study, most learners seemed to pay attention to in-class sessions whereas they did not participate in extracurricular activities such as gameshow, minigames, English clubs and events Hence, those activities should be arranged by the head of the department in order to ensure the unity and the consistency of the program The interaction with the teacher also played an important role in the development of learner autonomy This calls for the necessity of seeking new approaches to train teachers, who should be prepared to establish effective interaction with their

60 learners based on profound knowledge in blended learning methodology and pedagogy More seminars should be organized to emphasize the role of teacher- student interaction and, simultaneously, to find new effective forms of interaction Online course quality was found to be positively effective to learner autonomy; yet, the correlation is rather weak However, the need to enhance course quality is still noticeable The quiz and lecture videos, which are currently separate, should be combined so that students must view the lecture videos and complete the quiz simultaneously There should be more speaking and listening exercises available for students, both in-person and online, to provide them more opportunities to practice these two crucial abilities Videos with low sound and image quality should be edited More alternative videos with new updated knowledge and information should be recorded and uploaded on CMS The teachers responsible for the video recording should be properly trained; therefore, they can acquire different pedagogical methods suitable for online materials

One noted finding can be found in this study is that the teacher played an important role in facilitating learner autonomy through the interview and observation Learners highly appreciate the instructor‟s reminders of the tasks students required to complete during the week, which increases the experience of flexibility It‟s also the instructor‟s duty to enhance the learner‟s interaction Instructor‟s availability is critically important in the context of blended learning since they serve as the link between learners and the courses Consequently, it is important to conduct thorough research on the teacher's position in order to ensure that it is not underestimated.

Limitation and suggestions for further study

There are still some restrictions with this study First off, the data collection was limited (N = 224), which prevents generalizing the results To get more reliable data that aid in a proper policy-making process, further research involving a larger sample size should be conducted Second, the study uses a framework that is more Western in design and does not take into account several aspects of Vietnamese culture that still apply, such as the personalities of Vietnamese students, the

61 hierarchical culture, face-saving, relationships between teachers and students, etc In order to display a deeper understanding of e-learners in the context of Vietnam, it will be necessary to design more Asia-friendly models based on literature review in the future Thirdly, the study was conducted when the Covid-19 epidemic was spreading This period required an immediate shift to a new way of course delivery According to which, the in class sessions was occasionally carried out online, based on the infections of the teacher and the students Besides, in class teacher interactions and peer interactions were partly reduced in terms of their nature and forms, which allowed for some unforeseen circumstances to develop and perhaps lead to unfavorable outcomes This study's failure to go deeper into student factors with various characteristics such as gender, age, English proficiency, previous e- learning experience, and motivation is another limitation To fully understand the primary users of blended courses, more study examining those aspects should be conducted.

Conclusion

This study was carried out to investigate the level of learner autonomy in a blended learning environment and which factors related to this environment affect learner autonomy in a vocational school in Hanoi The study confirmed that learners at the researched school possessed a moderate level of learner autonomy Flexibility and Interaction were factors that showed statistical significance The findings of the study is expected to help school administrators to adapt their approaches to foster learner autonomy in ELF blended courses at the researched school

Al Zumor, A W Q., Al Refaai, I K., Eddin, E A B., & Al-Rahman, F H A

(2013) EFL Students‟ Perceptions of a Blended Learning Environment: Advantages, Limitations and Suggestions for Improvement English Language Teaching, 6(10), 95–110 http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n10p95

Allen, I E., & Seaman, J (2003) Sizing the Opportunity: The Quality and Extent of

Online Education in the United States, 2002 and 2003 Sloan Consortium (NJ1) https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED530060.pdf

Alonazi, S M (2017) The Role of Teachers in Promoting Learner Autonomy in

Secondary Schools in Saudi Arabia English Language Teaching, 10(7),

Ba, H T (2018) Using the Internet to Promote Business Learners‟ Autonomy in

Vietnam International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies, 6(3), 1–8 http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.6n.3p.1

Benson, P (2013) Teaching and researching: Autonomy in language learning

Routledge http://ec.hku.hk/autonomy/what.html

Bitlis, ệ (2011) A BLENDED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT IN RELATION TO http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11693/15184/0005035.pdf?s equence=1

Bonk, C J., & Graham, C R (2012) The handbook of blended learning: Global perspectives, local designs John Wiley & Sons https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi13945 91938286588f52d4342b8a396a53318d

Buran, A., & Evseeva, A (2015) Prospects of blended learning implementation at technical university Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 206, 177–

Chan, V., Spratt, M., & Humphreys, G (2002) Autonomous language learning:

Hong Kong tertiary students‟ attitudes and behaviours Evaluation & Research in Education, 16(1), 1–18

Cheng, Y.-M (2020) Students‟ satisfaction and continuance intention of the cloud- based e-learning system: roles of interactivity and course quality factors Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K (2013) Research methods in education routledge

Cotterall, S (1995) READINESS FOR AUTONOMY: INVESTIGATING LEARNER

BELIEFS (Vol 23, Issue 2) http://people.exeter.ac.uk/zhhm201/1-s2.0-

Creswell, J W., & Creswell, J D (2017) Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches Sage publications http://www.ceil-conicet.gov.ar/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Creswell-Cap- 10.pdf

Cung, B., Xu, D., & Eichhorn, S (2018) Increasing Interpersonal Interactions in an

Online Course: Does Increased Instructor Email Activity and Voluntary Meeting Time in a Physical Classroom Facilitate Student Learning? Online Learning, 22(3), 193–215 https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v22i3.1322

Dam, L., Eriksson, R., Little, D., Miliander, J., & Trebbi, T (1990) Towards a definition of autonomy Third Nordic Workshop on Developing Autonomous

Learning in the FL Classroom, 102–103

Dang, T T (2010) Learner autonomy in EFL studies in Vietnam: A discussion from sociocultural perspective English Language Teaching, 3(2), 3–9 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1081573.pdf

Daymont, T., Blau, G., & Campbell, D (2011) Deciding between traditional and online formats: Exploring the role of learning advantages, flexibility, and compensatory adaptation Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management, 12(2), 156

Dickinson, L (1993) Talking shop: Aspects of autonomous learning ELT Journal,

Dickinson, L (1996) Culture, autonomy and common-sense Autonomy 2000: The

Development of Leaming Independence in Language Leaming, 41–54

Egel, I P (2009) Learner autonomy in the language classroom: From teacher dependency to learner independency Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 2023–2026 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.355

Ellis, R A., Goodyear, P., Calvo, R A., & Prosser, M (2008) Engineering students‟ conceptions of and approaches to learning through discussions in face-to-face and online contexts Learning and Instruction, 18(3), 267–282 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2007.06.001

Field, A (2013) Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics sage http://users.sussex.ac.uk/~andyf/dsusflyer.pdf

Flood, J (2002) Read all about it: online learning facing 80% attrition rates

Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 3(2) https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/156618

Gamble, C., Wilkins, M., Aliponga, J., Koshiyama, Y., Yoshida, K., & Ando, S

(2018) Learner autonomy dimensions: What motivated and unmotivated EFL students think Lingua Posnaniensis, 60(1), 33–47 https://doi.org/10.2478/linpo-2018-0003

Garrison, D R., & Vaughan, N D (2008) Blended learning in higher education:

Framework, principles, and guidelines John Wiley & Sons

Grabinsk, K., Kedzior, M., & Krasodomska, J (2015) Blended learning in tertiary accounting education in the CEE region-A Polish perspective Accounting and Management Information Systems, 14(2), 378 http://online- cig.ase.ro/jcig/art/14_2_7.pdf

Graham, C R., Woodfield, W., & Harrison, J B (2013) A framework for institutional adoption and implementation of blended learning in higher education The Internet and Higher Education, 18, 4–14 https://i.unisa.edu.au/siteassets/staff/tiu/documents/a-framework-for- institutional-adoption-and-implementation-of-bl-in-he.pdf

Gülbahar, Y., & Madran, R O (2009) Communication and Collaboration,

Satisfaction, Equity, and Autonomy in Blended Learning Environments: A

Case from Turkey International Review of Research in Open and Distance

Learning, 10(2) https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ844026.pdf

Heinze, A., & Procter, C T (2004) Reflections on the use of blended learning https://usir.salford.ac.uk/id/eprint/1658/1/4247745025H CP_-

Henson, K T (2015) Curriculum planning: Integrating multiculturalism, constructivism, and education reform Waveland Press

Herlina, N., Sundayana, W., & Purnawarman, P (2019) Blended Learning as a

Means of Promoting Autonomous and Collaborative Learning Experiences

Third International Conference on Sustainable Innovation 2019–Humanity, Education and Social Sciences (IcoSIHESS 2019), 76–82 file:///Users/X/Downloads/125919851.pdf

Hoang, N T (2015) EFL teachers’ perceptions and experiences of blended learning in a Vietnamese university Queensland University of Technology https://eprints.qut.edu.au/83945/1/Ngoc%20Tue_Hoang_Thesis.pdf

Hofstede, G (1986) Cultural differences in teaching and learning International

Holec, H (1979) Autonomy and foreign language learning ERIC

Holmes, K., & Prieto-Rodriguez, E (2018) Student and staff perceptions of a learning management system for blended learning in teacher education

Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 43(3), 21–34 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1174214.pdf

Horn, M B., & Staker, H (2011) The rise of K-12 blended learning Innosight

Institute, 5 https://aurora-institute.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Rise-of-K-

Houlden, S., & Veletsianos, G (2019) A posthumanist critique of flexible online learning and its “anytime anyplace” claims British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(3), 1005–1018

Hua, Z., Harris, A., & Ollin, R (2011) Student autonomy and awareness: vocational education and student‐centred learning in China Journal of Vocational Education and Training, 63(2), 191–203 https://doi.org/10.1080/13636820.2011.566346

Humphreys, G., & Wyatt, M (2014) Helping Vietnamese university learners to become more autonomous ELT Journal, 68(1), 52–63 doi:10.1093/elt/cct056

Huong, P T T (2018) Applying blended learning method in teaching English at the University of Da Nang, Viet Nam The Educational Review, USA, 3(1),

16–20 http://dx.doi.org/10.26855/er.2019.01.002

Ismail, S (2016) Does Learner Autonomy Affect the Language Learning Process?

Journal of Foreign Language Education and Technology, 1(1), 1–17 file:///Users/X/Downloads/article_208893.pdf

Ivankova, N V, Creswell, J W., & Stick, S L (2006) Using mixed-methods sequential explanatory design: From theory to practice Field Methods, 18(1), 3–20 https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X05282260

Ja‟ashan, M M N H (2015) Perceptions and Attitudes Towards Blended Learning for English Courses: A Case Study of Students at University of Bisha

English Language Teaching, 8(9), 40–50 http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v8n9p40

Kaur, A., Hang, B T T., & Nur, A H B (2017) A self-determination theory based motivational model on intentions to drop out of vocational schools in Vietnam Malaysian Journal of Learning and Instruction, 14(1), 1–21

Kelley, K., Clark, B., Brown, V., & Sitzia, J (2003) Good practice in the conduct and reporting of survey research International Journal for Quality in Health

Care, 15(3), 261–266 https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzg031

Kim, N.-Y., & Yoon, S Y (2021) A Comparative Study on Blended Learning and

Flipped Learning: EFL Students‟ Learner Autonomy, Independence, and Attitudes Korean Journal of English Language and Linguistics, 21, 171–

Kirschner, P A., & van Merriởnboer, J J (2013) Do learners really know best? Urban legends in education Educational psychologist, 48(3), 169-183 https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2013.804395

TEACHERS’CLASSROOM QUESTIONING (A Descriptive Study on State Senior High School Students in Banyumas) UNIVERSITAS MUHAMMADIYAH PURWOKERTO https://repository.ump.ac.id/67/1/Rizky%20COVER.pdf

Lander, B., & Kuramoto, T (2013) Development of the autonomous learner through blended learning Saga University Institutional Repository, 29, 165–

176 https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/59167075.pdf

Le NGUYEN, T C (2008) Learner autonomy and EFL proficiency: A Vietnamese perspective Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 18, 67–87

Le, Q X (2013) Fostering learner autonomy in language learning in tertiary education: an intervention study of university students in Hochiminh City, Vietnam University of Nottingham https://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/13405/2/Draft_of_Thesis_Quynh_Xuan_Le_

Lee, Y (2006) An empirical investigation into factors influencing the adoption of an e‐learning system Online Information Review https://doi.org/10.1108/14684520610706406

Leech, N., Barrett, K., & Morgan, G A (2013) SPSS for intermediate statistics:

Little, D (1995) Learning as dialogue: The dependence of learner autonomy on teacher autonomy System, 23(2), 175–181

Little, D G (1991) Learner autonomy: Definitions, issues and problems

Littlewood, W (1999) Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts

Liu, Y., Li, H., & Carlsson, C (2010) Factors driving the adoption of m-learning:

An empirical study Computers and Education https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2010.05.018

Matukhin, D., & Zhitkova, E (2015) Implementing blended learning technology in higher professional education Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,

McDonald, S M (2011) Perception: A concept analysis International Journal of

Nursing Terminologies and Classifications, no-no

Moore, M G (1989) Three types of interaction

Nalipay, M J N., King, R B., & Cai, Y (2020) Autonomy is equally important across East and West: Testing the cross-cultural universality of self- determination theory Journal of Adolescence, 78, 67–72 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.12.009

Nazarenko, A L (2015) Blended learning vs traditional learning: What works?(a case study research) Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 200, 77–82 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.08.018

Newman, R S (2002) How self-regulated learners cope with academic difficulty:

The role of adaptive help seeking Theory into Practice, 41(2), 132–138 https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doic78c42 e065594e969630dc7fcf6b310ba0b668

Nguyen, C T (2011) Impacts of socio-culture on the development of autonomous learning: A lens of Vietnamese context Journal of Studies in Education, 1(1), 1–10 http://dx.doi.org/10.5296/jse.v1i1.866

Nguyen, T C Le (2009) Learner autonomy and EFL learning at the tertiary level in Vietnam https://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/1203/thesis. pdf?sequence=1

Nunnally, J C (1994) Psychometric theory 3E Tata McGraw-hill education

O‟Leary, M (2013) Classroom observation: A guide to the effective observation of teaching and learning Routledge

Palfreyman, D (2003) Expanding the Discourse on Learner Development: A Reply to Anita Wendon Applied Linguistics, 24(2), 243–248

Pham, P.-T., Nguyen, M.-T., Nguyen, T.-H., Nguyen, M.-T., Yen, D T H., Ho, T.-

Q., Le, K.-A., & Nguyen, D.-B (2021) Blended Learning In Action: Perception Of Teachers And Students On Implementing Plended Learning In Ctu Multicultural Education, 7(4) https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4728153 Phuong, Y H., & Vo, P Q (2019) Students‟ learning autonomy, involvement and motivation towards their English proficiency Edulite: Journal of English Education, Literature and Culture, 4(1), 1–12

Pichugova, I L., Stepura, S N., & Pravosudov, M M (2016) Issues of promoting learner autonomy in EFL context SHS Web of Conferences, 28, 1081 https://doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20162801081

Poon, J (2013) Blended learning: An institutional approach for enhancing students‟ learning experiences Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 9(2), 271–

288 https://jolt.merlot.org/vol9no2/poon_0613.pdf

Saeheng, P (2017) A Study of e-Learning, Blended learning, and Traditional

Teaching Methods to Motivate Autonomous Learning in English Reading Comprehension of Thais Learners Blended Learning, and Traditional Teaching Methods Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics, 2(1), 2017 www.ijeltal.org https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/67c1/f290fdb4268b4441ad3311d5ebbaed1f 8499.pdf

Sahni, J (2019) Does Blended Learning Enhance Student Engagement? Evidence from Higher Education Journal of E-Learning and Higher Education, 2019, 1–14 https://doi.org/10.5171/2019.121518

Sanprasert, N (2010) The application of a course management system to enhance autonomy in learning English as a foreign language System, 38(1), 109–123 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2009.12.010

Sharpe, R., Benfield, G., Roberts, G., & Francis, R (2006) The undergraduate

70 experience of blended e-learning: a review of UK literature and practice The

Higher Education Academy, 4(2), 24–250 https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doid55a2f 787b287e5494e33cec48499ed34d7eb3

Snodin, N S (2013) The effects of blended learning with a CMS on the development of autonomous learning: A case study of different degrees of autonomy achieved by individual learners Computers and Education, 61(1), 209–216 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2012.10.004

Sun, P C., Tsai, R J., Finger, G., Chen, Y Y., & Yeh, D (2008) What drives a successful e-Learning? An empirical investigation of the critical factors influencing learner satisfaction Computers and Education, 50(4), 1183–

Sundkvist, P., & Nguyen, X N C M (2020) English in Vietnam The Handbook of Asian Englishes, 683–703

Swan, K (2010) Education , Communication & Information Building Learning

Communities in Online Courses : the importance of interaction January

Szadziewska, A., & Kujawski, J (2017) Advantages and disadvantages of the blended-learning method used in the educational process at the faculty of management at the University of Gdansk, in the opinion of undergraduate students ICERI Proceedings, 3938–3946

Tinsley, H E A., & Kass, R A (1979) The latent structure of the need satisfying properties of leisure activities Journal of Leisure Research, 11(4), 278–291 Uribe, D., Klein, J D., & Sullivan, H (2003) The effect of computer-mediated collaborative learning on solving III-defined problems Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(1), 5–19 https://myweb.fsu.edu/jklein/articles/Uribe_Klein_Sullivan_2003.pdf

Van Anh, P T., & Nguyen, H T T (2020) Teaching Fundamental Courses in

Vietnam: Transitioning from Blended Learning Approach to Online

Learning Approach Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on

Distance Education and Learning, 30–34 https://doi.org/10.1145/3402569.3402592

Walker, S L., & Fraser, B J (2005) Development and validation of an instrument for assessing distance education learning environments in higher education: The Distance Education Learning Environments Survey (DELES) Learning

Environments Research, 8(3), 289–308 https://espace.curtin.edu.au/bitstream/handle/20.500.11937/1303/14269_Wal ker,%20Scott%202003.pdf?sequence=2

Wang, N., Chen, J., Tai, M., & Zhang, J (2021) Blended learning for Chinese university EFL learners: learning environment and learner perceptions

Computer Assisted Language Learning, 34(3), 297–323 https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1607881

E‐learning: emerging uses, empirical results and future directions

International Journal of Training and Development, 7(4), 245–258

Wong, K T., Hwang, G J., Goh, P S C., & Mohd Arrif, S K (2020) Effects of blended learning pedagogical practices on students‟ motivation and autonomy for the teaching of short stories in upper secondary English

Interactive Learning Environments, 28(4), 512–525 https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2018.1542318

Yen, C J., & Liu, S (2009) Learner autonomy as a predictor of course success and final grades in community college online courses Journal of Educational Computing Research, 41(3), 347–367 https://doi.org/10.2190/EC.41.3.e

Zeng, M (2009) Focus on Fashionable Approaches of Language Teaching or on

Local Needs of Language learners-Language Teachers‟ Dilemma US-China

APPENDIX A: Adaption of the Questionnaire items

No Original item Adapted item

6 Evaluate your learning process Reworded to be suitable with the literature review of the study

8 Apply learning strategies alone Deleted because of irrelevant meaning

11 Ask questions to the teacher while working on the MeLab program

Reworded to be suitable in research context

13 Use the feedback tool in the MeLab program

Reworded to be suitable in research context

14 Use the communication tools in the MeLab program

Reworded to be suitable in research context

15 Understand the progress you made using the personalized grade book in the MeLab program

Deleted because of its irrelevance in the research context

16 Identify your weakness in language learning performance charts in the MeLab program

Deleted because of its irrelevance in the research context

17 Relate the content in the MeLab program to in class learning

Reworded to be suitable in research context

18 Do individualized tasks in the personalized learning environment

Deleted because of unrelated meaning

Please indicate how often you did the below listed actions in each context by circling on number

No How often were you able to

1 Be aware of what you need? 1 2 3 4 5

2 Be aware of your strengths and weaknesses? 1 2 3 4 5

3 Determine own objectives according to your needs? 1 2 3 4 5

4 Select materials to be learned? 1 2 3 4 5

5 Select techniques to be used? 1 2 3 4 5

6 Evaluate and monitor the procedures of acquisition? 1 2 3 4 5

7 Seeking opportunities to use language outside of the classroom as well as inside?

9 Take control over your learning? 1 2 3 4 5

10 Ask questions to the teacher while working online? 1 2 3 4 5

11 Interact with your classmates while working online? 1 2 3 4 5

13 Define the place of your learning? 1 2 3 4 5

14 Define the time of your learning? 1 2 3 4 5

15 Be engaged in the online materials? 1 2 3 4 5

16 Relate the content in the online materials to in class learning?

Hãy cho biết tần suất bạn thực hiện các hành động được liệt kê dưới đây bằng cách khoanh tròn vào các số

No Bạn có thường xuyên có thể

1 Nhận thức được những gí bạn cần? 1 2 3 4 5

2 Nhận thức được điểm mạnh và điểm yếu của bản thân?

3 Xác định được mục tiêu riêng theo nhu cầu của bạn? 1 2 3 4 5

4 Lựa chọn tài liệu để học? 1 2 3 4 5

5 Lựa chọn phương pháp học để sử dụng? 1 2 3 4 5

6 Đánh giá và theo dõi quá trính học? 1 2 3 4 5

7 Tím kiếm cơ hội sử dụng ngôn ngữ bên ngoài lớp học?

8 Thiết lập kế hoạch cá nhân? 1 2 3 4 5

9 Kiểm soát việc học của bạn? 1 2 3 4 5

10 Đặt câu hỏi cho Giảng viên khi tự học online? 1 2 3 4 5

11 Tương tác với bạn cùng lớp khi tự học online? 1 2 3 4 5

12 Truy cập tài liệu trực tuyến? 1 2 3 4 5

13 Quyết định địa điểm học tập của bạn? 1 2 3 4 5

14 Quyết định thời gian học tập của bạn? 1 2 3 4 5

15 Tham gia tìch cực vào bài học online? 1 2 3 4 5

16 Liên hệ nội dung online với việc học trên lớp? 1 2 3 4 5

APPENDIX C: LIST OF SURVEY ITEM CODING

Be aware of what you need? AutonomousBehavior1

2 Be aware of your strengths and weaknesses?

3 Determine own objectives according to your needs?

4 Select materials to be learned? AutonomousBehavior4

5 Select techniques to be used? AutonomousBehavior5

6 Evaluate and monitor the procedures of acquisition?

7 Seeking opportunities to use language outside of the classroom as well as inside?

9 Take control over your learning? AutonomousBehavior9

Ask questions to the teacher while working online?

11 Interact with your classmates while working on online?

12 Access to online materials? Interaction3

Define the place of your learning? Flexibility1

14 Define the time of your learning? Flexibility2

Be engaged in online materials? Material1

16 Relate the content in the online materials to in class learning?

APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH

1 How do you think that learning English is necessary? What do you need to do to improve your English?

2 What are your strengths and weaknesses? When did you realize them?

3 What are the objectives related to English learning you have set in the future? What have you done to fulfil them?

4 What are the materials you have chosen to learn during the English learning process? Where do you get those materials?

5 What are the techniques you have chosen to apply during the English learning process? Where and when did you find those techniques?

6 How often do you use English outside classroom? Do you usually join in English clubs or the institution‟s different events related to English? Why?

7 How do you evaluate your learning process? Do you see any improvements during the process? What are the most essential factors that affect such improvements?

8 How do you set your agenda to learn English?

9 How do you control your learning?

10 When and where do you usually study English outside classroom?

11 What are the channels and activities you used to interact with your teacher and your friends during the course?

12 How did the use of the online material enhance your autonomous behaviors?

1 Bạn nghĩ rằng việc học Tiếng anh cần thiết như thế nào? Bạn cần làm gí để cải thiện trính độ tiếng anh của mính?

2 Điểm mạnh và điểm yếu của bạn là gí? Bạn nhận ra chúng khi nào?

3 Mục tiêu liên quan đến việc học tiếng anh mà bạn đã đặt ra trong tương lai là gí? Bạn đã làm những gí để hoàn thành chúng?

4 Những tài liệu bạn đã chọn để học trong quá trính học Tiếng anh trong khóa học là gí? Bạn lấy những tài liệu này từ đâu?

5 Những cách thức bạn đã lựa chọn để áp dụng trong quá trính học Tiếng anh trong khóa học là gí? Bạn tím hiểu những cách thức học này từ đâu?

6 Bạn có thường xuyên sử dụng Tiếng anh bên ngoài lớp học không? Bạn có thường tham gia các hoạt động hoặc sự kiện của CLB Tiếng anh hoặc các sự kiện khác nhau của trường liên quan đến tiếng anh không? Tại sao?

7 Bạn đánh giá quá trính học tập của mính như thế nào? Bạn có thấy bất kỳ cải thiện nào trong quá trính này không? Những yêu tố ảnh hưởng nhiều nhất đến sự tiến bộ đó là gí?

8 Bạn thiết lập chương trính/kế hoạch học Tiếng anh của mính như thế nào?

9 Bạn kiểm soát việc học của mính như thế nào?

10 Bạn thường học Tiếng anh ngoài lớp học khi nào và ở đâu? Các kênh và các hoạt động bạn đã sử dụng để tương tác với bạn bè của mính trong khóa học là gí?

Việc sử dụng tài liệu trực tuyến đã nâng cao hành vi tự chủ của bạn như thế nào?

APPENDIX E: SAMPLE STUDENT INTERVIEW TRANSCRIPT IN ENGLISH

R: How do you think that learning English is necessary?

S1: I think learning English is very necessary because in a developed society, it is very important to use English to communicate or apply for a job, so I need to improve it

R: What do you need to do to improve your English?

S1: Well, in order to improve my English, I usually participate enthusiastically in class activities and then when I come home, I review those knowledge and apply it in life

R: What are your strengths and weaknesses? When did you realize them?

S1: Hmm… My strong point is going to class to express my opinions, this helps me absorb a lot of knowledge The weak point is that I lost my basics in English Before I studied English at school, I knew absolutely nothing about English This is my difficulty, my weakness This lack of basic knowledge does not affect my learning process too much because I can still follow the lectures in class

R: What are the objectives related to English learning you have set in the future? What have you done to fulfil them?

S1: Alright… So my goal in the coming time is to pass the subject and complete the

4 skills well After each class, I try to review the lesson well so that I can grasp the knowledge Since I know that my school only tests what I learn in class, I will be fine if I focus on that knowledge And I haven't thought of any further goals in the future

R: What are the materials you have chosen to learn during the English learning process? Where do you get those materials?

S1: Well, for the material, I get it from Duolingo or CMS for me to do my homework These documents are all available There is everything I need to choose from Every week, I usually choose different topics and different words that I find