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ALTERNATIVE FUEL Edited by Maximino Manzanera Alternative Fuel Edited by Maximino Manzanera Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access articles distributed under the Creative Commons Non Commercial Share Alike Attribution 3.0 license, which permits to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt the work in any medium, so long as the original work is properly cited. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Mia Devic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer Jan Hyrat Image Copyright Jonathan Vasata, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com First published July, 2011 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Alternative Fuel, Edited by Maximino Manzanera p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-372-9 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface IX Part 1 Biodiesel 1 Chapter 1 Biodiesel Production by Using Heterogeneous Catalysts 3 Rubi Romero, Sandra Luz Martínez and Reyna Natividad Chapter 2 An Overview of Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions and Alternative Feedstock for Biodiesel Production 21 Maria Manuela Camino Feltes, Débora de Oliveira, Jorge Luiz Ninow and José Vladimir de Oliveira Chapter 3 Biodiesel Fuel Production by Enzymatic Transesterification of Oils: Recent Trends, Challenges and Future Perspectives 47 Nevena Luković, Zorica Knežević-Jugović and Dejan Bezbradica Chapter 4 Engine Test of Bio-Diesel Manufactured from Waste Cooking Oil and Reward Preferential Benefit Analyses for Its Promotion 73 Jai-Houng Leu Chapter 5 Waste Animal Fats with High FFA as a Renewable Energy Source for Biodiesel Production - Concept, Experimental Production and Impact Evaluation on Air Quality 93 Francisc Popescu and Ioana Ionel Part 2 Bioethanol 109 Chapter 6 Delignification Process of Agro-Industrial Wastes an Alternative to Obtain Fermentable Carbohydrates for Producing Fuel 111 Oscar Sánchez, Roció Sierra and Carlos J. Alméciga-Díaz VI Contents Chapter 7 Performance and Emission Characteristics of Spark Ignition Engine Fuelled with Ethanol and Methanol Gasoline Blended Fuels 155 Ioannis Gravalos, Dimitrios Moshou, Theodoros Gialamas, Panagiotis Xyradakis, Dimitrios Kateris and Zisis Tsiropoulos Part 3 Biomass 175 Chapter 8 Use of Charcoal and Partially Pirolysed Biomaterial in Fly Ash to Produce Briquettes: Sugarcane Bagasse 177 Silvio Rainho Teixeira, Agda Eunice de Souza, Angel Fidel Vilche Peña, Regiane Godoy de Lima and Álvaro Gil Miguel Chapter 9 Biomass Waste as a Renewable Source of Biogas Production - Experiments 201 Adrian Eugen Cioablă and Ioana Ionel Chapter 10 Influential Parameters on Biomethane Generation in Anaerobic Wastewater Treatment Plants 227 Meisam Tabatabaei, Alawi Sulaiman, Ali M. Nikbakht, Norjan Yusof and Ghasem Najafpour Chapter 11 Alternative Fuels in Cement Manufacturing 263 Moses P.M. Chinyama Chapter 12 Waste Biomass as Alternative Bio-Fuel - Co-Firing versus Direct Combustion 285 Gavrilă Trif-Tordai and Ioana Ionel Part 4 Hydrogen 307 Chapter 13 Nano-Porous Silicon-Based Mini Hydrogen Fuel Cells 309 Tayyar Dzhafarov and Sureyya Aydin Yuksel Chapter 14 Hydrogen - The Ecologically Ideal Energy Vector 335 Mircea Cârdu and Malvina Baica Preface Renewable energy sources such as biodiesel, bioethanol, biomethane, biomass from wastes or hydrogen are subjects of great interest in the current energy scene. These fuels contribute to the reduction of prices and dependence on fossil fuels. In addition, energy sources such as these could partially replace the use of what is considered as the major factor responsible for global warming and the main source of local environ- mental pollution. For these reasons they are known as “alternative fuels”. There is an urgent need to find and optimise the use of alternative fuels to provide a net energy gain, to be economically competitive and to be producible in large quantities without compromising food resources. This book presents an overview of biodiesel, bioethanol, biomethane, biomass and hy- drogen for the implementation of systems of production for these alternative fuels. The first section focuses on the optimization of biodiesel production addressing some drawbacks derived from the chemically catalyzed reactions. Beginning with Chapter 1 the use of heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production are reviewed as well as the effects of the different parameters on the reaction yield, and the common feedstock used for biodiesel production using heterogenous catalysts. There are another two chapters on the description of enzymes as alternative catalysts. In the first one (Chap- ter 2) the authors guide the reader through the advances in biodiesel-making, from a global perspective to the specific issues of a real case, for example the particularities found in Brazil, paying special attention to immobilization of lipase enzymes. The se- cond of these two chapters (Chapter 3) is dedicated to reviewing the biotechnological uses of lipases for biodiesel production with special interest in achieving enzymatic transesterification that would be competitive on an industrial scale. Solvent engineer- ing, lipases immobilization, selection of acyl acceptor, and selection of the reactor sys- tem are reviewed in this chapter in order to offer solutions to the current problems and to look for new perspectives on the industrial application of enzymatic biodiesel syn- thesis. The section dedicated to biodiesel is complemented with an applied case where biodiesel manufactured from waste cooking oil is tested on a real engine, testing the brake horsepower, the emissions of pollutants, and includes an economical analysis for production cost on a real case such as Taiwan (Chapter 4). The last chapter (Chap- ter 5) is dedicated to the production of biodiesel from waste animal fats and its effect on air quality. X Preface The second section details the use of bioethanol as an alternative fuel including a re- view (Chapter 6) of delignification by chemical and biological pretreatments and the use of lignocellulosic wastes with references to the compositional changes of these substrates necessary for their use in the biofuels production industry. This second sec- tion also includes a chapter (Chapter 7) on the production of bioalcohol for mixtures of alcohol and gasoline with a study on the performance of these mixtures in comparison with ethanol and methanol and their effect on the brake power and emissions, using an engine without major modifications. The third section focuses on residues as feedstock for alternative fuel production, with biomass as the main subject of the study. This section starts with the use of sugarcane bagasse waste from the bioethanol industry (Chapter 8) and focuses on the use of charcoal and partially pirolysed biomaterial for the production of energy as an im- portant element for a strategy to achieve renewable energy goals and to reduce waste disposal and environmental pollution in the context of Brazil as a leading country in the bioethanol production. Chapter 9 deals with biomass waste as a renewable source for biogas production and Chapter 10 presents a very interesting study on the parame- ters that influence biomethane generation in anaerobic wastewater treatment plants with special remarks on the main factors that affect the generation of biomethane, the efficient treatment of different types of wastewaters and possible applications of com- puter modelling techniques to provide support for an optimal operation of the plant and the correct decision-making. Also in this section (Chapter 11) the author highlights the potential for alternative fuels to be used in the cement industry to avoid negative effects on the final product. The final section focuses on hydrogen as an alternative fuel, with two different chap- ters. Chapter 13 reviews the main characteristics of hydrogen as an energy vector fo- cusing on its production, storage and transportation. The authors evaluate the main advantages and drawbacks of hydrogen from an ecological perspective. The last chap- ter (Chapter 14) reviews the use of proton exchange membrane (PEM)-type fuel cells for the production of hydrogen gas as an alternative energy source, based on the pro- duction and characterization of nano-porous silicon-based direct-fuelled hydrogen fuel cells. Dr. Maximino Manzanera Institute for Water Research University of Granada CL. Ramon y Cajal No. 4 Granada 18071 SPAIN [...]... great potential for biodiesel synthesis The enzyme-catalyzed production of this biofuel in compressed or supercritical fluids will also be reviewed 2 Biodiesel as fuel Recently, there are several concerns about the dependence on foreign-controlled fuels sources of finite supply, reserves of petroleum shortages and rising prices of petroleumbased fuels These problems have encouraged the development of alternative. .. Standardization (CEN) Therefore, no standards from individual European countries are given The European standard EN 590 for conventional diesel fuel contains a provision that conventional diesel fuel can contain up to 5 % FAME meeting the standard EN 14214 14 Alternative Fuel In addition to the biodiesel standards, analytical standards have been developed in the United States and Europe for the purpose of... compatibility with the existing fuel distribution infrastructure, and inherent lubricity (Knothe, 2008; Moser, 2009) Ferrari et al (2005) produced ethyl esters from neutral soybean oil that were further mixed with petroleum-based diesel and tested as fuel in an energy generator The diesel oil consumption (0.6981L.h-1) was reduced when this fuel was mixed with up to 20% of biodiesel, when the fuel consumption was... important parameter of biodiesel quality Fuel injection equipment operates on a volume metering system, hence a higher density for biodiesel results in the delivery of a slightly greater mass of fuel (Demirbas, 2005) The specific gravity of biodiesel ranges between 860-900 kg/m3 at 15 °C The standard analytical procedure for the determination of density of biodiesel fuel involves the use of a standardized... methanol content, this must not exceed 0.20 % in biodiesel fuels (EN 14214) This parameter is important for fuel quality since high methanol content poses safety risks in biodiesel transport and storage due to correspondingly low flash points Acid value or neutralization number is a measure of mineral acids and free fatty acids contained in a fuel sample It is expressed in milligrams of KOH required... of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology, Vol 78, No 2-3, (February - March 2003) p.p 338–341 ISSN 0268-2575 18 Alternative Fuel Hernando, J., Leton, P., Matia, M.P., Novella, J.L & Alvarez Builla, J (2007) Biodiesel and FAME synthesis assisted by microwaves: homogeneous batch and flow processes Fuel Vol 86 No.10-11, (July-August 2007), p.p 1641-1644, ISSN 00162361 Kaita, J., Mimura, T., Fukuoda, N., &... KI/mesoporous silica Fuel Processing Technology, Vol 90, No.7-8, (July-August 2009), p.p.922-925, ISSN 0378-3820 Sarin, R., Arora, A.K., Puri, S.K., Prakash, S., Ranjan, R., Christopher, J., Tuli, D.K., Malhotra, R.K & Kumar, A (2009) Novel catalyst composition for biodiesel production and a process for producing biodiesel and product thereof Patent applied (Appl No 1348IN033) 20 Alternative Fuel Shu, Q.,... (Biodiesel-Optimierungspotentiale und Umwelteffkte), p.p 31-43, ISSN: 04586859 Xie, W & Li, H (2006) Alumni-supported potassium iodide as a heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production from soybean oil Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical, Vol 255, No 1-2, (August 2006), p.p 1-9, ISSN 1381-1169 Xie, W., Peng, H & Chen, L (2006) Transesterification of soybean oil catalyzed by potassium loaded on... Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions and Alternative Feedstock for Biodiesel Production Maria Manuela Camino Feltes, Débora de Oliveira, Jorge Luiz Ninow and José Vladimir de Oliveira Federal University of Santa Catarina Brazil 1 Introduction There is an increasing interest in biodiesel production because of the environmental and economic advantages of this biofuel over traditional fuels derived from non-renewable... material (Feltes et al 2009) The conversion of used cooking oils and restaurant grease into alkyl esters is another proposal of particular interest in the field of alternative fuels (Lee et al., 2002) The use of biomass as feedstock is an attractive alternative for biodiesel production in tropical countries such as Brazil The agricultural and farming industries are activities of great importance in many parts . highlights the potential for alternative fuels to be used in the cement industry to avoid negative effects on the final product. The final section focuses on hydrogen as an alternative fuel, with. Yusof and Ghasem Najafpour Chapter 11 Alternative Fuels in Cement Manufacturing 263 Moses P.M. Chinyama Chapter 12 Waste Biomass as Alternative Bio -Fuel - Co-Firing versus Direct Combustion. environ- mental pollution. For these reasons they are known as alternative fuels”. There is an urgent need to find and optimise the use of alternative fuels to provide a net energy gain, to be economically