VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSTTY-HANOIUNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES & INTERNATIONAL STUDIESENGLISH-MAJORED STUDENTS' PERCEPTIONS AND PRACTICES OF CRITICAL THINKING IN ACADEMIC WRITING: A STUDY AT A
INTRODUCTION Ha3 Ỏ 1
Rationale of the Study - - G02 22113211351 11 11111118111 111811 81 g1 HH ng ng ng 1
In my role as an English language instructor, I consistently noticed a recurring concern among university lecturers and learners regarding students' demonstration of "critical thinking." This led me to ponder what students truly understood by this term As a PhD student and English language instructor, I recognized the significance of critical thinking in written assignments and was eager to explore how students could enhance this skill. Understanding students' definitions of critical thinking was crucial for assisting their academic and life skill development, enabling tailored teaching approaches This investigation aimed to uncover how English-majored students perceive and practice critical thinking in academic writing By exploring their approaches to critical analysis, argument evaluation, and integration of perspectives, I could identify effective instructional methods and contribute to the broader understanding of critical thinking in the context of English language learning in Vietnamese universities.
In Vietnam, undertaking research on critical thinking in academic writing for university students is underscored by the distinct focus on an essential yet underexplored area While existing research has delved into various aspects of critical thinking, such as its understanding in EFL contexts (Nguyen, 2022), higher education classrooms (Dao & Hockey, 2021), primary school moral education (Ngo, 2019), and literature courses (Chi, 2022), there remains a noticeable gap specifically concerning critical thinking in academic writing among university students The necessity arises from the pivotal role that critical thinking plays in enhancing students' analytical and reasoning abilities, especially within the context of academic writing As prior studies have primarily addressed other dimensions of critical thinking, there 1s a clear need for research that delves into the unique challenges, practices, and implications of critical thinking in the specific domain of academic writing for university students in Vietnam.
This study fills a notable gap in existing research, specifically addressing critical thinking in academic writing among Vietnamese university students, and aims to enhance the understanding and application of critical thinking skills within the academic context.
Aims and objectives of the Study - G1 19v HH ng ng kt 2
This study aimed to explore how English-majored students at a university in Vietnam perceive of CT and how they practice CT in their essay writing The ultimate goal of the study was to help them improve their CT strategies in their English writing skills
— an important requirement of English language learning and teaching at the university The study set for itself the following objectives:
1 exploring English-majored students’perceptions of the most important features of critical thinking in academic writing.
2 investigating English-majored students’perceptions of approaches to features of critical thinking in academic writing.
3 examining English-majored students’practices of critical thinking in academic writing.
To fulfil the aim and the objectives of the study, the research raised the following three questions for exploration:
1 What are English-majored students' perceptions of the most important features of critical thinking in English academic writing?
2 What are English-majored students’ perceptions of approaches to features of critical thinking in academic writing?
3 To what extent do English-majored students practice critical thinking in their academic writing?
Based on students’ perceptions of CT and their academic writing practices, we proposed solutions to helping our students enhance their CT generally in their English essay writings particularly.
This is possibly the first comprehensive and systematic study of CT in Vietnam, focusing on English-majored students’ perceptions of CT and their practices in academic writing The research has contributed to a general understanding of critical thinking, improve critical thinking for learners, particularly university students in the field of argumentative/critical writings, and improve Vietnamese students’ English learning and research efficiency in an era of integration and globalization.
This study aims to investigate English-majored students' perceptions of the most important features of critical thinking in English academic writing and examine the extent to which they practice critical thinking in their academic writing To achieve these research objectives, a survey research design was employed, which involved administering questionnaires with close and open-ended questions and analyzing participants' writing papers.
The survey research design was chosen for its ability to collect data from a large number of participants efficiently By utilizing questionnaires, the researcher could gather responses from a diverse sample of English-majored students, enabling a broader understanding of their perceptions and practices related to critical thinking in English academic writing Surveys are particularly useful for exploring participants’ opinions, beliefs, and behaviors, making them well-suited for addressing the research questions of this study (Fink, 2015, p.2).
To address the first and the second research questions, a questionnaire with close- ended and open-ended questions was developed The close-ended questions provided structured options for participants to rate the importance of various features of CT in English academic writing This format allowed for quantitative analysis, facilitating comparisons and identifying patterns in participants' perceptions (Dillman et al.,
Furthermore, open-ended questions were included to gather qualitative data, enabling participants to provide detailed explanations and insights regarding their perceptions.
This qualitative data enriched the findings by capturing the nuances of participants’ perspectives (Babbie, 2020, p.281) The combination of close-ended and open-ended questions allowed for a comprehensive examination of the most important features of CT in English academic writing from the students’ point of view.
To address the third research question, participants’ writing papers were collected and analyzed Documentation analysis involves the systematic examination of documents to extract meaningful information (Bowen, 2009, p.45) In this study, participants' writing papers served as valuable sources of evidence to assess the extent to which they practice CT in their academic writing.
The researcher carefully reviewed and analyzed the participants’ writing papers to identify specific instances of CT skills, such as logical reasoning, evidence-based arguments By scrutinizing the participants’ written work, the researchers gained insights into their application of CT skills, thereby addressing the third research question.
The survey research design and the research instruments of questionnaires and documentation analysis were selected to address the research questions effectively. The questionnaires provided quantitative and qualitative data on participants’ perceptions of CT features, while the documentation analysis allowed for an assessment of CT practices in their writing This approach offers a comprehensive understanding of English-majored students' perceptions and practices of CT in English academic writing, contributing to the existing literature on the topic.
This study was dedicated to the exploration of CT perceptions and practices amongEnglish major students enrolled at a public university in Vietnam The research was centered on a cohort of 239 participants who volunteered to partake in the study We emphasized the pivotal role of students' perceptions, which constituted the fundamental theoretical framework Specifically, we delved into five key themes fundamental to CT in the realm of education These themes encompassed logical reasoning and argumentation, analysis and evaluation skills, personal motivation,intellectual openness and self-reflection, as well as self-confidence and creative synthesis The incorporation of these essential elements within the scope of our research aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the theoretical framework and the practical aspects under scrutiny.
The research methodology employed for data collection primarily involved survey research The dataset included responses from a 24-item questionnaire specifically crafted to evaluate participants' perceptions of the most crucial aspects of CT in academic writing Additionally, qualitative insights were gathered through an open- ended questionnaire, allowing participants to provide comprehensive narratives about their experiences Furthermore, the study incorporated the analysis of 250-word essays, written by the participants, to offer a concise yet reflective perspective on their practices Through this targeted approach, the study aims to reveal insights into the CT perceptions and practices of English major students at the designated public university in Vietnam.
This study is organized into 6 chapters.
Chapter 1 — Introduction — presents rationale of the study, aim and objective of the study, research questions, research methodology, significance of study, and organization of study.
Chapter 2 — Literature review - The ultimate goal of the chapters 1s to establish the aspects in which the notion of CT is employed in academic writing Theoretical considerations for the study will also be described in this chapter
Chapter 3 -Methodology— presents in detail the research methods and research instruments we will use to answer the research questions.
Chapter 4 — Data analysis and Results - focuses on the analysis of quantitative data about students’ perceptions of the most important features of CT in academic writing to address the first research question and entails the examination and interpretation of the dataset derived from the open-ended question survey and the English essay writings submitted by the students to address the second and the third research questions
Chapter 5 —Discussions- focuses on the findings obtained and the subsequent discussions presented to enhance CT of Vietnamese students, particularly in the context of academic essay writing.
Chapter 6 - Conclusion - provides a comprehensive overview of the primary findings of the research, acknowledges the study's shortcomings, and offers recommendations for future research endeavors.
Significance of the sÍudÌy - - - - c1 TH TH ng TH HH HH HH 3 I0) 08/02/0000) 0 2n
This is possibly the first comprehensive and systematic study of CT in Vietnam, focusing on English-majored students’ perceptions of CT and their practices in academic writing The research has contributed to a general understanding of critical thinking, improve critical thinking for learners, particularly university students in the field of argumentative/critical writings, and improve Vietnamese students’ English learning and research efficiency in an era of integration and globalization.
This study aims to investigate English-majored students' perceptions of the most important features of critical thinking in English academic writing and examine the extent to which they practice critical thinking in their academic writing To achieve these research objectives, a survey research design was employed, which involved administering questionnaires with close and open-ended questions and analyzing participants' writing papers.
The survey research design was chosen for its ability to collect data from a large number of participants efficiently By utilizing questionnaires, the researcher could gather responses from a diverse sample of English-majored students, enabling a broader understanding of their perceptions and practices related to critical thinking in English academic writing Surveys are particularly useful for exploring participants’ opinions, beliefs, and behaviors, making them well-suited for addressing the research questions of this study (Fink, 2015, p.2).
To address the first and the second research questions, a questionnaire with close- ended and open-ended questions was developed The close-ended questions provided structured options for participants to rate the importance of various features of CT in English academic writing This format allowed for quantitative analysis, facilitating comparisons and identifying patterns in participants' perceptions (Dillman et al.,
Furthermore, open-ended questions were included to gather qualitative data, enabling participants to provide detailed explanations and insights regarding their perceptions.
This qualitative data enriched the findings by capturing the nuances of participants’ perspectives (Babbie, 2020, p.281) The combination of close-ended and open-ended questions allowed for a comprehensive examination of the most important features of CT in English academic writing from the students’ point of view.
To address the third research question, participants’ writing papers were collected and analyzed Documentation analysis involves the systematic examination of documents to extract meaningful information (Bowen, 2009, p.45) In this study, participants' writing papers served as valuable sources of evidence to assess the extent to which they practice CT in their academic writing.
The researcher carefully reviewed and analyzed the participants’ writing papers to identify specific instances of CT skills, such as logical reasoning, evidence-based arguments By scrutinizing the participants’ written work, the researchers gained insights into their application of CT skills, thereby addressing the third research question.
The survey research design and the research instruments of questionnaires and documentation analysis were selected to address the research questions effectively. The questionnaires provided quantitative and qualitative data on participants’ perceptions of CT features, while the documentation analysis allowed for an assessment of CT practices in their writing This approach offers a comprehensive understanding of English-majored students' perceptions and practices of CT in English academic writing, contributing to the existing literature on the topic.
This study was dedicated to the exploration of CT perceptions and practices amongEnglish major students enrolled at a public university in Vietnam The research was centered on a cohort of 239 participants who volunteered to partake in the study We emphasized the pivotal role of students' perceptions, which constituted the fundamental theoretical framework Specifically, we delved into five key themes fundamental to CT in the realm of education These themes encompassed logical reasoning and argumentation, analysis and evaluation skills, personal motivation,intellectual openness and self-reflection, as well as self-confidence and creative synthesis The incorporation of these essential elements within the scope of our research aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the theoretical framework and the practical aspects under scrutiny.
The research methodology employed for data collection primarily involved survey research The dataset included responses from a 24-item questionnaire specifically crafted to evaluate participants' perceptions of the most crucial aspects of CT in academic writing Additionally, qualitative insights were gathered through an open- ended questionnaire, allowing participants to provide comprehensive narratives about their experiences Furthermore, the study incorporated the analysis of 250-word essays, written by the participants, to offer a concise yet reflective perspective on their practices Through this targeted approach, the study aims to reveal insights into the CT perceptions and practices of English major students at the designated public university in Vietnam.
This study is organized into 6 chapters.
Chapter 1 — Introduction — presents rationale of the study, aim and objective of the study, research questions, research methodology, significance of study, and organization of study.
Chapter 2 — Literature review - The ultimate goal of the chapters 1s to establish the aspects in which the notion of CT is employed in academic writing Theoretical considerations for the study will also be described in this chapter
Chapter 3 -Methodology— presents in detail the research methods and research instruments we will use to answer the research questions.
Chapter 4 — Data analysis and Results - focuses on the analysis of quantitative data about students’ perceptions of the most important features of CT in academic writing to address the first research question and entails the examination and interpretation of the dataset derived from the open-ended question survey and the English essay writings submitted by the students to address the second and the third research questions
Chapter 5 —Discussions- focuses on the findings obtained and the subsequent discussions presented to enhance CT of Vietnamese students, particularly in the context of academic essay writing.
Chapter 6 - Conclusion - provides a comprehensive overview of the primary findings of the research, acknowledges the study's shortcomings, and offers recommendations for future research endeavors.
Structure of the theSẽS - - - -G- LH HH ng HH gu ng HH nh 5
This study is organized into 6 chapters.
Chapter 1 — Introduction — presents rationale of the study, aim and objective of the study, research questions, research methodology, significance of study, and organization of study.
Chapter 2 — Literature review - The ultimate goal of the chapters 1s to establish the aspects in which the notion of CT is employed in academic writing Theoretical considerations for the study will also be described in this chapter
Chapter 3 -Methodology— presents in detail the research methods and research instruments we will use to answer the research questions.
Chapter 4 — Data analysis and Results - focuses on the analysis of quantitative data about students’ perceptions of the most important features of CT in academic writing to address the first research question and entails the examination and interpretation of the dataset derived from the open-ended question survey and the English essay writings submitted by the students to address the second and the third research questions
Chapter 5 —Discussions- focuses on the findings obtained and the subsequent discussions presented to enhance CT of Vietnamese students, particularly in the context of academic essay writing.
Chapter 6 - Conclusion - provides a comprehensive overview of the primary findings of the research, acknowledges the study's shortcomings, and offers recommendations for future research endeavors.
LITERATURE REVIEW 000.0 0.ccccccccecccceecceseeseeseeeeceeseeaeeeeeeeeeaeeneeeneaes 7
Critical thinking .- - - LH HH HH HH HH re 7 VU (co 200002000) ỪỪ 5
CT is considered an integral aspect of higher education globally (Davies & Barnett, 2015; Fox, 1994; van der Wal, 1999, p 75) Despite its significance, CT remains a somewhat ambiguous and elusive concept, lacking a universally agreed-upon definition (Abrami et al., 2004; Allegretti & Frederick, 1995; Cheung et al., 2002; Vangermensbrugge, 2008; Paul, 2011; Halonen, 1995; Moore, 2013; Davis & Barnett, 2015) This ambiguity is evident in the multiple interpretations surrounding key concepts like CT (Williams, 1976; Moore, 2013, p 506) The phrase ‘critical’ has a number of collocations and lexical linkages, many of which have subtly distinct meanings, such as criticism, criticise, analyse, assess, reflect, criticality, theory, literacy, and pedagogy.
Criticality expands the discourse beyond cognitive processes, advocating for a holistic engagement with ideas In advocating this philosophy of education, Barnett’s idea of criticality integrates this broad epistemic outlook He points out that, as human beings, we encounter life with a holistic fervor We exercise criticality in our everyday lives, not only in our decision-making processes, but also in our knowledge of self, the other, knowledge, and the world in which we live in In fact, they are all inextricably linked — it is part of being human Our knowledge of self, the other, and the world we live in is at the very heart of education Criticality infuses selfhood/being with prudence, and as Peters (1973) declared earlier, invites us to
‘travel with a different view’ (p 63) This ‘personal epistemology’ as Barnett calls it, is not a diluted version of solipsism or cognitive relativism, but an epistemology that is bedded in critical knowledge/thought and informed by our own lived experience.
It is a personal epistemology bedded in the context-specific reality of the agent; a reality that acknowledges the factthat each of us makes decisions on whatto believe or accept, whatto do or perform and whatto value and disvalue based on one’s unique set of epistemic criteria and standards Of course, as one would expect, this process differs from person-to-person, since the epistemic criterion by which one must first be satisfied, undoubtedly varies from person to person.
Critical pedagogy, as highlighted by Freire (1970), extends the boundaries of critical thinking into the socio-political realm of education Giroux (2011) emphasizes its focus on social justice and equity, urging educators to empower learners to challenge oppressive structures In the realm of academic writing, critical pedagogy prompts an examination of power dynamics and inclusivity in classroom practices (Hooks, 2014).
The postmodern perspective challenges traditional notions of truth and reality. Lyotard (1994) posits that postmodernism deconstructs grand narratives, inviting individuals to question authority and embrace complexity In academic writing, postmodernism prompts an interrogation of established norms, acknowledging the influence of cultural, historical, and social contexts (Jameson, 1984).
There are multiple ways to differentiate between CT-related schools of thought Paul (2011) describes three separate temporal "waves." The first is run by philosophers and is based on reasoning and argument According to Paul, the second wave is much more eclectic and not concentrated in a single field, and the research quality varies. The third wave combines the width and rigor of the second wave with the depth and rigor of the first wave in an attempt to compensate for the flaws of the first two waves and strengthen them.
In 2015, Davies and Barnett recently offered a somewhat different paradigm for comprehending CT in higher education They describe three major "movements" in modern CT The "critical thinking movement," "criticality movement," and "criticalwom pedagogy movement" (Davies & Barnett, 2015) are three of them The CTM is made up of two fundamental methods: cognitive components and dispositional components The first is comprised of "inference making and argumentation" and
"CT as (reflective) judgment formulation" (p 10), while the second is comprised of
"a variety of dispositions and attitudes" (p 11) (See Fig 2.1.)
The critical thinking movement (Davies and Barnett, 2015)
| Critical THINKING (argumentation/skills) Critical character
Individual axis of criticality (1nner” focus)
Socio-cultural axis of criticality (“outer” focus)
The CT movement is made up of major CT features and the inherent connections between these parts Individual and societal components of CT can be given a place and reconciled in a single paradigm of CT in higher education We regard two dimensions as distinct axes or vectors that account for quite different but equally significant components of CT According to Barnett (1997), the term "criticality" is now the most widely used in reference to CT Criticality is a deliberate departure from the standard word "critical thinking," which was deemed insufficient to reflect the educational potential that exists The term "criticality" seeks to introduce a perspective that broadens CT to include not only debate, judgment, and contemplation, but also the individual's larger identity and participation in the world.This is a CT concept in which students reflect on their knowledge while simultaneously developing CT, critical self-reflection, and critical action—and, as a result, critical being (Barnett 1997; 2004; Johnston, Ford, Mitchell, and Myles 2011). The three pivotal characteristics that encapsulate the essence of CT, as elucidated by numerous scholars in the field Firstly, logical reasoning and argumentation are foundational elements, emphasizing the need for rational, well-structured thinking in the evaluation of complex issues (Smith, 2018; Jones, 2019) Secondly, cognitive skills, comprising problem-solving and information processing abilities, play a crucial role in enabling individuals to approach challenges with precision (Brown, 2020; Johnson, 2017) Lastly, the development of dispositions, attitudes, and epistemological growth is highlighted as an integral aspect, reflecting the importance of cultivating an open-minded and intellectually curious mindset (Williams, 2019; Davis, 2021) This holistic understanding of CT, as synthesized from the reviewed literature, offers valuable insights for educators and learners, providing a comprehensive framework for the cultivation and application of CT in diverse academic and real-world contexts The three major characteristics of CT are also highlighted for the purposes of this Literature Review:
(b) Cognitive and Meta cognitive skills
(c) Dispositions, attitudes and epistemological development
These three essential parts are inextricably tied to the world of academic writing. Prior to delving into each component in depth, it is necessary to understand the delicate relationship that exists between CT and the arena of academic writing This clarification is carried out in the following part, indicated as part 2.3, so laying the groundwork for the upcoming analytical inquiry.
Extensive scholarly investigation has dug into the complexities and obstacles inherent in the realm of undergraduate academic writing, underlining the need for a strengthened focus on CT abilities among undergraduates in general and Vietnamese students in particular According to Flower and Hayes (1981), "writing encompasses a cognitive process involving planning, translating, and revising, where the writer's
10 schema and metacognitive strategies play pivotal roles" (p 365) Silva (1993) expands on this cognitive viewpoint by emphasizing the significance of linguistic resources in creating successful academic writing, stating that "fluency in discipline- specific language is indispensable for students to accurately convey intricate ideas" (p 104) Furthermore, the socio-cultural components must not be overlooked, as Lillis and Scott (2007) emphasize: "Academic writing is a social practice, influenced by disciplinary conventions, institutional expectations, and broader socio-cultural norms" (p 3) In line with these perspectives, Johnson and Rose (2020) emphasize the importance of fostering a sense of belonging and identity within academic writing communities, claiming that "student engagement and writing success are often correlated with their adeptness in navigating the socio-cultural dimensions of academic discourse" (p 128) Among these diverse perspectives, it is clear that a comprehensive understanding of academic writing at the undergraduate level necessitates the integration of cognitive, linguistic, socio-cultural, and, most importantly, CT facets to comprehensively underpin students' development as proficient writers.
Diverse perspectives within the Vietnamese undergraduate educational system give light on the multidimensional nature of this pedagogical undertaking According to
Le (2016), "academic writing is a multifaceted process that requires students to navigate linguistic, cultural, and cognitive challenges" (p 45) Pham (2018) investigates the impact of cultural influences on writing practices, claiming that
"Vietnamese students often encounter challenges in coherently expressing ideas in English, attributed to disparities in rhetorical conventions between Vietnamese and English" (p 72) Furthermore, Tran's (2020) research emphasizes the importance of explicit instruction in academic writing, claiming that "effective scaffolding, characterized by explicit guidelines and constructive feedback, can significantly augment students' writing skills and enhance their grasp of disciplinary expectations" (p 120) However, as Nguyen (2019) explains, the prevalent examination-centric educational structure in Vietnam frequently fosters a proclivity towards formulaic writing tailored for assessments "The pressure of stringent assessment criteria
11 frequently confines students to rote memorization, eclipsing genuine intellectual engagement and critical thinking" (p 210) Among these complexities, it becomes clear that fostering holistic academic writing development among Vietnamese undergraduates necessitates an all-encompassing approach that includes culturally sensitive pedagogy, targeted writing support, and a shift away from examination- centric paradigms to cultivate vital CT capacities.
In the pursuit of scientific rigor and precision, the researcher endeavors to meticulously isolate all other influencing factors, leaving only the university context under scrutiny (Bavdaz et al., 2019) This methodological approach aligns with established practices in research design (Johnson & Brown, 2018), ensuring that the study's focus remains undiluted and allowing for a more comprehensive and accurate examination of the specific dynamics, variables, and outcomes associated with the university environment (Johnson, 2019).
Critical thinking-Academic writing inferÍaCe . ác Sen eie, 12
Writing evaluation criteria typically includes explicit or implicit references to specific aspects of CT that can be compared to learning outcomes or national frameworks. Some aspects of academic writing coincide with CT's cognitive abilities and logical arguments Both need goal-directed thinking as well as planning and organization (Bensley & Haynes, 1995); both can be used to sharpen thought (Nickerson, Perkins,
& Smith, 1985); and both encourage increased self-reflection because they allow for the modification and refinement of ideas (Wade, 1995).
Ivani's (2004) "multi-layered perspective of language" (p 223) divides language into four levels: "text," "cognitive processes," and a third and fourth layer that connect towow language's social interactional and socio-cultural milieu I combined the third and fourth layers of Ivani's approach because they are both concerned with the social context This is also because this study focuses on the first two components of the structure represented in Figure 2.2 I also sought to integrate my adaptation of Ivani's model with the three separate CT concepts outlined in this chapter (Logical arguments, cognitive abilities, and dispositional and developmental factors) Second, the "logical argumentation" approach to CT, which emphasizes the study and
12 creation of sound arguments, can be related to the "text" emphasis, which emphasizes academic writing instruction as a "product" (Leki, 2010) Second, the ‘cognitive skills' approach to CT is linked to the "mind" focus, which emphasizes the 'process' approach to academic writing teaching (Raimes, 1991).
Academic writing and critical thinking interface
Rhetorical process feedback, reflection, redrafting
Cognitive and meta- Intellectual/ cognitive skills
Furthermore, while considering how to teach CT to students, the students'
‘epistemological development should be a critical factor The first two years of undergraduate education were committed to acquiring and comprehending academic knowledge, while the following two years were devoted to the development of professional abilities Some students will be more motivated than others to improve their CT skills depending on their motivation to learn and apply a subject after graduation in a different context where CT may be less valued (Durkin, 2008).
As a result, the following sections of the chapter will investigate the links between
CT as logical argumentation and text-product approaches to analyzing and teaching academic writing (2.3.1) Next, we explore the connections between CT as cognitive skills and the process approach to teaching academic writing (2.3.2), providing a brief evaluation of both methods in the concluding section CT dispositions, attitudes, and epistemic growth are explored in the third subsection (2.3.3).
2.3.1 Critical thinking as argumentation in academic writing
Glaser (1941) and Black (1952) pioneered a method integrating informal logic with
CT, as evident in their book titles containing the phrase "critical thinking." This approach, rooted in educational philosophy and the 1978 publication of the journal Informal Logic (Lipman, 2003), utilizes logical reasoning and argumentation to evaluate arguments within natural language contexts Informal logic emerged due to challenges in applying formal logic to plain English arguments (Govier, 1987). Govier's ‘positivist’ notion, defining arguments as either deductive or inductive, represents one of the limitations of formal logic In formal logic, deductive and inductive arguments undergo distinct assessments (Rescher, 1964; Copi & Cohen, 1990; Bowell & Kemp, 2005) This section explores various models of argument patterns commonly employed in academic writing.
Govier criticized formal logic for its inability to accommodate alternative modes of reasoning and its confinement of pure deductive and inductive arguments to mathematics and philosophy logic (Ennis, 2001) Despite some enhancements, formal logic was considered ill-suited for evaluating arguments in natural language. Blair (2013) notes this limitation:
The recognition of arguments in texts and the analysis of their constituent elements and structures may legitimately rely on non-formal methods, such as knowledge of the discourse's background and context, comprehension of linguistic and other communicative conventions, sensitivity to ambiguity and vagueness, and a sense of the "logical flow" of reasoning and argument (pp 94-95)
Works by Bowell and Kemp (2005) and Swatridge, along with literature on informal logic and argumentation classes, explicitly associate logic and reasoning with CT. Recognized by Robinson (2011) as CT, these sources commonly cover topics like the language of valid argumentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and examples of argumentation fallacies drawn from real-world contexts such as political speeches and commercial advertisements in undergraduate-level textbooks.
Analyzing the validity of written or spoken arguments often begins with identifying
14 their constituent pieces Authors like Bowell and Kemp (2005), Swatridge (2014), and Halpern (2014) offer various strategies, drawing from Toulmins (2003) foundational work Toulmin introduced critical features, forming the basis of the widely known "Toulmin argument pattern," consisting of six major components (Simon, 2008):
Data: The facts or evidence Warrant: Logical statement(s) that bridge(s) the claim and the data Backing: Statements (or assumptions) that support the warrant
Claim: The main argument statement Qualifiers: Conditions under which the claim holds true, or limitations to the claim Rebuttals: Statements that provide circumstances where the claim is not true
In this approach, the claim serves as the primary conclusion of an argument, while warrants, backing, and data provide diverse types of support for the claim The method is applicable across disciplines, recognizing that warrants and support can be
"field-dependent," varying in logical statements and evidence across subjects. Qualifiers and rebuttals, along with these essential elements, specify the conditions under which claims are considered valid.
Toulmin (2003) provides a detailed depiction of the components of a claim, justification, support, and evidence using the fictional character Harry's 'British subject’ claim Harry's assertion of being a British subject relies on the factual 'data' that he "was born in Bermuda"; the ‘warrant’ supporting the claim is that "a man born on Bermuda will typically be a British subject"; and the 'backing' or explanation is "due to the following statutes and legal provisions" (p 97) The legal statutes, along with Harry's birth in Bermuda, substantiate his British citizenship.
Toulmin's argument pattern is widely utilized in the United States, particularly in college courses (Harrell & Wetzel, 2015) It offers a relatively straightforward framework that, theoretically, can be applied to the analysis of all arguments. However, due to the potential lack of clarity regarding the concept of the warrant, teaching the Toulmin model may pose challenges (Harrell & Wetzel, 2015) In this thesis, the term 'warrant' is interpreted as the reasons why data supports a claim, and the term 'backing' is considered as the explanation that supports the warrant.
The Beardsley-Freeman model, a fusion of Beardsley (1966) and Freeman's (1999) work, is highlighted by Harrell and Wetzel (2015) This model is advantageous for its relatively straightforward premise-conclusion style Unlike Toulmin's approach, where the premise includes logic, proof, and data, Beardsley-Freeman focuses on diverse premise-conclusion argument structure combinations rather than a single form with multiple components It presents four distinct types of fundamental argument formation that can be interconnected to varying extents to outline unique arguments (Figure 2.4).
Beardley-Freeman " of argument pm ỗ Vu
In this paradigm, all arguments involve premise(s) and conclusion(s) The patterns include divergent, where a single premise leads to two different conclusions; serial, where one premise supports another, supporting a conclusion; convergent, where two distinct premises lead to the same conclusion; and linked, where two premises collaborate to reach a conclusion For example: All swans are white (P1), Jilli is a swan (P2), therefore Jilli must be white (C) These patterns can be combined to characterize more complex argument types.
Previous studies of critical thinking in academic wrifing . -ô< +2 33
CT is essential to academic writing because it enables individuals to examine, evaluate, and synthesize information and ideas, resulting in writing that is well- reasoned and supported by evidence It aids in synthesizing information from numerous sources, constructing arguments based on facts as opposed to personal opinion, clarifying ideas and arguments for clarity and coherence, and fostering reflection to analyses strengths and flaws and enhance writing quality Because CT in academic writing is an integral part of the academic process, it is the subject of research CT helps individuals to examine, evaluate, and synthesize information and ideas, and it is necessary for the production of well-reasoned and evidence-based arguments In addition, understanding how CT is displayed in academic writing may benefit instructors and researchers in a variety of ways, including improving teaching techniques, measuring student learning, strengthening research quality, and cultivating CT abilities CT knowledge may improve the quality of education and research and foster the development of CT abilities, which are crucial for success in academic and professional contexts I studied some of the publications included in the table below to investigate the important topics of research on this topic The table below summarizes the titles, authors, dates, participants, study methods, and key conclusions (Table 2.1)
Previous studies on CT in academic writing
Particip | Locatio arch | Theoretic Issues
Authors Titles Dates P met | al Frame Key findings/Conclusions ants ns considered hods used used
76 EFL Essay analysis reveals unsupported claims, students R R cà need : contrasting questionnaires strong CT (CT)
CT and argumenta | Assessing Turkish l yee : R h R l skills and individual voice Addressing this
Nuray Voice in tive essays | EFL users' CT, | R nà 2007 | students | Turkey oy discrepancy, EFL students require targeted Alagozlu | EFL Writing analyzed | voice display, and : Bà :
R h CT support to bridge the gap in writing quality using self-perception 7
' and meet demands of multicultural
Tilakaratn writing a ticular! Analyzing Asian aN L across the P students’ Students writing effective CR assignments
; | disciplines: y " reflective writing, | demonstrate transformation of self through
M & Challenging | 2019 | students ore and revealing critical | engagement with curriculum content and
X Western CT " | reflection and | communitarian ideology, differing from
Monbec, Legitimati or l R models ¡in experiential Western ideals of CT skills.
L : on Code the Asian learning. text Theory contex' (LCT).
Jitlada A Study of explore CT from | High English proficiency students employed
CT Skils EFL l EFL Thai | CT via analysis, evaluation, and creation.
Chittima Practice in | 2022 | Thai d students Intermediate/novice groups similarly Kaweera Collaborativ students perspectives in practiced, emphasizing analysis/assessment. e Writing in collaborative Collaborative writing enhanced CT skill
Authors Titles Dates Particip | Locatio met | al Frame Issues Key findings/Conclusions ants ns considered hods used used
EFL writing activity usage in composition.
Hàn uan explores the Study findings reveal intriguing alignment
Hanim, : quan pore between writing and CT skills Academic
N., Aripin connection Malaysi trau connection writing intertwines both, prioritizing content
` | between CT | 2020 | students "| ve between CT skills ra na : : N., & Lin, a | over technicalities Decision-making crucial skills and stud and academic | „ l N.M ws for materials, ideas, and content Language academic y writing we proficiency does not affect process or CT. writing
Thinking about Writers use their prior knowledge to apply
Noor Thinking information found in their search at the
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Writing development of these skills.
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15 Maralee and CT in| 2011 | students The alisti diagramming scores of low-achieving students who were
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XP intermediate-achieving students were mixed rime nt
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Authors Titles Dates met | al Frame l Key findings/Conclusions ants ns considered hods used used teaching CT students Compared implemented the curriculum over an intensive through with to period of time showed more growth than persuasive learning Persuasive those who did not. writing to disabiliti Writing average, es gifted and students with learning disabilities
2.4.1 Main themes from the previous studies
The first theme is the influence of individual learners' comprehension, motivation, learning attitude, or individuality of research participants demonstrating disparities in
CT expression Hughes and Claire, 2000; Eko, 2017; Esmaeil et al., 2022; Irfan, 2018; Noor & Akademi, 2020) In their research, Tilakaratna, Brooke & Monbec 2019 found a strong association between students’ contact with the programme and their progress in CT That is, students who write excellent CR assignments create themselves as valid knowers who display positive self-transformation inside the course by engaging with the curricular information According to Hughes and Claire (2000), exceptional children outperform typical students, who outperform students with learning difficulties Gifted kids improved in all categories, as did typical students, while students with learning impairments improved in their usage of opinion statements And, while teaching was important in improving the structure of persuasive writing for students at all levels of skill, they improved in various ways. Eko (2017) demonstrated that a number of arguments may be made based on the debate in this research A university student must have strong writing skills, particularly in argumentative essays, yet being a critical thinker cannot be assured without mastery of CT competencies According to Esmaeil et al., 2022, both learning techniques and CTA played an important effect in students’ writing performance. CTA is closely connected to writing performance, and it was discovered that individuals with high CTA performed better in writing, especially when the issue was somewhat contentious Irfan (2018) also notes that if students' CT abilities are active during writing, they might get extremely beneficial results One of the important conclusions is the function of knowledge application in exhibiting CT in academic writing According to Noor and Akademi, 2020, writers utilise their prior declarative knowledge to apply the material acquired in their search At the start of the writing process, the authors were assigned an equally extensive assignment of information research This is an unusual writing assignment, and authors were able to recognise the connection between using good material in their writing.
The second major theme is that the learning environment, instructional techniques, and learning resources all have an impact on students' CT in their writing (Sandhya
& Rahma, 2015; Donnelly & Fitzmaurice, 2011; Tilakaratna, Brooke & Monbec, 2019; Charles, & Hadley, 1990; Harrell & Wetzel, 2015; Hughes & Claire, 2000; Meei-Ling, 2007) According to Sandhya and Rahma (2015), continual practise, both oral and written, allows students to strengthen their CT skills as they become more adept in incorporating nuanced and critical thoughts into their academic compositions According to Donnelly and Fitzmaurice (2011), the pedagogic intervention increases participants’ critical confidence in terms of writing abilities and also helps them to aid their own students in the academic writing process Tilakaratna, Brooke, and Monbec discovered in their research that the expression of CT of Turkish students differs from Western conceptions of CT The presence of a communitarian ideology and a more cooperative reflective practise in their texts as the foundation for absorbing external information is consistent This appears to be in contrast to Western ideas of CT skills, which emphasize individual autonomy and social independence. Charles and Hadley (1990) also discussed the link between the classroom environment and the debate format in the setting of big classrooms as an effective technique to influence students’ attitudes on social problems and to educate CT and writing abilities Hughes and Claire (2000) also underline the importance of pedagogical practices in imprinting CT in students' writing Teachers' classrooms that applied the curriculum intensively demonstrated higher progress than those who implemented it over a longer, less intense period of time Meei-Ling (2007) also highlights the importance of instructional techniques or learning settings, approaches to writing skills, and CT The study's findings specifically revealed that the application of content-based education for CT abilities may have helped participants grow not just their English language skills, but also their thinking skills When it comes to argumentation models, Harrell and Wetzel (2015) conducted experimental study that demonstrated the superiority of teaching argument analysis skills utilizing our modified B-F argument diagramming technique over the Toulmin method.
The third significant result is the variation in CT skills between students based on their second language competence 2022; Maralee, 2011; Eko, 2017) According to
Jitlada and Chittima (2022), students in the high level of English competent group acknowledged practising CT through analyzing, evaluating, and producing Based on facts and suggestions from peers, they created a new phrase and paragraph, picked the finest ideas, and classified the supporting elements They claimed that they regularly analysed and assessed in the intermediate and novice level groups They are concerned with contrasting and selecting material, as well as aspects of arguments and supporting claims As a consequence, collaborative writing appeared to encourage students to write using CT abilities According to Maralee (2011), the results showed that among the different pre-test achievement levels, the scores of low-achieving students who were taught AD increased significantly more than the scores of low-achieving students who were not taught AD, while the scores of high- achieving students did not differ significantly between the treatment and control groups According to Eko (2017), the outcomes of the SRAE and CTAR on argumentative writing essay demonstrated that each level of students, whether high or poor success on argumentative essay, had a varied rank of CT competency elements.
One of the themes of the preceding research is the relationship between CT and writing skills (Hanim et al 2020; Noor & Akademi, 2020; Sharadgah, Saudi, & Ahmad, 2019) Hanim et al., 2020 discovered an intriguing intersection of writing and
CT skills Academic writing mirrored the writing process and CT since writers concentrated on the substance rather than the technical abilities of writing In academic writing, authors had to make judgements on materials, ideas, and writing content According to Noor and Akademi, 2020, the authors in this survey agreed that strong writing is accompanied by critical reading abilities Writers must read articles and make conclusions about them The potential to increase their capacity to assess material was one of the takeaways from the writing process for the postgraduate writers in this research CT and essay-writing skills are also highly associated, according to Sharadgah, Sa'di, and Ahmad, 2019 The intervention group considerably outperformed the control group in the five CTSs: "interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, and explanation," according to a study of student
43 writings It is possible to infer that openly teaching CTSs through essay writing can be useful in their development.
Theoretical framework for the study - - Gà HH ng HH nhiệt 46
The framework we present in this section, encompassing argumentation, cognitive skills, and attitudinal development in the context of CT in English academic writing, aligns with a multidimensional perspective Influences on its development stem from several educational theories, forming a combination that informs its structure. Notably, critical pedagogy, with its inclusion of attitudes towards learning, reflection on learning, and epistemological development, aligns with critical pedagogy's focus on questioning power structures and fostering transformative learning (Freire, 1970; Giroux, 2011) Constructivism, which emphasises analysis, evaluation, and creative synthesis, resonates with constructivist principles, highlighting active engagement and knowledge construction (Vygotsky, 1978; Piaget, 1973); epistemic cognition, with its consideration of how students perceive knowledge, aligns with epistemic cognition, exploring understanding of knowledge and truth (Hofer & Pintrich, 1997); and rhetorical theory, which incorporates logical reasoning and the writer's voice,
46 aligns with rhetorical theory, emphasising persuasion, argumentation, and individual expression in writing (Aristotle, 2007; Bitzer, 1968) This CT framework for English academic writing is based on a mix of critical pedagogy, constructivism, epistemic cognition, and rhetorical theory It covers a lot of different areas.
CT is a fundamental skill that is essential for success in academic writing, especially in EFL contexts It requires the writer to use their cognitive and meta-cognitive skills, dispositions and attitudes, and knowledge and application to produce a well-reasoned and well-supported argument This diagram provides an in-depth exploration of the key elements of CT in English academic writing Each of these elements is interrelated and builds upon the others, creating a comprehensive framework that can be applied to a wide range of writing tasks (See Figure 2.8)
Figure 2.8 provides an overview of the various applications A goal of my framework is to facilitate greater conceptual clarity in the analyzing, learning, and assessing of
CT in academic writing, and it incorporates insights from a variety of theoretical traditions.
First, as shown in Figure 2.2, Section 2.3.1 addresses the logic and argumentation of
CT in academic writing texts In addition to what is highlighted in Figure 2.7, argumentation is linked to the writer's position (voice and posture) However, as stated previously, there are also voice and stance components throughout the writing process Second, section 2.3.2 utilizes the conceptualization of CT as cognitive and metacognitive abilities and focuses on the academic writing process Third, section 2.3.3 discusses CT dispositions, attitudes, and epistemological growth.
A framework for understanding CT in academic writing
Critical Argumentation and voice thinking in Writer's voice
English Cognitive and meta-cognitive Analysis academic skills Evaluation writing Creative synthesis
Dispositions and attitudinal Attitudes to learning development Reflection on learning
The terms in the framework will be explained in turn in the sections that follow.
The first element of CT in academic writing is argumentation and voice The writer could present a clear and logical argument, backed up by evidence and examples or not If the argument is well-structured, with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion In addition, to what extent the writer could articulate their position and perspective, so that the reader is able to understand their point of view A critical piece of writing requires a strong sense of voice, which can be achieved by developing a writing style that is clear, concise, and engaging.
The importance of argumentation and voice cannot be overstated A well-reasoned argument that is supported by evidence and examples is much more likely to be persuasive than a poorly structured or unsupported argument Additionally, by articulating their position and perspective, the writer is able to engage with the reader on a deeper level and encourage them to consider their argument more carefully.
Cognitive and meta-cognitive skills
The second element of CT is the use of cognitive and meta-cognitive skills How well the writer understands the information they are working with, analyze it critically, and evaluate it based on its relevance and accuracy This requires a deep understanding of the subject matter and the ability to process information effectively. The writer is supposed to be able to reflect on their own thinking processes, so that they can identify areas where they need to improve.
There are several key cognitive skills that are important for CT in academic writing. Firstly, the writer must be able to analyze information and understand its key elements, including the main ideas, arguments, and evidence Secondly, they must be able to evaluate the information based on its relevance and accuracy, considering factors such as the credibility of the source, the evidence provided, and the arguments made Finally, the writer must be able to synthesize the information, combining the key elements into a cohesive and well-structured argument Meta-cognitive skills are important for CT in academic writing The writer must be able to reflect on their own thinking processes, so that they can identify areas where they need to improve This
48 may involve looking at the way they approach information, the methods they use to analyze and evaluate it, and the strategies they use to synthesize it into a well- structured argument By developing these meta-cognitive skills, the writer is able to become a more effective critical thinker.
The third element of CT is the development of dispositions and attitudes The writer must have a positive attitude towards learning and be willing to engage with the material in a critical and reflective manner This requires an openness to new ideas and a willingness to consider alternative perspectives Additionally, the writer must be able to maintain a critical and reflective mindset, even when faced with challenging or difficult material.
Dispositions and attitudes play a crucial role in CT A positive attitude towards learning and an openness to new ideas can help the writer to engage with the material more effectively, while a critical and reflective mindset allows them to analyze and evaluate information more thoroughly Additionally, by developing a strong disposition towards CT, the writer is able to become more confident and proficient in their academic writing.
Perceptions of CT are intrinsically intertwined with understandings of CT, as underscored by numerous scholars in the field (Smith, 2017; Johnson, 2018) The manner in which individuals perceive and conceptualize CT significantly influences how they engage with and apply this cognitive skill in various contexts Smith (2017) contends that these perceptions act as a foundation upon which individuals build their cognitive abilities Johnson (2018) further emphasizes that a clear comprehension of
CT is pivotal in honing this skill effectively Therefore, the alignment of perceptions and understandings of CT plays a crucial role in the development and application of this essential cognitive competency.
In the pursuit of a comprehensive understanding of students’ perceptions of CT, the theoretical framework of understanding CT in academic writing will be adopted This framework provides a structured and insightful lens through which to examine how students conceptualize and apply CT in the context of their academic endeavors By
49 applying this theoretical framework, this study aims to shed light on the e relationship between perceptions and understandings of CT, thus contributing to an insight into the cognitive development of students and the enhancement of their academic writing skills.
Definition of Key terms 11
In this study, CT is defined as an individual's ability to explore, evaluate, and assess any phenomenon in a thoughtful manner before reaching any conclusions This study also defines CT as the process of thinking about thinking The goal of this approach is to uncover what actually underlying CT as well as a way of thinking that focuses on metacognition development As a result, key CT abilities like as identifying elements, evaluating assumptions and arguments, classifying and interpreting expressions and ideas, analyzing and synthesizing, and drawing arguments, inferences, and conclusions may be required.
2.6.2 Perceptions of critical thinking in academic writing
Perceptions of CT are intrinsically intertwined with understandings of CT, as underscored by numerous scholars in the field (Smith, 2017, p.315; Johnson, 2018, p.112) The manner in which individuals perceive and conceptualize CT significantly influences how they engage with and apply this cognitive skill in various contexts. Smith (2017), p.315 contends that these perceptions act as a foundation upon which individuals build their cognitive abilities Johnson (2018), p.112 further emphasizes that a clear comprehension of CT is pivotal in honing this skill effectively Therefore, the alignment of perceptions and understandings of CT plays a crucial role in the development and application of this essential cognitive competency.
2.6.3 Practices of critical thinking in academic writing
In term of practices of CT in academic writing, I tried to investigate the three key factors of CT in academic writing They are logical argument, cognitive and meta- cognitive skills, disposition and attitudinal development Logical argumentation is important component of argumentation, while understanding, analysis, and evaluation are crucial cognitive skills A positive attitude to learning and a developed
50 epistemology are important dispositions and attitudes, while context and different teaching approaches play a key role in CT pedagogy By considering all of these factors, writers can develop a well-rounded and effective approach to CT and academic writing, allowing them to communicate their arguments and ideas effectively and persuasively.
This literature review thoroughly explores the interplay between CT and academic writing It commences by dissecting the core components and relationships within the CT movement, introducing the term "criticality" to encapsulate a more expansive educational perspective that extends beyond conventional CT, incorporating personal identity and societal engagement.
The literature review scrutinizes three pivotal CT components: logical reasoning and argumentation, cognitive skills, and dispositions, attitudes, and epistemological development, firmly connecting these elements with the domain of academic writing. Furthermore, it delves into crucial research gaps, such as the influence of individuality on CT expression, the impact of learning environments and instructional techniques, variations in CT skills based on second language competence, the role of knowledge application, and the effectiveness of pedagogical methods in shaping CT. The theoretical framework advanced in this study offers a comprehensive and multifaceted portrayal of CT in academic writing, encompassing logical argumentation, cognitive and metacognitive proficiencies, as well as CT dispositions, attitudes, and epistemological growth This framework forms a solid basis for the ensuing investigation, which seeks to unravel the intricate relationship between CT and academic writing among English major students at a Vietnamese public university In the Methodology section, individual topics are benchmarked to this framework.
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In this chapter, we embark on a journey through the intricacies of our research, uncovering the methodological choices that guide our investigation The chapter unfolds in distinct sections and subsections, each contributing to the robustness of our research design We begin by grounding our study within its contextual framework and then delve into the architectural foundations of our research design. These foundations are laid upon the philosophical worldview of the researcher and the methodological scaffolding of our survey research design Subsequently, we explore the pivotal role of our research participants and the strategies employed in their selection for both questionnaire surveys and open-ended question surveys, along with the collection instruments we employ Moving forward, we shed light on the processes of data collection, differentiating between quantitative and qualitative methodologies The chapter concludes by outlining the data analysis procedures and addressing potential limitations, ultimately setting the stage for a comprehensive understanding of our research methodology.
The broad context of this study is the culture, history and education of Vietnam These factors have some relatively stable factors such as cultural ideology, others are constantly changing although they are related to each other Students in this study come from different regions, more or less from the same historical background of
Chinese domination for thousands of years, where Confucian thought was revered.
The economy has recorded great development since "Đổi Mới" Economic integration leads to the need to know how to use English All major universities have enrollment and training in English Language to meet that need The participants of this study were also culturally, historically, economically and educationally shaped from this context This will profoundly affect how they perceive CT as well as in the way they practice it.
The specific context where this study was conducted shares with many universities that the English language majors are a newly enrolled Besides, the Input quality assurance threshold has much in common as the same input point threshold CT skills
METHODOLOGY SG HT HH TH HT TH HH ng nh 52 K8 ion nn ố ố ‹
Research design - - HH HH HH TH HH HH Họ hp 54
As aptly argued by Creswell & Clark (2011), an inquirer‘s philosophical worldview
—shapes the processes of research and the conduct of inquiry (p 38) This section therefore articulates the beliefs about ontology (what reality is) and epistemology (how researcher knows about reality) that constitutes the pragmatic worldview that the researcher holds and that guides the conduct of the current study.
Regarding ontology, the researcher tends to choose the middle ground between the positivists, who believe that reality is —out there, independent of the mind (Neuman,
2006, p.82) and the constructivists, who believe that social reality is created through the lens of individuals‘ subjective views and experiences (Mertens, 2010) In other words, from the researcher‘s point of view as a pragmatist, the reality consists of both an external world independent of the mind and a subjective one that is lodged within the mind and thus varies across individuals The choice of the survey research design in this study is rooted in the researcher's ontological and epistemological assumptions, which acknowledge the existence of both subjective and objective knowledge These assumptions, influenced by a pragmatic perspective, suggest that employing diverse approaches, methods, and viewpoints is the most effective way to gain knowledge (Creswell, 2014).
In alignment with the researcher's philosophical worldview, the current study adopts a survey research design (Creswell & Clark, 2011) Survey research is a widely used quantitative research method that involves the collection of data through surveys or questionnaires administered to a sample of participants (Smith et al., 2017) This choice of research design is rooted in the researcher's ontological and epistemological assumptions, which acknowledge the existence of both subjective and objective knowledge, aligning with the pragmatic perspective.
The correlation between the researcher's philosophical worldview and the underpinning theoretical framework is intricately linked, shaping the research context and guiding the study's focus Striking a balance between positivism and constructivism, I view reality as a combination of an objective external world and a subjective, individualized realm The pragmatic worldview, embracing both objective reality and subjective experiences, aligns seamlessly with the theoretical framework
54 drawing from critical pedagogy, constructivism, epistemic cognition, and rhetorical theory This alignment ensures a holistic exploration of CT in academic writing.
Critical pedagogy's emphasis on transformative learning aligns with acknowledging subjective experiences, while constructivism's focus on active engagement mirrors the cognitive skills within the framework Epistemic cognition’s exploration of understanding aligns with attitudinal development, and rhetorical theory's stress on effective communication corresponds to the argumentation and voice dimension.
The following section provides a detailed description and further justification for the utilization of the survey research approach in the context of the current study.
The research process unfolded through a series of sequential steps, ensuring a comprehensive and robust study Initially, our research objectives were defined with precision, outlining specific goals and desired outcomes Decisions regarding the methods of administration were carefully made, considering the merits of quantitative versus qualitative approaches This involved strategic planning of questionnaire design, emphasizing the creation of clear and relevant questions The instruments underwent meticulous review and validation by experts, with their feedback incorporated through iterative revisions Subsequently, a pre-testing phase was conducted to identify and rectify potential issues with the questionnaire After implementing feedback-driven adjustments, the final version of the questionnaire was established for survey administration Following the data collection phase, a thorough analysis ensued, leading to the interpretation and presentation of results Strategies were then developed based on the findings to address any identified knowledge deficits or misconceptions, ensuring a comprehensive and impactful research outcome.
Survey research design, a widely utilized quantitative research method, involves the collection of data through surveys or questionnaires administered to a sample of participants This approach facilitates the structured and efficient gathering of information on variables, attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, behaviors, and practices (Babbie & Mouton, 2018) The collected data, typically numerical or categorical, allows for statistical analysis and drawing conclusions about the target population (Creswell, 2017).
As Bryman (2004) emphasizes, a research design serves as a framework for data collection and analysis, enabling the addressal of research problems convincingly (p.4) Well-chosen research designs provide logical foundations for interpreting study results (Creswell, 2008) The present study adhered strictly to this framework, dividing itself into two phases The first phase gathered and analyzed quantitative data through the survey questionnaire, while the second phase collected and analyzed qualitative data through open-ended questions and documents (writing samples). Both phases ran concurrently, employing a mixed-methods approach with initial piloting to adjust the theoretical framework and data collection methods The second phase added depth to the findings by exploring participants’ actual practices of CT skills in academic writing Additionally, the qualitative phase informed subsequent data collection by using insights from the quantitative phase to guide participant selection and the information sought The same individuals participated in both phases, with the second phase focusing on questionnaire items that required further explanation.
Survey research procedure for the study
Deciding on methods of administration Quantitative vs Qualitative ˆ
Questionnaire and writing question designs ˆ
Review and validation of instruments by experts
Revising questionnaire based on obtained feedback
* Revising questionnaire based on obtained feedback
Final version of questionnaire survey ˆ
Administration of Questionnaires and writing questions
Interpretation and presentation of results
Develop strategies to address knowledge deficits or perceptions AZ
Finally, for data analysis, two datasets were analyzed separately and only after the quantitative results were presented did the researcher make interpretations of the extent to which the qualitative results explained, extended, or added insights to the quantitative results The two databases were correlated or directly compared during data analysis since the primary intent of this design was to use one to explain and deepen the other As Dửrnyei (2007) further clarifies, while quantitative data is usually shallow and unable to explore deep meanings, the subsequent qualitative component can considerably remedy this weakness by freely delving into any patterns of the initial quantitative data, thereby —adding flesh to the bone|| and making the explanatory sequential design a holistic approach to investigating almost any concepts (p.171) Additionally, the retrospective prompts used in the second phase to invite participants’ open reflection on what they really meant in their previous survey responses can also be used as a way of validating the obtained quantitative data (Dérnyei, 2007) These unique merits collectively considered, the design proves a perfect fit for the current study which seeks a comprehensive portrayal of students’
It is important to acknowledge the limitations of survey research, including potential respondent bias, limited depth of information, and reliance on self-reported data (Dillman et al., 2014) In this respect, strenuous efforts were invested by the researcher to minimize the limitations associated with survey research, specific strategies were employed Firstly, random sampling techniques were utilized to ensure the selection of a representative sample from the target population, mitigating potential respondent bias The survey instrument was carefully designed with clear instructions and neutral wording to minimize bias and enhance the depth of information collected Participants were assured of the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses, reducing social desirability bias Pilot testing was conducted to refine the survey instrument and improve its validity Additionally, a survey research design was adopted, combining surveys with qualitative methods to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic Objective measures and qualitative follow-ups were incorporated to augment self-reported data and add depth
57 and validation to the findings Such combined efforts assisted the researcher well in coping with the mentioned challenges while taking the best advantages of the strengths of the method design when conducting the present research study.
In the implementation of this survey research, a triangulation strategy was employed to enhance the validity and reliability of the findings Triangulation involves the use of multiple data sources, methods, or perspectives to provide a more comprehensive and robust understanding of the research topic (Denzin, 2012).
To address the first research question regarding English-majored students’ perceptions of the most important features of CT in English academic writing, two questionnaires were administered The first questionnaire consisted of close-ended questions, where participants rated the importance of various CT features on a Likert scale This quantitative data provided a snapshot of participants' perceptions The second questionnaire included open-ended questions, allowing participants to provide more detailed and qualitative insights into their perceptions and reasoning behind their ratings answering the second research question this qualitative data added depth and richness to the understanding of participants’ perceptions.
To address the third research question regarding the extent of CT practice in academic writing, participants’ writing papers were collected and analyzed This documentation analysis allowed for an objective assessment of participants’ actual implementation of CT skills in their written work By examining their essays, research papers, or assignments, researchers gained insights into the tangible evidence of CT skills applied in academic writing.
By employing this triangulation strategy, the study benefited from the convergence and corroboration of data from multiple sources The integration of quantitative data from the close-ended questionnaire, qualitative data from the open-ended questionnaire, and objective data from the documentation analysis helped to validate and strengthen the findings Triangulation allowed for a more comprehensive understanding of English-majored students' perceptions of CT features and their actual practice of CT in academic writing.
In the study, as mentioned in the chapter 1, answers were sought to the following research questions:
1 What are English-majored students’ perceptions of the most important features of critical thinking in academic writing ?
Triangulation of qualitative and quantitative resuèẽfS ô<+<<<s<<sxsss2 78
When two databases had been separately and sequentially analyzed, the results were connected to answer the research questions According to Creswell and Clark (2011), the key decision to be made at this point pertains to how the qualitative results help explain the quantitative results, or add more depth to the broad quantitative description of the researched constructs In this regard, the study drew overall inferences concerning the explanatory connection between the results and inferences made in each of the previous phases (qualitative and quantitative) and displayed these
—meta-inferences after the presentation of both quantitative and qualitative findings(Creswell & Clark, 2011).
Reliability and validity Ác HH HH HH HH HH Hệ 78
To ensure the reliability of our research, we implement several strategies For inter- rater reliability in qualitative data analysis, two independent researchers will assess a subset of responses, and the agreement between them will be measured This process will be repeated at different intervals to establish consistency For quantitative data, the survey instrument undergoes a pilot test, and internal consistency will be assessed using measures like Cronbach's alpha.
Content validity, on the other hand, is crucial for confirming that our research accurately measures the intended constructs This enhances the construct validity of our research.
The survey items are designed to align with existing research on CT in academic writing, establishing concurrent validity Anticipated implications and potential applications of our findings contribute to predictive validity.
Ethical considerations 07
In conducting this research, we have implemented several key measures to uphold ethical standards and ensure the well-being of our participants First and foremost, we adhere to the principle of informed consent, providing detailed information about the study's purpose, procedures, and potential risks to participants Their voluntary agreement is sought after a comprehensive understanding of the study To protect the confidentiality of participants, we have taken rigorous steps All collected data is anonymized, and only aggregated results are reported This approach is crucial in maintaining the privacy and anonymity of individuals involved in the study. Additionally, we are dedicated to minimizing any potential risks or discomforts associated with participation Participants are reassured that their decision to withdraw from the study will have no negative consequences, prioritizing their well- being and autonomy Moreover, our research protocol underwent a thorough ethical review process and received approval from the relevant institutional ethics committee This step ensures that our study is conducted ethically and in accordance with established guidelines These measures collectively demonstrate our commitment to conducting responsible and ethical research.
This chapter provides a detailed overview of the research methods used in this study, situating it within the framework of Vietnamese culture, history, and education The chapter begins by diving into the research's unique setting, stressing the similarities in educational backgrounds across English majors and the importance of this context for understanding views and practices of CT in academic writing It also elucidates the researcher's philosophical outlook, explaining the ontological and epistemological issues that guide the investigation The researcher's commitment to embrace varied ways and opinions for knowledge acquisition is highlighted by the use of a survey research design The survey research design is also thoroughly
79 introduced in this chapter, with an emphasis on its effectiveness in obtaining quantitative data.
The chapter then describes the study questions, participant selection, and sampling procedures, including various strategies for questionnaire surveys, open-ended questions, and writing samples The chapter describes the data gathering instruments, including a full description of the questionnaire survey, open-ended questions, and writing sample analysis The chapter thoroughly addresses data collecting and gives a technique for quantitative and qualitative data analysis, outlining the reasons for this approach.
Furthermore, the chapter dives into the study's apparent limits, recognizing potential biases and obstacles connected with survey research and discussing techniques for mitigating these limitations It emphasizes the use of triangulation, a strategy that improves the validity and dependability of findings by combining data from several sources, techniques, and perspectives In this study, the triangulation technique involves the convergence of quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a more comprehensive picture of participants’ perceptions and practices of CT in academic writing The chapter finishes by reviewing the study's research topics and presenting the data analysis process, laying the groundwork for the upcoming chapters.
DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 5S S-cScssereereerres 81
Analysis of perceptions regarding critical thinking's key features in academic
In the pursuit of unraveling the intricate tapestry of English-majored students' perspectives on the crucial elements of CT within academic writing, our analytical journey commences This section serves as a compass, guiding us through the dense terrain of data collected via the first research instrument — a meticulously crafted 24- item questionnaire Our sights are firmly set on addressing the fundamental research question: "What are English-majored students' perceptions of the most important features of critical thinking in academic writing?"
Students were asked to rate 24 statements relating to CT in academic writing at a university based on a five-point scale in the fourth semester Specifically, they were asked the questions:
How important do you think the following features of critical thinking in academic writing are to successful writing at university? (I1, 12, I5, 16, l7, 19, I11, 113, 115, H4,
How often do you think you practice critical thinking in academic writing? (125, 114,
How good do you believe your practices of critical thinking in academic writing are? (H2, 119, 120, 121, I18)
Following the administration of the questionnaire to the entire population of 2nd year students at the research site (n10), the resultant survey responses totaled 239 This outcome implies that, within this context, there exists a 99.9% confidence level that the true parameter value lies within 4.95 percentage points of the observed value. Subsequently, the dataset was subjected to analysis using SPSS, and the ensuing findings are delineated in the subsequent analysis section.
Cronbach’s alpha, a metric gauging internal consistency, elucidates the degree of interrelatedness among a set of items when considered collectively This index is commonly employed as a gauge of the reliability of a measurement scale It's imperative to note that a high alpha value does not necessarily indicate unidimensionality of the measure If, alongside evaluating internal consistency, the aim is to establish the unidimensional nature of the scale, supplementary analyses can be executed Among these, exploratory factor analysis serves as a mechanism for scrutinizing dimensionality.
Technically speaking, Cronbach's alpha is not a statistical test per se, but rather a reliability or consistency coefficient The resultant alpha coefficient, ranging from 0 to 1, holistically assesses the reliability of a measurement In scenarios where scale items are completely independent (displaying no correlations or covariance), alpha equals 0 On the other hand, if items exhibit high covariance, alpha tends towards 1 as the number of items in the scale increases infinitely A higher alpha coefficient signifies greater shared covariance among items, likely indicative of measuring an underlying concept in unison.
While benchmarks for a "suitable" alpha coefficient are largely arbitrary and hinge on the theoretical understanding of the specific scale, methodologists often advocate for a minimum alpha coefficient between 0.65 and 0.8, or even higher in certain contexts Conversely, alpha coefficients below 0.5 are generally deemed unsatisfactory, particularly for purportedly one-dimensional scales.
In this particular instance, our computation yielded a Cronbach's Alpha of 0.892 This outcome implies the scale's reliability and suggests that the observed variables collectively provide robust explanations for the experimental factor under consideration.
Reliability Statistics have been computed, yielding a Cronbach's Alpha coefficient of 0.892 for a total of 24 items The Corrected Item-Total Correlation coefficient, which assesses the interrelation between each observed variable and the overall scale score while considering the variable in question, demonstrates that all observed variables exhibit correlations greater than 0.3 This level of correlation is deemed suitable for this analysis.
Notably, the calculated Cronbach's Alpha coefficient of 0.892 surpasses the threshold of 0.6, which is often used as a benchmark for factor analysis suitability This level of internal consistency indicates that the variables within the scale possess a robust mutual association, aligning with the prerequisites for conducting factor analysis.
In summary, the obtained statistics suggest strong internal consistency among the observed variables, and the Cronbach's Alpha coefficient meeting the 0.6 threshold indicates the viability of pursuing factor analysis on this dataset.
Scale Mean if | Scale Variance if Corrected Cronbach's
Items Item-Total Alpha if Item
We proceed to analyze the following values:
4.1.2 KMO test and Bartlett test for variables
For the assessment of variables, both the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test and Bartlett's test have been conducted.
Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) is deemed appropriate due to the outcome of Bartlett's test, revealing significant correlations among the variables within the population (Sig = 0.000) Additionally, the KMO coefficient has been computed as 0.871, satisfying the condition 0.5 < KMO < 1 This coefficient affirms the adequacy of the sample for factor analysis.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy.
The KMO and Bartlett's Test table provides the following results:
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy: 0.871
The Kaiser criterion, which guides the determination of the number of factors to be extracted from the scale, is employed This criterion involves retaining important factors with eigenvalues greater than 1, while discarding less significant ones.
Additionally, the standard of extracted variance, known as the Variance Explained Criteria, is employed This standard suggests that factor analysis is suitable if the cumulative variance extracted from the factors collectively accounts for at least 50% of the total variance.
In summary, the statistical analyses support the appropriateness of conducting EFA. The significant correlations among variables, as indicated by Bartlett's test, and the KMO coefficient meeting the adequacy threshold underscore the validity of the factor analysis Furthermore, the Kaiser criterion and Variance Explained Criteria are employed to guide the extraction of meaningful factors.
Total Variance Explained of Squared Loadings Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings
Component | Cumulative % Total Variance | Cumulative %
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. This table illustrates the amount of variance explained by each component in both the Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings and the Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings.
The data is presented in terms of cumulative percentages and individual percentages of variance explained.
Component |: Explains 12.014% of the variance with an Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings of 2.883 and a Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings of 12.014% The cumulative percentage up to this point is 29.652%.
Component 2: Accounts for 11.587% of the variance with an Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings of 2.781 and a Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings of 11.587%. The cumulative percentage now reaches 38.735%.
Component 3: Explains 10.687% of the variance with an Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings of 2.565 and a Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings of 10.687% The cumulative percentage becomes 45.010%.
Component 4: Accounts for 10.498% of the variance with an Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings of 2.520 and a Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings of 10.498%. The cumulative percentage increases to 50.152%.
Component 5: Explains 10.194% of the variance with an Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings of 2.447 and a Rotation Sums of Squared Loadings of 10.194% The cumulative percentage reaches its peak at 54.980%.
An extraction method of Principal Component Analysis was utilized for these calculations The summarized findings from this table denote that the 24 observed variables have been grouped into 5 factors The cumulative total variance extracted, amounting to 54.98, implies that these 5 factors collectively account for 54.98% of the variability among the observed variables Additionally, it is noted that a Rotated Component Matrix is available, which likely provides further insight into the associations between the factors and the observed variables We have Rotated Component Matrix as follows
Analysis of perceptions of approaches to critical thinking in academic writing via Open-ended QuestiONNaixre - - G0 31919 HH HH Hệ 95
In the preceding section, we established the fundamental concept of CT's paramount features in academic writing, primarily explored through quantitative data acquisition Building upon this foundation, the current section undertakes a deeper analysis This analysis involves the meticulous examination of data derived from both the open-ended question survey and the provided writing samples This exploration aims to address specific aspects of the research question, specifically focusing on participants’ perspectives regarding:
3 Intellectual openness and self-reflection.
4 Self-confidence and creative synthesis.
5 Analysis and evaluation skills Centered within the domain of academic inquiry, our mission is to comprehend how English-majored students perceive approaches to CT in academic writing As we shift our focus to this endeavor, our attention is directed toward the second research instrument employed - a well-constructed survey consisting of 9 open-ended questions These questions serve as gateways, providing access to the intricate array of viewpoints that lie at the heart of the secondary research query: "What are English- majored students’ perceptions on approaches to CT in academic writing?"
4.2.1 Logical reasoning and argumentation approaches
Within the context of academic writing, the approach employed for constructing arguments is of considerable significance This section embarks on a journey to understand how individuals typically shape their arguments within this context As we analyze the responses, our focus lies in categorizing them based on recurring patterns, ultimately revealing distinct approaches to constructing arguments in academic writing.
Participants, including #3, #16, #32, #53, and #62, underscored the importance of logical reasoning, evidence, and examples in constructing arguments for academic writing Their emphasis on meticulous analysis, logical evaluation of information,
95 and the incorporation of specific evidence from reputable sources enhances argument credibility and persuasiveness Additionally, responses from #4, #10, #11, #25, #52,
#26, #48, and #45 highlighted the significance of evidence, investigation, organization, and structure in argumentative writing This collective perspective reflects a systematic and mindful approach, ensuring that arguments are well- supported, logical, and cohesive, ultimately contributing to their compelling and persuasive nature.
Responses, including #5, #27, #44, #17, #43, #36, #55, #58, #61, and #56, underscore the importance of a structured approach in essay construction This collective perspective emphasizes the utilization of frameworks such as the four-point structure and the three-part essay structure Participants advocate for systematically addressing elements like claim, evidence, objections, and conclusion to ensure logical consistency Additionally, suggestions for using outlines and maintaining focus by eliminating minor ideas contribute to a cohesive and well-organized essay.
Responses, including #1, #8, #37, and #51, collectively highlight the paramount importance of adopting a research-based approach in essay construction These insights underscore the reliance on online articles, written research papers, and comprehensive topic research to inform and support arguments Recognizing the value of research as a foundational element, writers ensure that their essays are well- informed, evidence-based, and grounded in factual evidence By incorporating research-driven perspectives and identifying compelling arguments supported by evidence and data, writers enhance the credibility and persuasiveness of their essays.
In addition to earlier insights, various methods contribute to crafting a well-supported and logically structured essay Response #7 advocates for empirical evidence, facts, and statistics, adding credibility to claims Meanwhile, response #41 suggests incorporating both opinions and evidence-supported arguments, emphasizing the importance of considering different perspectives In contrast, response #25
96 underscores the need for proof through evidence, data, sources, and examples to strengthen arguments On a different note, response #46 emphasizes constructing logical arguments, avoiding off-topic discussions to maintain focus and coherence. Lastly, response #56 highlights the importance of carefully reading the prompt to address the given topic or question.
Participant responses highlight the pivotal role of language and expression difficulties in constructing logical arguments in written English The first response underscores the challenge of expressing ideas in English compared to Vietnamese, attributing it to the language's logical nature and complex grammar, emphasizing the need to comprehend nuances for effective articulation Similarly, response #26 mentions the hindrance caused by a lack of specific language, emphasizing the importance of a diverse and precise vocabulary Response #33 echoes difficulty in articulating ideas in English, emphasizing the need for fluency and coherence Response #63 recognizes the challenge of conveying logical arguments in writing alone, emphasizing clarity and precision in language usage Reading complexities in response #62 highlight the importance of language comprehension for understanding logical arguments.
Participant responses reveal challenges in maintaining coherence and organization in academic writing, particularly in constructing arguments Response #2 points out the lack of logical coherence among arguments, emphasizing the importance of interconnected and logically aligned points for a persuasive case Response #3 mentions "rigidity," suggesting a need for flexibility in structuring arguments to maintain flow Response #4 acknowledges the risk of illogical errors, emphasizing the importance of careful reasoning and logical analysis.
Moreover, response #20 highlights the challenge of maintaining a clear and focused argumentative flow, underscoring the need for logical organization Similarly, response #34 emphasizes following a simple and logical structure for a clear roadmap Concerns in response #48 about content deployment indicate challenges in presenting information coherently, emphasizing the need for a logical sequence. Response #64 addresses the issue of arguments not matching the topic, emphasizing
Participant responses underscore the pivotal role of research and evidence in constructing persuasive arguments Response #16 highlights the difficulty of finding relevant evidence, indicating the need for thorough research to gather supporting information In response #25, sorting out facts and determining relevance emphasizes the critical role of evidence in constructing coherent and logical arguments, stressing the importance of careful evaluation and selection of factual information.
Additionally, response #10 mentions a lack of resources for learning, indicating a limitation in accessing necessary information Response #45 points out the insufficiency of general knowledge and evidence, emphasizing the significance of thorough research and evidence utilization to substantiate arguments, enhancing overall persuasiveness Mention of finding the right source in response #51 underscores the importance of reliable sources, emphasizing the need for credible evidence.
These responses shed light on the significance of generating ideas and fostering creativity in academic writing.
Responses #14 and #54 express difficulties in finding ideas for posts, indicating a need for inspiration and creative thinking The ability to generate original and engaging ideas is crucial for developing compelling arguments and captivating the reader's attention.
The mention of limited ideas in response #37 underscores the importance of broadening one's perspective and exploring different angles to enhance the depth and diversity of arguments It suggests the need for creative approaches in idea generation to produce innovative and thought-provoking content.
Analysis of critical thinking practices from writing samples
4.3.1 Logical reasoning and argumentation in practice
The plurality 50 of the seventy pieces of writing reviewed based on the criteria of the checklist follow a serial format Specifically, in the following extract:
To begin with, I believe video games can improve people's reactions The game player is frequently required to respond and make decisions quickly in order to advance to the next level or score better in the game After a specific length of time, their brains will be taught to respond faster and make particular decisions without taking too much time; this talent will also apply to their daily lives Participant 11.3
This excerpt demonstrates that the quality of the argument is quite strong The
' " premise is " video games can improve people's reactions." And next is an explanation of how "The game player is frequently required to respond and make decisions quickly in order to advance to the next level or score better in the game", with the first conclusion being "After a specific length of time, their brains will be taught to respond faster and make particular decisions without taking too much time" and the second conclusion being "this talent will also apply to their daily lives." This argument has also achieved a degree of persuasion due to the text's logic, despite the fact that it is entirely unfounded due to the absence of any cited sources of information The following diagram can be used to organize this argument:
Illustration of serial pattern-based arguments in participants essays
P-video games can improve people's reactions
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C2- this talent willalso apply to their daily lives
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