Forms of medicinal plants species used for ethnoveterinary medicineby the local farmers in Misamis Occidental, Philippines...91Figure 4.6.. Part of medicinal plant species used for ethno
INTRODUCTION
Research rationale
Agriculture is shifting toward more environmentally sustainable and effective systems as a result of rising food demand and environmental regulations (McGuire, 2015) However, food waste still poses a problem on a global scale, having detrimental effects on the economy, society, and the environment (Spang et al., 2019) Industrialized farming practices are currently taking a heavy toll on the environment and creating dead zones in the ocean, damaging streams, the introduction of poisons into food systems, putting public health in peril through disease outbreaks and pesticide use exposures, and accelerating global warming (Horrigan et al., 2002; Tilman et al., 2002; Diaz and Rosenberg 2008; Marks et al., 2010; Foley et al 2011) Alongside, the agricultural industry is presently facing a crisis Among them, is the declining health of the soil, due to poor nutrients, that eventually leads to the decrease in the production of staple agricultural crops and food supply (Giller et al, 2021) Annually, about 25% of anthropogenic greenhouse gases are produced by agriculture worldwide, which results in about one-third of terrestrial acidification and is also the primary reason for the global eutrophication of surface waters (Poore & Nemecek, 2018).
In terms of livestock farming, it is predicted that by 2050, there will be a rapid production amongst livestock expanding this industry faster than any other agricultural sub-sector, with the majority of this growth occurring in developing countries (Ilea, 2009) However,there is also a growing concern regarding the health of the animals in relation to the safety of the food and the health of humans (Berckmans, 2014) In order to create more sustainable food systems, agricultural transformation is crucial (Gordon et al., 2022) Hence, an approach like regenerative agriculture is one of the keys to addressing those issues.
Regenerative agriculture, an alternative method of food production that has less impact on the environment and society (Newton et al., 2020), which refers to holistic farming practices that, among several other benefits, boost ecosystem biodiversity, produce nutrient-dense food, and store carbon to help mitigate the consequences of climate change (Chesapeake Bay Foundation, 2022).Over the time, regenerative agriculture systems produce and conserve fertility as well as biodiversity as an integral element of farming Such goals might also be attained by combining agriculture with restoration through rewilding, farmer-managed natural regeneration, and the implementation of traditional ecological knowledge as operational management techniques within a regenerative agricultural framework (Levin, 2022).
Among others, indigenous knowledge, which is also frequently referred to as traditional knowledge, is something that native peoples have carried over from past eras through the oral tradition (Warren, 1991) Traditional knowledge in farming is one of the components in regenerative agriculture Over the years, traditional farmers have created a variety of locally relevant agricultural systems, managing them with clever strategies that frequently lead to both communal food security and the preservation of agrobiodiversity (Altieri, 2004) Incorporation of traditional knowledge and ethnoscientific approaches into contemporary frameworks for conservation and sustainable management of natural resources will become crucial at the international and national levels, both in developed and developing countries. The potential use of ethnoscience for the preservation and sustainable exploitation of natural resources is now gaining popularity (Rist, & Dahdouh-Guebas, 2006) The knowledge of the farmers with soil land, from production and management practices to post-harvest operations, which was accumulated over generations, can be of great benefit to agricultural scientists This knowledge should be further developed using scientific evidence in order to establish research plans and interventions to build effective and efficient agriculture (Esteban et al., 2022) Thus, this study was conducted.
Research objectives
Generally, the objective of this research is to determine the traditional knowledge and practices of the local farmers in Misamis Occidental, Philippines, in terms of their ethnoagriculture and ethnoveterinary medicine associated with regenerative agriculture.
To identify the environmental issues affecting the local farmers in their ethnoagricultural activities;
To document the list of medicinal plants used by the local farmers for ethnoveterinary medicine; and
To identify the conservation status and the level of endemicity of the medicinal plants used by the local farmers for ethnoveterinary medicine.
Research questions
The study investigated the ethnoscientific practices of local farmers in Misamis Occidental, Philippines, related to regenerative agriculture Those farmers are from the city of Oroquieta and the municipality of Don Victoriano Chiongbian and are known to faithfully preserve their practices, particularly in ethnoagriculture and ethnoveterinary medicine, so it is necessary and challenging to document them.
In particular, it answered the following questions:
Q1 What are the traditional knowledge and practices of local farmers in Misamis Occidental, Philippines associated with regenerative agriculture in terms of ethnoagriculture and ethnoveterinary medicine?
Q2 What are the environmental issues affecting the local farmers in their ethnoagricultural activities?
Q3 What are the medicinal plants used by the local farmers for their ethnoveterinary medicinal practices?
Q4 What is the conservation status and the level of endemicity of these medicinal plants used by the local farmers for their ethnoveterinary medicine?
Scope and Limitations
The whole study was conducted from November 2022 to June 2023 The collection of data through immersion, observations, and conduct of interviews was carried out from November 2022 to April 2023 in the province of Misamis Occidental, Philippines, specifically in Barangay Sebucal and Mialen of the city of Oroquieta and in Barangay Lake Duminagat and Liboron of the Municipality of Don Victoriano Chiongbian while the processing of data and data analysis were carried out from May to June 2023 at the University of Santo Tomas, Philippines and at Thai Nguyen University of Agriculture and Forestry, Vietnam.
However, this research study focused on the ethnoscience for regenerative agriculture, particularly the ethnoagriculture and ethnoveterinary medicine practiced by the local farmers It is expressly limited to their crop and livestock farming practices and ethnoveterinary practices for their farm animals.
Definition of terms
For the sole purpose of clarity and understanding of concepts, ideas, and terms, the following words are defined within the context of how they were used in this research.
Barangay Chairman - refers to the highest elected official and the local chief executive of the Barangay (Philippine Local Government Code of 1991).
Barangay - refers to the Philippine government's smallest political administrative subdivision It is regarded as the fundamental unit of the Philippine National Government, along with the city, municipal and provincial governments (Porio and Roque-Sarmiento, 2019).
Ethnoagriculture - deals with the history of agriculture in a society (Botanyworld, 2023) In this study, it refers to the traditional knowledge and practices of the local farmers used in farming crops and livestock.
Ethnoscience - a learning approach related the actual knowledge of the community to scientific knowledge (Sari et al., 2023) In this study it refers to the ethnoscientific concepts developed and practiced by the local farmers of Misamis Occidental, with regard to their farming system and ethnoveterinary medicinal practices.
Ethnoveterinary medicine – a subfield of ethnomedicine that promotes traditional veterinary medicine (WordSense Online Dictionary, 2023), which refers to the beliefs, knowledge, methods, practices and techniques used in the promotion of healthcare and well-being among animals (Barboza et al., 2007).
LITERATURE REVIEW
Regenerative Agriculture
Undoubtedly, there are many major issues that affect agriculture and food systems Issues, including those caused by climate change and different environmental degradations, up to livestock health and welfare, agricultural farmers, and employees (Sumberg and Giller, 2022) Meanwhile, agriculture can be described broadly as the breeding and development of plants, animals, and even fungi for food and other purposes This results in the delivery of food, fiber, biofuels, and medicinal plants In the present day, industrial agriculture, which has its own issues and challenges and is viewed as being unsustainable in the long run, is based on the practice of monoculture farming on a very large scale (Rhodes, 2012) Another factor contributing to 15% of global greenhouse gas emissions is associated with food industry The population and per capita demand are both expected to expand at the same time, which will result in an increase in the world's food consumption (Bodirsky et al., 2015) Additionally, it should be recognized that small-scale farms cultivate more than half of the world’s agricultural land (Graeub et al., 2016) and supply roughly 70% of the world's needs in terms of food (Wolfenson, 2013).
That is why, in the past seven years, the number of scientific articles referring to regenerative agriculture has grown significantly(Newton et al., 2020; Daverkosen and Holzknecht, 2021) Consumers, manufacturers, academia, entrepreneurs, and the media all increasingly favor the concept Large crop monocultures and intensive livestock systems demand substantial inputs of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, destroy biodiversity, and deplete the natural resources on which food systems depend Regenerative agriculture, in its broadest sense, describes a collection of alternative values (Brown, 2018; LaCanne and Lundgren, 2018; Fenster et al., 2021).
As an alternative method of food production, regenerative agriculture has been presented as having lower—or even net positive—impacts on the environment and/or society (Rhodes, 2012) The key objectives are to relocalize and regenerate foodsheds through transformative processes of social and ecological integration. Regenerative economic and transportation networks, as well as policies that promote food democracy and food sovereignty, are crucial To promote regenerative behaviors, values, and health, the consumer and community worldviews must be changed Developing regenerative food cultures and enhancing indigenous food systems are also part of regenerative food systems (Blay-Palmer and Koch, 2010; Dahlberg, 1994).
Aforementioned, these food systems serve as reservoirs for biodiversity and cultural diversity As a result, maintaining them ultimately depends on Western societies' ability to recognize and cherish them more fully Finding methods to institutionalize systems approaches to research and policy formulation is also necessary Few people have a complete understanding of diversity's full range of characteristics due to conceptual and bureaucratic fragmentation (a fundamental aspect of industrial "divisions of labor") It is no coincidence that as ecology has
In general, anthropologists have produced the finest study on indigenous food systems and how they depend on biodiversity and cultural variation The quality of the work on traditional peasant agriculture is less consistent (Oldfield and Alcorn, 1991) Unfortunately, crop germplasm collectors and researchers have historically been mainly interested in the seeds they have gathered Only information on the plant itself, together with basic statistics on the overall climate and soil conditions, is provided in the accompanying "passport" paper identifying all the "vital characteristics." As a result, the vast majority of the knowledge in the world's
"libraries" of seeds is either sparse or nonexistent when it comes to the cultural,economic, agrarian, culinary, or other human aspects of food crops and the food that their seeds generate (Vietmeier, 1991) Therefore, it would seem obvious that the development of new, regenerative food and fiber systems, as well as the restructuring and decolonization of industrial agriculture, are all necessary for the preservation of indigenous and traditional agriculture (Dahlberg, 1994).
Ethnoscience
The "reduction of chaos" attained by a specific culture, as opposed to the
"highest possible and conscious degree" to which such chaos may be reduced, is how ethnoscience varies from Simpson's "theoretical science" In other words, a culture is the culmination of all of a society's folk classifications, ethnoscience, and unique ways of categorizing its material and social world (Sturtevant, 1964) In the literature of social science, there has been an increase in criticism of scientific knowledge systems, while indigenous knowledge systems are frequently portrayed in an overly hopeful manner as potential alternatives to established knowledge (DeWalt, 1994) Furthermore, the study of perceptions, knowledge, and classifications of the world as they are represented in language use is known as ethnoscience Numerous academic fields have used ethnoscience The majority of ethnoscience study has focused on certain areas, such as traditional medicine, plant, fish, and bird classifications, and pest control (Bentley and Rodriguez 2001) The term "Ethnoscience" (which encompasses ethnochemistry, ethnophysics, ethnobiology, ethnomedicine, and ethnoagriculture) is another name for this body of knowledge (Abonyi, et al., 2014), traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) (Snively
& Corsiglia, 2000) and indigenous science (Ogawa, 1995).
All communities have amassed their own body of knowledge over the course of generations, therefore indigenous knowledge is not exclusive to indigenous peoples (Gorjestan, 1997) This body of information is primarily passed down orally from generation to generation and is built by practice and experience (Ksenofontov et al., 2019) Although it is not a body of knowledge in the traditional sense of the word in the west, indigenous knowledge is a continual cognitive process acquired through experience that can assist to supplement scientific records (Forbes &Stammler, 2009) In order to effectively disseminate this knowledge, it is essential to incorporate traditional and local knowledge, to engage northern and indigenous communities in setting priorities, co-designing and co-producing research, and to ensure access to research data and results (ICARP, 2016).
On the one hand, agricultural scientists might gain much from farmers' multi- generational knowledge with soil and land, production and management techniques, and post-harvest operations In order to build effective and efficient agriculture farming and to maintain and increase the nation's food security, this knowledge should be created in conjunction with scientific understanding Farmers must be involved in participatory research methods while creating new technology and management techniques (Esteban et al., 2022) In its current form, qualitative research is an approach to inquiry that the language people use to express their experiences is effective In other words, it aids researchers in understanding the numbers (Mayan, 2009) According to their traditional positions along two dilemmatic continuums, qualitative research techniques can be grouped The first is related to the researcher's position with regard to the inquiry plan, and the second is related to the researcher's position with regard to the designed reality (Graffigna et al., 2011).
Ethnoscience holds, the theoretical premise that there is a close relationship between the linguistic phrases and the phenomenon they describe (which would otherwise be unavailable) Therefore, it is possible to think of verbal expressions as an epiphenomenon of the underlying phenomenological reality (Graffigna et al.,2011) Numerous academic fields, including ethnobotany, ethnoecology,ethnoveterinary medicine, ethnopharmacology, and ethnopsychiatry, are where ethnoscience finds its most significant applications These disciplines are related despite having separate areas of study, as they are both interested in how language affects how people express their views, perceptions, knowledge, and attitudes.Ethnoscience is used less frequently and more recently in the realm of health The examination of disease experience has been studied in the past utilizing ethnoscience(Nichter, 1987) Ethnoscience is a promising and cutting-edge research methodology that can shed insight into how people actually experience things (Graffigna et al.,2011).
Ethnoagriculture
Ethnoagriculture refers to the traditional knowledge and practices of the local farmers used in farming crops and livestock Meanwhile, there is still a rich ethnoagricultural memory based on the traditional practices of cultivation of plants, management of the land, and the observation of nature However, this knowledge is rapidly disappearing albeit its high socio-environmental value and its recognized tangible and intangible biocultural heritage (Quinteiro1 et al., 2016).
In India, Karnaraja and Natarajan (2020) conducted a study on assessing the knowledge level of ethno-agricultural practices in cumbu, a predominant crop inIndia (TNAU, 2015) with the tribal people of Tamil Nadu's Villupuram district'sKalrayan Hills According to them, tribal people in this community had a rich cultural belief system that followed fatalism and extensive experience with their forefathers' cultural spirit in indigenous practices These factors played a significant role in the effective method to stabilize the sustainable agricultural development in the tribal communities with the suitable approved modern means and effective information, tabulate it, document it, analyze it rationally, and improve the study of determining the level of knowledge of the chosen indigenous techniques in slash land cumbu farming in the Kalrayan Hills In their study, 27 ethnoagricultural practices were selected from low-lying cumbu in several Hamilton's of Kalrayan Hills zones for a one-on-one interview to gauge participants' familiarity with cumbu practices 300 respondents from various racial and ethnic groups who participated in the chosen ethno agricultural activities were questioned.
Table 2.1: List of Ethnoagricultural practices in Cumbu among Trabal of Kalrayan Hills, Tamil nadu, India (Karnaraja and Natarajan, 2020).
1 Spreading of cumbu ear heads circularly to a height of 1 foot and cattle threshed
2 Drying of cumbu until a metallic sound is produced
3 Storage in earthen pots covered and tied with a cloth.
4 Spreading of Nochi leaves over the storage container to control pest
5 Mixing of seed purpose cumbu with dried neem leaves
6 Spray turmeric powder and ash solution (2Kg of turmeric powder + 8 Kg of ash + 200 liter of water per acre) To control sucking pests like aphids, hoppers etc.,
7 Cumbu ear heads are sun dried for two days and stored without seed separation by building a storage structure called 'Kudhir'.
8 Soak the cumbu seeds in common salt solution before sowing to secure good germination under adverse conditions.
9 Soak the cumbu seeds in cow urine for half-a-hour and sun drying them before sowing to control head smut and to induce drought tolerance.
10 To ensure quick germination of cumbu seeds and to avoid shoot fly attack, enough water is boiled and kept in an open place throughout the night for cooling In the next day morning prior to sowing, the cumbu seeds are immersed in cold water for some time and sown in the field, which produces better germination.
11 Country plough is run at the early stage of cumbu crop to ensure optimum plant population.
12 Sowing cumbu during the Tamil months Vaikasi - Aani (May-June) to avoid shoot fly and stem borer.
13 Sowing cowpea as an intercrop in cumbu to minimize stem borer attack due to its repellent smell.
14 Sow lab-lab as an intercrop to reduce stem borer damage in cumbu.
15 Pouring neem cake extract, drop by drop on the cumbu shoot to control shoot borer.
16 Dusting ash on the infected leaves of cumbu to prevent the pest incidence.
17 Dusting ash at a milking stage to control ear head bugs.
18 Growing coriander as a mixed crop in cumbu to control the parasitic weed
19 A red / yellow/ dark cloth is tied to a long pole and fixed in the centre of the field to scare away the crows.
20 Mixing cumbu seeds with ash to prevent storage pests.
21 Local varieties are adopted in dry lands to avoid more water coinciding with the harvesting stage.
22 Cumbu seeds are treated with cow urine at 1:10 ratio to enhance germination.
23 When a sample of dried cumu grain is chewed, metallic sound indicates its dryness.
24 It is pounded well into course powdery form and consumed.
25 This ethnic food control fever, blood pressure and even diabetes in human beings and it is very effective
26 Dusting Chula ash in pearl millet fields to control green leaf hoppers sitting on the inner side of leaves.
27 Storing cumbu seeds by mixing with ash.
In the study conducted by Valdez and Hansel (2015) on the ethnofarming practices of some select indigenous groups in Mindanao, Philippines, it found that the Subanen and the Mansaka farmers had factual practices which includes 1) preparation of the planting materials of cereal grains, 2) soil fertility identification techniques, 3) farming methods, 4) use of fertilizers, 5) land preparation and culture management, 6) planting methods, 7) pests, insects, and disease management, and 8) harvesting and storing The primary crops planted by Subanen and Mansaka farmers are rice and corn which are their major staple food.
On the other hand, Esteban et al (2022) studied the ethnofarming practices of Mandaya ginger farmers in Andap, New Bataan, Davao de Oro, Philippines Their study aimed to determine the socio-demographic profile and document existing practices and problems related to ginger farmers' soil fertility, diseases, and insect pest management practices.In their study, they found that fewer Mandaya farmers continue to use indigenous methods knowledge about ginger that includes magical, factual, and traditional practices on producing ginger Despite the fact that most farmers utilize new technologies, some integrate new technologies with their local knowledge for ginger farming.
Table 2.2: Cultural and management practices of Mandaya ginger farmers in Andap, New Bataan, Davao de Oro Province (Esteban et al., 2022).
Management Practices Mandaya Farmers Practices
A Propagation 1 Rhizomes that contain 2 to 3 bud eyes in big toe size
2 Use of fully matured rhizomes that are firm and glossy
3 Rhizomes that contain 3 to 5 bud eyes
4 Rhizomes that contain 2 to 3 bud eyes, air-dried for three days inside the sacks, after incubation for three days, it was planted in the area
5 Rhizome soaked in N-Methyl Carbamate solution (5 glannate per 20 lof water) for 3 to 5 min
B LandPreparation 1 Herbicide application before planting
2 Based on the planting season
3 Based on the date which ended in 8 and 0 (e.g.,8,10,18,28)
4 Based on the lunar phase
5 Based on the radio announcement
6 Based on planting season and based on the date which ended in 8 and 0 (e.g., 8,10, 18,28)
7 Planting will be done in March with prayers to God
D Harvesting 1 Harvest was done at nine months to 1 year AP
2 Mandaya farmers will harvest only when the rhizomes are fully matured, or it will be harvested when it reaches one year above
3 Harvest was done at 6 to 7 months after planting and depending on the market price
Traditional farming methods have been in use even today because they are founded on the indigenous knowledge and experience that have been accumulated over the years Agroforestry, intercropping, crop rotation, cover crops, traditional organic composting, integrated crop-animal farming, shifting cultivation, and slash- and-burn farming are examples of common traditional agricultural techniques Even though these practices have many advantages, including increased soil fertility,carbon sequestration, resource utilization, biodiversity preservation, sustainability,and environmental protection, some of them have drawbacks as well, like slash-and- burn activities in shifting agriculture In an era of environmental degradation and the necessity for secure food production, traditional farming is drawing interest from all around the world (Hamadani et al., 2021).
Ethnoveterinary medicine
Relatively, conventional farmers usually rely on the usage of modern veterinary medicines that are developed to be effective and easy to use in treating,preventing, and controlling animal diseases However, it has been discovered that the continued use of specific pharmaceuticals for such purposes leads to the development of resistance among certain pathogens, making them more virulent and harder to control Wherein animal productivity may increase by using modern medicines, yet they are frequently accompanied by numerous health and safety risks, making customers more alert and health-conscious (Nadela, 2020) Nonetheless, there are significant drawbacks to using conventional medicines in animal production With the onset of antimicrobial resistance, many existing synthetic antibiotics and anti-parasitic treatments have become ineffective (Bischoff et al., 2016).
Thus, in recent years, the global interest in documenting traditional practices in treating animal diseases in which this method is known as ethnoveterinary medicine has grown due to its practices which are low-cost but also effective They are far less susceptible to drug resistance and have fewer negative environmental impacts than modern medicine Furthermore, the value of traditional knowledge for biodiversity conservation and protection is gradually becoming recognized internationally (Gadgil et al., 1993) Ethnoveterinary medicine has recently sparked substantial interest in numerous regions of the world, as evidenced by a slew of ethnoveterinary surveys done in Africa, America, Asia, and Europe (Ahmad et al. 2015; Benítez et al 2012) Even though, man has been using natural goods such as animals, minerals, and plants for medicinal purposes in an attempt to treat a wide range of illnesses even before recorded history (Antonio et al., 2015).
As reported by the World Health Organization, at least 80% of people in developing countries rely heavily on indigenous methods for disease prevention and treatment in both humans and animals (Warren, 1991) These traditional healing practices have been used and passed down from generation to generation as of living rather than to be shared or documented (Morilla et al., 2014) It is frequently used as a component of a community-based approach that can contribute to farm income, and farm community resilience, encourage self-reliance, and contribute to a safe and high-quality food supply, in addition to delivering improved and affordable animal health care As so, it can contribute to the economic survival of needy communities (Toyang, 2007).
Ethnoveterinary medicine is a type of medical treatment that treats numerous animal ailments with indigenous materials such as herbs, and other medicinal plants that have therapeutic properties (Panda and Dhal, 2014) Therefore, ethnoveterinary practitioners rely heavily on traditional medicine derived from plants that are available in their locality (Deebah, 2009) However, ethnoveterinary medicine in the Philippines received little attention, which resulted in a lack of documentation on the utilization of medicinal plants and other medicinal materials in many local communities for animal healthcare (Simborio et al., 2016).
In this review, a total of 63 plant species (Table 2.3) have been observed which belong to 33 families for animal health problems and against diseases while
34 plant species (Table 2.4) have been observed as ethnoveterinary medicine against endo/ectoparasites which belong to 23 families.The highest number of plant species among those belonging to the family Fabaceae (9), followed by Lamiaceae and Solanaceae, which both accounted for the same number (6), as well as Moraceae and Zingiberaceae (3), which have both the same number of utilizations, and others as depicted in the table 2.3 These plants were identified as having therapeutic properties that depend on the health problems or diseases for which they are being used.
The common animal diseases reported in the literature are gastric diseases such as diarrhea, constipation, dehydration, and bloat For instance, Annona muricata L treats diarrhea in swine (Guzman, 2015).Capsicum annum L was used to protect poultry against fowl pox and infectious coryza, and Citrofortunella microcarpaBunge against pullorum still in poultry (Nadela, 2020) On the one hand,common colds and fever were treated usingColeus blumeiBenth and Hibiscus rosa- sinensisL., respectively (Nadela, 2020; IIRR, 1994) A respiratory disorder like the cough was also being treated using the following plant species: Acacia rugataBuch.-Ham ex Fawc & Rendle, , Albizzia myriophylla Benth.,Heliotropium indicum L., Spondias pinnata (L.fil.) Kurz, Tamarindus indica L., and Tinospora rumphii Boerl (IIRR, 1994), Blumea balsamifera L and Vitex negundo L (IIRR,1994; Nadela, 2020), Mentha piperita L and Plectranthus scutellarioides L.(Simborio et al., 2016) Reports show that skin disorders such as wounds were treated using Allium sativum L and Chromolaena odorata L (IIRR, 1994; Nadela,2020), Annona squamosa L (IIRR, 1994; Guzman, 2015), and Capsicum frutescens L (IIRR, 1994), burns using Aloe vera L (IIRR, 1994) and foot rot usingChrysophyllum cainitoL and Persea americanaMill (IIRR, 1994), which the most common skin disorders in ruminants and swine.
On the other hand, there were 27 plant species like Areca catechu L (IIRR, 1994; Simborio et al., 2016; Ozaraga et al., 2017; Nadela, 2020), Bixa orellana L. (IIRR, 1994), Chavica betle (L.) Miq (Nadela, 2020), and Leucaena leucocephala
(Lam.) de Wit (IIRR, 1994; Guzman, 2015; Beltran et al., 2019; Nadela, 2020) that being used against endoparasites and 17 plant species like Cassia alata L.,
Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton, Nicotiana tabacum L., and Premna odorata Blanco (IIRR, 1994) against ectoparasite In 2019, Beltran et al reported a research on the effects of plant leaf variants from the Philippines on infective Oesophagustonum dentatum, a phylogenetically old and well-established parasite of swine The plant species evaluated to be most effective against such parasite were Ananas comosus
(L.) Merr., Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth, Chrysophyllum cainito L., Moringa oleifera Lam., Annona squamosa L., Tinospora rumphii Boerl, and Azadirachta indica A.Juss.
Table 2.3 Common medicinal plants used as ethnoveterinary medicine for health problems and against diseases in the Philippines.
No Plant Name Family Part(s) used
Buch.-Ham ex Fabaceae Pod Coughs and colds Oral Swine IIRR,
Fabaceae Bark Coughs and colds Oral Swine IIRR,
3 Allium sativum L Amaryllidaceae Bulb Wound Topical Ruminants IIRR,
Fowl pox Topical Poultry Nadela,
4 Aloe vera L Asphodelaceae Leaf Eye disease Topical Ruminants IIRR,
5 Amaranthus gracilis Desf Amaranthaceae Leaf Constipation Oral Swine IIRR,
6 Amaranthus spinosus L Amaranthaceae Leaf Constipation Oral Swine IIRR,
L Annonaceae Leaf Wound and foot rot Topical Ruminants IIRR,
Seed Wound with maggots Topical Poultry IIRR,
8 Annona squamosa L Annonaceae Leaf Wound with maggots Topical Ruminants IIRR,
L Fabaceae Seed Bloat Oral Ruminants IIRR,
10 Azadirachta indica A.Juss Meliaceae Leaf Castration wounds Topical Ruminants
Wound with maggots Topical Poultry IIRR,
11 Blumea Asteraceae Leaf Fever Oral Swine IIRR, balsamifera L 1994
Coughs and colds Oral Poultry Nadela,
Seed Wound Topical Ruminants IIRR,
14 Chromolaena odorata L Asteraceae Whole plant Wound Topical Swine IIRR,
15 Chrysophyllum cainito L Sapotaceae Leaf Diarrhea Oral Ruminants IIRR,
Wound and foot rot Topical
17 Citrus madurensis Lour Rutaceae Leaf Fever Topical Swine IIRR,
18 Cocos nucifera L Arecaceae Water Diarrhea Oral Ruminants IIRR,
Meat Common colds Oral Poultry Nadela,
Benth Lamiaceae Leaf Common colds Oral Poultry Nadela,
20 Curcuma domestica L Zingiberaceae Rhizome Castration wounds Topical Ruminants
L Zingiberaceae Rhizome Constipation Oral Ruminants IIRR,
Poaceae Leaf Diarrhea Oral Swine Guzman,
23 Eleusine indica L Poaceae Whole plant Infectious coryza Oral Poultry Nadela,
24 Eucalyptus globulus Labill Myrtaceae Leaf Wound Topical Poultry IIRR,
L Euphorbiaceae Leaf Common colds Oral Poultry Nadela,
Blanco Moraceae Bark Wound Oral Ruminants IIRR,
Moraceae Leaf Udder infection Topical Swine IIRR,
Burm.fil Moraceae Leaf Infectious coryza Topical Poultry Nadela,
Leaf Fowl pox Topical Poultry Nadela,
Skin disease Topical Swine Guzman,
Merr Fabaceae Seed Spraint Oral Swine IIRR,
31 Heliotropium indicum L Heliotropiaceae Leaf Coughs and colds Oral Poultry IIRR,
32 Hibiscus rosa- sinensis L Malvaceae Leaf;
Flower Fever Topical Swine IIRR,
Forssk Convolvulaceae Leaf Constipation Oral Swine IIRR,
(L.) Lam Convolvulaceae Leaf Lack of appetite Oral Swine IIRR,
35 Jasminum sambac (L.) Oleaceae Flower Eye disease Topical Ruminants IIRR,
Fabaceae Leaf Common colds Oral Poultry Nadela,
Fabaceae Leaf Diarrhea Oral Swine Guzman,
L Lamiaceae Leaf Coughs and colds Oral Poultry Simborio et al, 2016
Root Diarrhea Oral Ruminants IIRR,
Leaf Anemia in piglets Oral Swine IIRR,
Fruit Common colds Oral Poultry Nadela,
Lam Moringaceae Leaf Wound Topical Ruminants IIRR,
Anemia in piglets Oral Swine IIRR,
Infectious coryza Oral Poultry Nadela,
42 Musa spp Musaceae Leaf Bloat Oral Ruminants IIRR,
& Swine Blossom Constipation Oral Ruminants
Leaf Diarrhea Oral Swine Guzman,
43 Nicotiana tabacum L Solanaceae Leaf Udder infection Topical Swine IIRR,
44 Ocimum Lamiaceae Leaf Common Topical; Poultry Nadela, basilicum L Infectious coryza Oral 2020
45 Origanum vulgare L Lamiaceae Leaf Common colds Oral Poultry Nadela,
Mill Lauraceae Leaf Wound and foot rot Topical Ruminants IIRR,
47 Piper betle L Piperaceae Leaf Udder infection Topical Swine IIRR,
48 Piper negrum L Piperaceae Seed Fowl pox;
49 Plectranthus scutellarioides L Lamiaceae Leaf Coughs and colds Oral Poultry Simborio et al, 2016
L Myrtaceae Leaf Diarrhea Oral Ruminants IIRR,
Udder infection Topical Swine IIRR,
C Presl Smilacaceae Leaf Soft tissue inflammatio n
Topical All animals Simborio et al, 2016
53 Solanum diphyllum L Solanaceae Fruit Infectious coryza;
Common colds and other ailments
54 Solanum lycopersicum L Solanaceae Fruit Common colds Oral Poultry Nadela,
55 Solanum melongena L Solanaceae Leaf Common colds Oral Poultry Nadela,
56 Spondias pinnata Anacardiaceae Whole Wound Topical Swine IIRR,
Based on the reviewed literature, it showed that leaf (53.79%) was the most used plant part for ethnoveterinary medicine preparation followed by seed (11.36%), fruit (8.33%), bark (5.3%), root (4.55%), stem (3.79%), both flower and whole plant (3.03%), rhizome (2.27%) and others Application and administration of ethnoveterinary medicine were mostly done orally (60%) in the form of decoction, extract, fodder, or another oral form of usage. Topical (34%) application was also practiced in the form of poultice, extracts,
Leaf Coughs and colds Oral Poultry IIRR,
Verbenaceae Leaf Udder infection Topical Swine IIRR,
58 Symphytum officinale L Boraginaceae Leaf Spraint Topical Ruminants IIRR,
59 Tamarindus indica L Fabaceae Leaf Coughs and colds Oral Ruminants IIRR,
60 Tinospora rumphii Boerl Menispermaceae Stem Coughs and colds Oral Poultry Nadela,
Apiaceae Seed Lack of appetite Oral Swine IIRR,
62 Vitex negundo L Lamiaceae Leaf Wound Topical Poultry IIRR,
Coughs and colds Topical Nadela,
63 Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae Rhizome Fowl pox Topical Poultry Nadela,
2020 pastes, or ground and mixed with other ingredients Another method used to evict ectoparasites from animals was the burning of leaves (4%) and both the putting of leaves in the cage or nest and the hanging of bouquets (2%) For example, Artocarpus odoratissimus Blanco and Trema oreintalis (L.) Blume (Nadela, 2020) were put in the cage or in the nesting area; Vitex negundo L. (IIRR, 1994) was burned; andCymbopogon citratus(DC.) Stapf (IIRR, 1994; Nadela, 2020) was hung, for the purpose of eliminating ectoparasites in poultry.
Table 2.4 Common medicinal plants used as ethnoveterinary medicine against endo/ectoparasites in the Philippines.
No Plant Name Family Part(s) used Parasites treated Application Animals Citations
L Annonaceae Leaf Internal Oral Swine IIRR,
Seed Mites Topical Swine IIRR,
2 Areca catechu L Arecaceae Seed Internal Oral Ruminants IIRR,
Internal Oral Poultry Simborio et al, 2016; Ozaraga et al.,, 2017
3 Aristolochia bracteata Retz Aristolochiaceae Leaf Internal Oral Ruminants IIRR,
4 Artemisia vulgaris L Asteraceae Leaf Internal Oral Swine IIRR,
Root; Mites Topical Swine IIRR,
Moraceae Leaf Fowl mites Put as many leaves in the cage or in the nesting area once during the laying period up to the brooding stage.
6 Bixa orellana L Bixaceae Seed Internal Oral Poultry IIRR,
Leaf Internal Oral Poultry Nadela,
8 Carica papaya L Caricaceae Seed Internal Oral Ruminants IIRR,
(L.) Miq Piperaceae Leaf Internal Oral Poultry Nadela,
11 Chrysanthemum indicum L Asteraceae Leaf Mites Topical Swine IIRR,
12 Chrysophyllum cainito L Sapotaceae Leaf Internal Oral Ruminants IIRR,
Fowl mites Hang a bouquet in the poultry house.
Oleaceae Whole plant Ticks; Lice;
Fowl mites Burn the fresh, whole plant near or under the poultry house so the smoke goes
Meliaceae Seed Internal Oral Poultry IIRR,
Fabaceae Seed Internal Oral Swine IIRR,
1994; Guzman, 2015; Beltran et al, 2019; Nadela, 2020
L Meliaceae Leaf Mites Topical Ruminants IIRR,
L Fabaceae Leaf Internal Oral Ruminants IIRR,
20 Momordica charantia L Cucurbitaceae Leaf Internal Oral Swine IIRR,
L Rubiaceae Fruit Internal Oral Ruminants IIRR,
Lam Moringaceae Seed Internal Oral Swine IIRR,
Leaf Fowl mites Topical Poultry Nadela,
23 Nicotiana tabacum L Solanaceae Leaf Ticks; Lice;
Fowl mites Burn the leaves of the plant near or under the poultry house so the smoke goes into the house.
Fowl mites Hang a bouquet in the poultry house
Apocynaceae Bark Internal Oral Swine IIRR,
26 Premna odorata Lamiaceae Leaf Lice Topical Swine IIRR,
It reveals that medicinal plants assessed for ethnoveterinary medicine were predominantly used in swine, which accounted for 39% of the plant species,
Fowl mites Burn the dry leaves of plants near or under the poultry house so the smoke goes into the house.
Seed Internal Oral Poultry IIRR,
(L.fil.) Kurz Anacardiaceae Leaf Internal Oral Swine IIRR,
Bark Internal Oral Swine IIRR,
Menispermaceae Stem Internal Oral All animals Simborio et al, 2016;
31 Tinospora rumphii Boerl Menispermaceae Vine Internal Oral Ruminants IIRR,
32 Tinospora spp Menispermaceae All parts Mites Topical Swine IIRR,
(L.) Blume Cannabaceae Leaf Fowl mites Put as many leaves in the cage or in the nest to evict fowl mites.
34 Vitex negundo L Lamiaceae Leaf Ticks; Lice;
Fowl mites Burn the dry leaves of the plant near or under the poultry house so the smoke goes into the house.
1994 followed by poultry, which accounted for 35% Ruminants were the animals that used medicinal plants the least, accounting for only 26%.
Many countries employed medicinal plants to cure livestock ailments and maintain farm animal health, which is critical for livestock and poultry farmer.Furthermore, the high expense of contemporary healthcare and livestock vaccines has pushed the use of plant-based ethnoveterinary medicine for livestock healthcare(Hoareau & DaSilva, 1999) In this review, medicinal plants for ethnoverinary medicine were documented from the practitioners who were poultry farmers fromDavao Region (Nadela, 2020), livestock farmers from Bukidnon (Simborio et al.,2016), swine raisers from Western Leyte, indigenous people (Ayta) from Bataan(Tantengco, 2018), and swine and goat raisers from Isabela (Guzman, 2015) They are mostly the small-scale farmers.
METHODOLOGY
Study Areas
Figure 3.1 Location map of the study areas (a) Map of Misamis Occidental in Mindanao, Philippines; (b) Barangay Hall of Mialen; (c) Barangay Hall of Sebucal; (d) Visitor Center of Barangay Lake Duminagat; and (e) Barangay Hall of Liboron
The province of Misamis Occidedntal is situated near the narrow strip of land that connects northwestern Mindanao to the island's north central part, and is bounded on the northeast by the Mindanao Sea, on the east by the Iligan Bay, on the southeast by Panguil Bay, and on the west by Zamboanga Del Norte and Sur Because three of its boundaries are bodies of water, water life is one of its natural resources Except for along the coast, the provincial a b c d e border The province is located in the east longitude range of 23033'00" to 123051'50" and the north latitude range of 8001'15" to 8040'15" The province covers 205,522 hectares, accounting for 0.65% of the total land area in the Philippines.
The province of Misamis Occidental has two types of agro-climatic zones Type A is wet, with rainfall of 2,500 mm or more and a slight dry season moisture deficit This category includes the Malindang range and other highland areas Type B is moist, with 2,500 mm of rainfall and a moderate dry season moisture deficit This category includes the province's lower and coastal areas The province economy is primarily agricultural, with croplands covering 118, 933 hectares, or 61.33 percent of total land area Food crops occupied 13,861 has, or 11.65 percent of total cropland, while commercial crops occupied 105, 072 has, or 88.35 percent (Provincial Government of Misamis Occidental, 2015).
3.1.2 Oroquieta City: Brief History and Geographic Location
Layawan was the old name of Oroquieta From 1861 to 1879, the place that is presently a city was a barrio in the province of Misamis The early settlers were peddlers from Bohol They gave the place the name Layawan,which translates to "place of many stray animals," because most of the native animals can be seen along the river After a couple of years, the province ofMisamis had been divided into two provinces: Misamis Occidental andMisamis Oriental Through that division, Layawan became a town of
Misamis Occidental in 1880, and the name of the place was changed to Oroquieta Some folks say that the place was named after the famous barrio in Spain where Father Toas Tomas Casado, the first parish priest, and General Domingo Mariones y Murillo, a hero in the battle of Oroquieta, were born. After a long period of development, Oroquieta eventually became the capital of the province of Misamis Occidental on January 6, 1930 People from several adjacent provinces moved in to live, where they engaged in enterprises like farming, fishing, merchandising, and other forms of business (City Government of Oroquieta, n.d.).
Oroquieta City is located roughly at 8° 29' North and 123° 48' East on the island of Mindanao At these coordinates, the elevation is estimated to be7.8 meters (25.5 feet) above mean sea level (PhilAtlas, 2023) The city has a total land area of 26 393.46 hectares, primarily comprised of the mountain barangays which includes Barangay Mialen and Sebucal (City Government ofOroquieta, n.d.).
3.1.3 Don Victoriano Chiongbian: Brief History and Geographic
The entirety of the municipality of Don Victoriano is situated within
Mt Malindang Range Natural Park Under the Marcos regime, the municipality was created and named Don Mariano Marcos on February 6,
1982, by virtue of Batas Pambansa Blg (Republic Act No.) 171 However, the name Don Mariano Marcos was changed to Don Victoriano in honor of Don Victoriano Chiongbian, the richest and most influential person in the place, on January 20, 1990, by virtue of R.A 6845 The town is comprised of
11 barangays that were once located in several municipalities in the lowland areas in the east, i.e., towards the coast: Barangay Petianan was under the control of the municipality of Bonifacio; barangays Bag-ong Clarin, Lampasan, Lalud, Tuno, and Mara-mara were previously under the jurisdiction of the municipality of Tudela; Barangay Lake Duminagat was once under the jurisdiction of the municipality of Jimenez; and barangays Mansawan, Gandawan, Napangan, and Liboron were previously under the municipality of Sinacaban Baranagy Tuno is the seat of the municipal government of Don Victoriano(Cali et al., 1999).
The municipality of Don Victoriano Chiongbian is located roughly8° 15' North, 123° 34' East, in the island of Mindanao At these coordinates,the elevation is estimated at 809.4 meters or 2,654.8 feet above mean sea level (PhilAtlas, 2023) This landlocked municipality has the most land area, accounting for 16.22 percent of the total area of the province of Misamis Occidental (Provincial Government of Misamis Occidental, 2015).
Figure 3.3 Municipal Hall of Don Victoriano Chiongbian
Participatory Approach
In a collaborative decision-making process, participatory approaches promote actively involving stakeholders, including residents, government officials,and experts This includes participation in the design, execution, and evaluation of a specific topic (Slocum, 2003) In the current study, direct stakeholders were theMayors from the two local government units, the Municipality of Don Victoriano and the City of Oroquieta; chairmen from four barangays; farmer-leaders and local farmers; local government offices, such as the Provincial Agriculture Office andProvincial Veterinary Office of Misamis Occidental; the City Agriculture Office ofOroquieta City; and the Municipal Agriculture Office, where coordination and collaboration were done prior to and subsequent to the conduct of the study.
Selection of Key Informants
These local farmers of Misamis Occidental were selected based on the familiarity and availability of contact persons in the identified research areas. Additionally, the research areas were chosen because they were home to a population whose primary source of income is farming On the other hand, key informants were chosen based on purposive and snowball sampling Through the consultation of the Barangay Chairmen and the farmer-leaders of the study areas, seek recommendations in selecting the most informative and experienced individuals as key informants Furthermore, the selection of key informants was made based on the farmers' traditional knowledge of farming and ethnoveterinary medicine.
Rationale for Qualitative and Quantitative Method
In order to effectively capture the perception of the local farmers in Misamis Occidental and comprehend their ethnoscience related to regenerative agriculture, this research used a qualitative method In this research, which aims to create and reflect a holistic picture of the ethnoscience of the local farmers, a qualitative research design is an appropriate method.
Particularly when dealing with the local farmers, who were studied in their natural locations, ethnographic approaches were used The local farmers in each research area (Oroquieta City and Don Victoriano Chiongbian) were investigated for four months of intensive fieldwork, immersion, observation, and field note-taking.
The methods for gathering the data were flexible That is, they were determined by the field conditions and frequently entailed a contextual response to the lived realities that unexpectedly surfaced during the field work.
On the other hand, a quantitative method was also employed in this research,specifically in the ethnoveterinary practices of the local farmers Through the use of these methods, the researcher served as the primary instrument for data gathering necessary for understanding the ethnoscience of the local farmers in MisamisOccidental The local employees of the respective agriculture offices of the Local governments in the two areas serve as research assistants.
Research Tools
Data for the research were gathered using the following research tools:
3.5.1 Questionnaire for the Socio-demographic Profile of the key informants
Part of the prepared semi-structured questionnaire was the questions regarding the demographic profile of the respondents The questions included in this portion were the name of the respondents (optional), age, birthday, gender, educational attainment, annual family income, primary occupation, number of years of farming, and ethnicity.
3.5.2 Notebook and ballpoint pens, smart phone and iPad
These tools were used to jot down notes all throughout the interview with the key informants and also during the focus group discussion These instruments were necessary for the research done, and they were always brought and used by the researcher throughout the survey.
During the interview with the key informants, participants and research area observation, and focus group discussion, audio recordings, and photo documentation were taken with the permission of all the participants, and this activity was done with the researcher's smartphone.
This tool was also used during the interview This was used when the researcher was using the soft copy of the survey questionnaire saved in this tool.
3.5.3 Semi-structured Questionnaire for Interview
Semi-structured interviews are the most popular type of interview employed in qualitative research (Holloway and Wheeler 2010) The researcher has the opportunity to ask additional questions in response to the prepared questions To gather comparable types of data from all participants and establish a sense of order, an interview guide is developed (David and Sutton 2004, Bridges et al., 2008, Holloway and Wheeler 2010) The interview is flexible, with open-ended questions and an opportunity to discuss any issues that arise spontaneously (Berg, 2009; Ryan et al., 2013).
In the present study, this tool was used during the interview with the key informants and focus group discussions Generally, the questions written in this tool were in the local dialect, Bisaya, to make them easy for the key informants to understand However, English was also written as its translation.
In the questionnaire, the name of the sponsors, the title of the research, its objectives, and information in regards to the importance of the participation of the respondents as well as the research purpose were written This was done in order for the participants to be well-informed before participating in the research The first part of the questionnaire contains questions regarding the ethnoagricultural practices, and the second part contains questions regarding the ethnoveterinary medicinal practices of the local farmers.
Data Gathering
In gathering the data on ethnoscience for regenerative agriculture of the local farmers of Misamis Occidental, a variety of techniques were used The techniques that were used included the semi-structured interviews, focus group workshops in the barangays, and participants and research area observation Additionally, record and manuscript data were gathered such as published academic and consulting work, internal records from governmental and non-governmental organizations, and policy documents.
3.6.1 Entry Protocol, Ethical Consideration and Community Immersion
Prior to the conduct of actual interviews, focus group discussions,fieldwork, and documentation in the selected barangays of the City of
Oroquieta, and the Municipality of Don Victoriano Chiongbian, the work involved consents and certification A consultative assembly was held in coordination with the city and municipal agriculturists of Misamis Occidental to discuss the purely scientific research intent In order to secure permission from the local chief executives, letters were written and sent through their respective agriculture offices A courtesy visit to the mayors of the research areas was also conducted with the assistance of the city agriculturist of Oroquieta and the municipal agriculturist of Don Victoriano to properly explain the purpose of the research.
During the actual visit to all four selected barangays, a barangay meeting was held in each barangay, which was attended by the political leaders, farmers leaders, selected members of the farmers’ association, and other community members Through the barangay meeting, the researcher expressed the sole purpose of his stay in their respective barangays and the possible significant contribution of the research to them Moreover, through this, orientation and familiarization of the topic with the informants and the development of rapport and establishment acquaintances were made.
Before starting every interview, each informant was given an explanation regarding the research and its purpose and asked if he or she was willing and consenting to take part in the research Informants were guaranteed sensitive ethical issues such as data confidentiality, informant anonymity, and respect for their rights and values They were also well informed regarding the researcher's stay in their barangay to conduct field interviews, area observations, documentation and interactions with the participants Furthermore, an explanation was expressed regarding the statements and interpretations collected during the interview and focus group discussion that participants had access to or were made available to them The participants were guaranteed the transparency of information and data Note taking and photo, audio and video documentation were done as well with permission.
Additionally, informal interviews were conducted with respondents during lengthy walks, meal preparation, and group meals to gather much information The researcher also encouraged the key respondents during the conversations (formal and informal interviews) and focus group discussions to share their stories and speak openly about historical events and relevant issues and concerns, such as the plants they used as medicine for their animals and other purposes, their traditional practices and beliefs, their experiences, and their observations of their environment towards their agricultural activities.
3.6.2 Pilot Interview for Questionnaire Validation
This method was applied to twenty five (25) local farmers who were not included in the evaluation of the main interview The farmer-leader and the committee Chairman on agriculture in each barangay validated the semi- structured survey questionnaire including the questionnaire on the demographic profile of the respondents and the observation checklist This was conducted as the definitive interview of the research and deliberately asked the participants for their feedback on the questions written in the questionnaires and the clarity of the content This was the basis for the adjustment and revision of such tools.
A Interview with the Key Informants
The convenience, availability, and consent of the key informants were taken into consideration while determining the time of the interview A total of forty five (45) key informants from the selected barangays underwent in- depth, semi-structured interviews to determine their traditional practices for regenerative agriculture Local dialect, Bisaya, was used in the entire interview During the interview process, each key informant was visited at their house for a one-on-one interview However, those key informants who were not available at their houses were invited to the barangay hall to have the interview All key informants were interviewed using a prepared semi- structured questionnaire They were as well interviewed regarding personal profile such as name (optional), age, birthday, gender, educational attainment,annual family income, primary occupation, and number of years of farming.Audio recordings and photo documentation using smart phone were taken with the permission from the key informants All throughout the interview, the researcher was accompanied by one barangay official and/or one farmer- leader.
B Participant and Research Area Observation
In this technique, the researcher observed the practices, activities, and methods the local farmers applied to their agricultural production and the methods they used in preparing medicinal plants for their animals To get actual data, the researcher immersed himself in the local farmers in their area, especially in their houses and farmland A copy of the available documents from the local farmers, with their permission, in relation to the objectives of the research was also checked and taken.
There were four focus group discussions (FGD) conducted with the assistance of the political leaders, especially the Chairmen of the studied barangays and their respective farmer-leaders Each FGD was attended by 15 participants, consisting of the Barangay Chairman, farmer-leaders, and members of farmers' organizations whose ages ranged from 27 to 70, most of whom were women.
FGD was carried out by deliberating over the information that had been gathered, while also defining a few terms, amending the data that had been gathered, and providing more information The FGDs were held as a semi- formal discussion where the research acted as the interviewer and observer while the moderators were the Barangay Chairmen and the farmer-leaders.With the permission from the group, audio recordings and photo documentation using smartphone were taken as well The length of the FGDs was adjustable and depended on everyone's agreement until the concerns and discussion topics were settled.
Documentation and Identification of Medicinal Plants, Crops,
The documentation through taking a photo of each medicinal plant mentioned by the respondents for the treatment of their animals during the interviews was done at the end of each fieldwork day after all the respondents were interviewed The plants were photographed one by one, and all the details of each plant, such as its local name in Bisaya, date of documentation, location where it was found, habitat, height, and spread, the characteristics of the arrangement of its leaves and flowers, as well as the characteristics of its stem and bark, and many other details, were noted. The details and the photos of each plant were collected to be used in the identification of its scientific name and family classification.
Furthermore, for the accepted identification of the scientific name and the family classification of each medicinal plant species used for the ethnoveterinary practices of the local farmers were done using the data base available online such asCO’s Digital Flora of the Philippines (2011), International Plant Names Index(2023), World Flora Online (2022), and Plants of the World Online (2023) This process was validated by a botanist from the University of Santo Tomas, Philippines.
On the other hand, the data base that is also available online, specifically theIntegrated Taxonomic Information System (2023), was used to identify the scientific names of the crops and farm animals cited by the key informants and observed by the researcher in the studied areas A licensed Agriculturist and a licensedVeterinarian served as validators for this procedure.
Data Analysis
The ethnoscience method was used in this research, which tries to identify the structural underpinnings of culture through the use of ethnographic data analysis The primary goal of ethnoscientists is to comprehend how a particular community or group of people view and organize their environment using their native language (Howard and Dunaif-Hattis, 1992) In this research, a variety of different tools were employed to analyze the collected data Data preparation for analysis involved using verbatim transcript of each individual interview and focus group meeting The farmer-leaders as key informants triangulated the verbatim transcript The process of analyzing the data was eclectic, using text analysis, and descriptive and thematic analysis To relate and describe the traditional practices of the local farmers of the study areas, thematic analysis was used.
Spradley (1980), as cited by Creswell (1994), proposed methods for ethnographic techniques for analyzing data These comprise a domain analysis, a developing taxonomy, a componential analysis, and a thematic analysis These instance, domain analysis was used to look for a semantic relationship in the data, such as the specific types of ethnofarming practices used by local farmers with regard to their cultural management, seed selection, and others For developing a taxonomy, by making either a branch diagram, a content outline, or a tabular form, the listed data or the included terms in the domain according to sub-categories were grouped In regards to the componential analysis, citing the components indicates what the interviewees actually said about the various sub-categories of the listed items in the domain Direct quotes from the interviewees were used to present the data.
On the one hand, the qualitative analysis involved segmenting the data into relevant categories Taking notes in the fieldwork notebook during the data collection averted the loss of numerous important impressions, spontaneous ideas,evaluations, solutions, and thoughts A reflective notebook was also updated at the end of each fieldwork day to reflect on the day's activities, the quality of the data gathered, the development of the research, and any possibility of personal biases(Son et al., 2020) The Kingsoft WPS Office (2022) was used for data management and statistical functions and to construct frequency graphs For summarizing the results, counts, percentages, means, and charts were used as well (Son andKingsbury, 2019).
Use of Relative Frequency of Citation
Each species of medicinal plant in the area was assessed using relative frequency of citation (RFC) index for its therapeutic and traditional uses (Rahman et al., 2016) To calculate this index, the following formula was used: RFC = FC/N,where FC (frequency of citation) is the number of key informants who mentioned the medicinal plants, and N is the total number of key informants FC designated the most popular or widely utilized species of medicinal plant Nonetheless, RFC assigns a value between 0 and 1 to each plant species in the research area based on its traditional importance, with the most important species having values closer to 1(Daper et al 2020;Vitalini et al., 2012)
Assessment of Conservation Status and Level of Endemicity
The COs’ Digital Flora of the Philippines, or CDFP (2011), as well as the Philippine Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order
No 2017-11 (DENR-DAO 2017-11), were the primary basis for assessing the conservation status and the level of endemicity of medicinal plants used for ethnomedicinal practices by the local farmers in Misamis Occidental Moreover, the international data from the IUCN (2022) was also considered Besides, secondary data from published papers, such as peer reviews, articles, journals, data from theMunicipal and City Agriculture Offices of the selected research areas were used.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Ethnoagricultural Practices of Local Farmers
Based on the order of the issues covered in the interview guide questionnaire, data regarding the ethnoagriculture of the local farmers is presented Starting with the farming practices of the local farmers and followed by the environmental issues that the local farmers face and how they impact their agricultural practices, the presentation is organized.
4.2.1 Kinds of crops cultivated by the local farmers
There are varieties of crops being cultivated by the local farmers ofMisamis Occidental (Table 4.2) In Brgy Liboron and Brgy Duminagat, Don cash crops like spring onions, bok choy, and chayote, are grown for profit. Besides, calla lily flowers are being sold to nearby provinces to add to their income One key informant stated that“Nagtanom mi og mga utanon sama sa cabbage, pechay, sibuyas dahunan og sayote kay ron makakwarta mi Ang straberry pud, ginabaligya na namo para dugang income.” (We planted vegetables such as cabbage, pechay, spring onions and chayote so that we could make money We are also selling strawberries to increase income.)
However, in Brgy Sebucal and Brgy Mialen, Oroquieta City, rice,corn, coconut, malanga, and abaca are the main sources of income for the local farmers Anthurium flowers were also sold for profit As mentioned by one key informant, "Ang among panginabuhian diri sa among baranagay mao ang pagpananom og abaca Gikan dinhi sa among barangay, among dad-on ang among produkto didto sa Barangay Mansawan sa DonVictoriano kay didto ibaligya." (Our livelihood here in our barangay is the cultivation of abaca From here in our barangay, we will take our product toBarangay Mansawan in Don Victoriano to be sold there) Another key informant reported, “Adunay mga tag-iya sa mga flower shop sa sentro nga moanhi dinhi sa amoa aron mamalit og mga bulak sa Anthurium… Gibaligya gyud namo ang mga bulak ngadto kanila aron makakuwarta mi.” (There were owners of the flower shops in the city center who come here to purchase
Anthurium flowers… We actually sell the flowers to them so we can make money.)
On the other hand, most of the harvested fruits such as jackfruit, durian, mangosteen, lanzones, hairy lychee, guava, and avocado, as well as other vegetables were not sold but for domestic consumption.
Table 4.2 List of crops and flowers cultivated by the local farmers.
Scientific name Local name English Name
Allium cepaL ₅ Sibuyas dahon Spring onion
Brassica rapaL.₅ Petsay Bok choy
Capsicum frutescensL ₅ Siling labuyo Wild chili
Colocasia esculenta(L.) Schott ₅ Gabi Taro
Ipomoea batatas(L.) Lam ₅ Kamoteng balagon Sweet potato
Manihot esculentaCrantz₅ Kamoteng kahoy Cassava
Musa acuminataColla ₅ Saging tundan Latundan banana
Nephelium lappaceumL ₃,₄ Rambutan Hairy lychee
Sechium edule(Jacq.) Sw ₁,₂,₃ Sayote Chayote
Vigna radiata(L.) R.Wilczek₅ Munggos Mung bean
Xanthosoma sagittifolium(L.) Schott ₅ Lutya Malanga
Note: Kinds of crops and flowers cultivated in: ₁Brgy Liboron; ₂Brgy Lake Duminagat; ₃Brgy Sebucal; ₄Brgy Mialen; and ₅All Barangays
4.2.2 Kinds of farm animals raised by the local farmers
The farm animals available in the study areas are listed in Table 4.3.Primarily, duck and chicken are raised for domestic consumption However,swine and goats are raised for food for special occasions While cattle are raised for profit, buffalo and horse are utilized for farming activities especially for land cultivation and hauling of agricultural products.
Table 4.3 List of animals raised by the local farmers.
Scientific name Local name English name
4.2.3 Farming Practices of the Local Farmers
In the case of the local farmers in the study areas, container gardening is practiced already for decade of years “Sauna hangtud karon, ang among uban utanon, sama sa sibuyas dahon o petsay, amo nang itanom sa mga lata o kaha sa sako sa semento aron dili kaayo mi mahago sa pagtangtang ug mga sagbot Kini nga paagi, dili nami magproblema kaayo sa mga sagbot nga motubo sa palibot Naa man gali mutubo nga sagbot, dali ra kaayo malimpuyahan ang tanom.” (Even before until now, our other vegetables, such as spring onion or bok choy, we plant them in empty cans or empty cement sacks so that we don't have to work hard to remove weeds In this way, we don't have to worry too much about weeds growing around the crops If there will be weeds growing, it can be easily removed.)
As observed in Brgy Lake Duminagat, some of the local farmers who are growing Fragaria vesca L or strawberries are practicing container gardening Producing such a crop through this practice was done to maximize the space of production and to manage the weeds that would undoubtedly grow alongside the crop.
Figure 4.1 Container gardening of Fragaria vesca L practiced in Brgy Lake
According to Sweetser (2022), container gardening also allows you to have much more control over your plants With the correct amount of nutrients, you can have a perfect growing medium You'll have fewer weeds, if not none, and you'll be able to simplify your gardening responsibilities.Harvesting is considerably cleaner and simpler However, Neal (2022) believes that this practice has its disadvantages as well Not all plants can be grown in containers Different plants have different space requirements Big plants can’t be grown in small containers Aside from that, the drainage system for a certain container is also vital for stocking different types of plants that require different amounts of water.
Table 4.4 Farming practices of the local farmers in Misamis Occidental, Philippines.
Description as decribed by the key informants
Reason why it is practiced Species used in practice
Container gardening Planting of crops in the containers instead of planting them in the ground.
Free-range farming Raising animals in an open space Animals can freely roam outside and are not confined in a cage or pen 24 hours a day.
Intercropping More than one crop is being planted or grown simultaneously on the same plot of land at the same time.
To maximze the production area;
Clearing of land through cutting down and burning trees and grass in an area to plant crops
To fertilize the soil from the ashes;
To eliminate weeds and pest;
To easily clear the land with less labor needed
Mulching Covering the plot with materials like plastic mulch for planting
To supress the growth of weeds; and
Pasture farming Livestock are fed by forage or natural feeds outside during day time.
Forage are available in the areas; and
Bos indicusL., Bubalus bubalis L., Capra hircus L., andEquus caballus L.
Use of plants, and plant extracts, and mechanical techniques for pest and disease prevention and control.
To prevent and control the pests and diseases
Use of medicinal plants in treating animal diseases and health problems.
To treat animal diseases and health
Use of fertilizers and pesticides
Farmers are applying fertilizers to their crop production.
For the sufficient growth of the crop, and For high yields
Zerotillage Planting crops without disturbing the land Fruit trees are for personal consumption only.
No farm machinery and equipment available in the area
Roscoe,Anthurium andraeanumLinden ex André, and
In the study area, free-range farming was practiced to save feeds, and to produce healthy animals This practice, which is implemented on poultry species such as L., and
Gallus gallusL., is practiced by the majority of the local farmers One of the key informants expressed and said,“Ang among mga manok ug pato, ginabuhian na namo kada adlaw aron makadaginot mi sa pakaon Kung wala sila nakatangkal, makapangita sila og mga pagkaon sama sa mga ulod o mga insekto sa yuta nga sila ra nga ilang makaon Tawgon lang namo sila kon mohatag na mi og feeds.” (Our chickens and ducks are raised freely every day so that we can save feeds When they were not confined, they can look for feed such as worms or insects on the ground that they can eat on their own We will only call them when we give commercial feeds.)
Another key informant said that, “Naobserbahan pud nako nga mas himsog ang mga manok nga wala nakatangakal kompara sa mga nakatangkal Dali ra magsakit ang mga nakatangkal nga mga manok.”
(I have also observed that chickens that are not confined are healthier compared to those that are confined Chickens that are confined can get diseases easily.)
Given that wild birds and free-range poultry consume insects naturally (Zuidhof et al., 2003) Some studies concluded no differences in growth performance in terms of feed intake, body weight gain, and feed conversion efficiency between control and insect-based diets(Wang et al., 2005; Oyegoke et al., 2006; Adenjii, 2007; Ijaiya & Eko,
2009) However, there were also found that incorporating insect meals into chicken diets helps improve animal growth indexes (Khatun et al., 2003; Hwangbo et al., 2009; Ballitoc & Sun, 2013) On the one hand, because the birds have access to more natural habitats and more opportunities to exhibit natural behaviors, free-range access for chickens can benefit the animal's welfare They also have greater space and environmental enrichment, which may lead to improved leg health and decreased fearfulness (Stadig et al., 2017).
This practice is done for various crops such as Allium cepa L.,
Brassica oleraceaL.,Brassica rapa L.,Capsicum frutescens L.,Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek, and Zea mays L These crops are grown simultaneously on the same plot of land at the same time to maximize the production area and to control pests and weeds that would affect the growth of a specific crop As mentioned by the key informant,
“Kada magtanom mi og repolyo, amo pud taparan og sibuyas dahon kay ang sibuyas dahon mao may makatakboy sa mga pesti o kaha motabang nga dili pestihon ang among cabbage.” (Every time we plant cabbage, we also plant spring onions along with it because the spring onions will resist the pests or they will help our cabbage to be free from pests.)
On one hand, intercropping is practiced by the local farmers to have more products to harvest Farmers can harvest one or more crops in this farming technique In return, they can sell a variety of products that could potentially give them more income As stated by one of the key informants, “Daghan mi og ma-ani nga utanon ani nga magpanguma Kay kung magtanom mi og repolyo, ubanan pud namo og tanom og sili og sibuyas dahon Ingon ani, makaani mi og repolyo, maka-ani pud mi og sili og sibuyas dahon Mas ubay-ubay among mabaligya nga produkto.” (We can harvest many types of crops with this farming practice Because when we plant cabbage, we also plant peppers and spring onions along with it In this way, we can harvest cabbage, and we can also harvest peppers, and onions In return, we can sell more products.)
Ethnoveterinary Medicinal Practices of Local Farmers
In this part, medicinal plant characteristics, their application to common animal diseases and health problems observed by the local farmers, and the assessment of the conservation status and endemicity of medicinal plants for ethnoveterinary practices are presented.
The present study documented a total of 52 plants species belonging to
47 genera and 32 families used for the ethnoveterinary medicinal practices of the local farmers, as shown in Table 4.5 & 4.6 Most of the documented medicinal plant species were trees (30.77%), followed by herbs (25.00%),shrubs (23.08%), grass, succulents, and vines (21.16%) (Figure 4.5) Due to their widespread availability, traditional healers frequently use trees and herbs as medication (Parthiban et al., 2016).
There were 10 plant parts used for the preparation of ethnoveterinary medicine These are bark (1.35%), bulb (1.35%), fruit (16.22%), leaves (56.76), nuts (4.05%), rhizome (2.70%), roots (5.41%), sap (1.35%), seeds (2.70%), and stem (8.11%), in which leaves were the plant part most frequently used, followed by fruit (Figure 4.6) The process of gathering leaves and preparing recipies from them is significantly simpler (Rehman et. al., 2022) Thus, local farmers prespared to used such plant part However, widespread leaf harvesting is crucial for plant survival, and the continuation of vital medicinal plants, and offers potential for future plant use (Panda & Mishra, 2016).
Figure 4.5 Forms of medicinal plants species used for ethnoveterinary medicine by the local farmers in Misamis Occidental, Philippines
Depending on what part is used and the mode of preparation, a plant species may be used to treat various ailments With the same mode of administration and preparation, many ethnoveterinary medicine practitioners could treat various ailments with the same plant part Accordingly, different preparation and administration techniques could be used by others to treat various ailments using the same plant component This illustrates how a plant part's capacity to treat various ailments varies depending on the ethnoveterinary medicine practitioners and the manner in which it is prepared and administered (Addo-Fordjour et al., 2008).
Similar to the study of Panda and Mishra (2016), the majority are of the plant species use for ethnoveterinary medicine were harvested from grassland areas, only a small number of them are harvested from cultivated areas This indicates that the local farmers in the study areas rely on wild sources for their supply of therapeutic plants On the other hand, the local farmers may design, test, and evolve resource use patterns, create microenterprises and markets, and establish systems for passing information down from one generation to the next based on their ethnobotanical knowledge (Arances et al., 2006).
The highest number of species recorded belonged to the families Asteraceae and Poaceae, which have five plant species utilized for ethnoveterinary medicine This is followed by Lamiaceae, Musaceae, and Solanaceae, which contributed 3 plant species each, while the families Arecaceae, Convolvuceae, Fabaceae, Malvaceae, Myrtaceae, and Zingiberaceae contributed 2 plant species each, and the remaining families only contributed 1 plant species each (Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.6 Part of medicinal plant species used for ethnoveterinary medicine by the local farmers in Misamis Occidental, Philippines
Figure 4.7 Utilization of medicinal plant species by family for ethnovertirinary medicinal practices of the local farmers in Misamis Occidental, Philippines
4.3.2 Use of Relative Frequency of Citation Index
Among the 52 ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species, Psidium guajavaL (0.96) had the highest RFC value, followed byColeus amboinicus
Lour (0.93), Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth (0.89), Blumea balsamifera
(L.) DC (0.87), and Moringa oleifera Lam (84) These are highly cited as being used to treat animal diseases and health problems To wit, the four plant species with the highest RFC were used for diarrhea in swine as well as in ruminants Besides, Psidium guajava L was also used against endoparasitic problem in ruminants On the other hand, Coleus amboinicus Lour and
Coleus scutellarioides (L.) Benth were used for common colds and Newcastle disease in poultry However, Moringa oleifera Lam was used to treat wounds in all types of animals (Table 4.5 & 4.6).
4.3.3 Common animal diseases and health problems observed
There were 13 common animal diseases and health problems observed by the local farmers in the study areas The most observed are the following:diarrhea (21.25%), wounds (16.25%), common colds (11.25%), inappetite(10.00%), endoparasitic problem (8.75%), cough (7.50%), ectoparasitic problem (7.50%), and Newcastle disease (6.25%) Other animal diseases and health problems like bloat, dehydrated, difficulty in urinating, burn, and infectious coryza were also minimally observed (Figure 4.8).
Figure 4.8 Common animal diseases and health problems observed by the local farmers in Misamis Occidental, Philippines
Of all the 13 common animal diseases and health problems observed, diarrhea could be treated using 16 plant species, while wounds and common colds could be treated using 13 species and 9 species, respectively Inappetite could be treated using eight species For endoparasitic problems, 7 plant species could be used, while cough and ectoparasitic problems could be treated using 6 species Newcastle disease in poultry could be treated using 5 species, and other animal diseases and health problems such as bloat, dehydration, difficulty urinating, burn, and infectious coryza could be treated using 1 to 2 species (Table 4.5 & 4.6).
Diarrhea incidences are observed in all types of animals However, it is mostly common in swine, especially in newly weaned piglets, as reported by the key informants Diarrhea in newly weaned piglets is common at this stage since weaning stress tends to affect the form and functionality of the small intestine in piglets, interfere with digestion and absorption, and impairs intestinal barrier function (Tang et al., 2022) Another factor that contributed to this health problem in pigs was the wet floor in the pig pen During the interview, local farmers noted that they were not aware of the effect of having a wet floor in the pen Ogundare et al (2018) confirmed that water spillage in pens is one of the most significant factors associated with an increase in diarrhea incidence in swine.
In poultry, coughs and colds are common to these species Similar to the study of Nadela (2020), the stress in the poultry species was brought on by abrupt temperature changes and frequent rain, which may be contributing factors to the high incidence of coughs and colds, which are prevalent in many respiratory disorders in poultry Meanwhile, Newcastle disease was observed as well by the local farmers in their backyard farm This disease is a serious threat to the poultry industry as well as a disease with significant economic impact (Narayanan et al., 2010) Despite this, local farmers are still complacent about their practices They don’t use vaccines to prevent this kind of disease They only rely on the herbal medicine available in their surroundings.
Figure 4.9 Utilization of medicinal plant species for ethnoveterinary medicine by animals
Medicinal plants were utilized for ethnoveterinary medicine for farm animals like horses, poultry, swine, and ruminants In the current study, it was revealed that local farmers practiced ethnoveterinary medicine and utilized most of the medicinal plants for swine (34.44%), followed by ruminants (25.56%), poultry (20.00%), and all types of animals (17.78%) However, the ethnoveterinary medicine is least practiced for horses (Figure 4.9).
Figure 4.10 Mode of administration of medicinal plant species
Ethnoveterinary medicine was applied and administered primarily orally (67.19%), either as a decoction, extract, feed, or other oral method of administration In addition, topical (32.81%) application was done through poultices, extracts, pastes, or ground components combined with other ingredients Putting of leaves in the cage to evict ectoparasites from animals is also a practice by the local farmers (Figure 4.10).
Due to their availability and abundance in the surroundings, the respondents used the aforementioned plant resources Mathias (as cited inGuzman, 2015) provided evidence to support this claim, arguing that the ethnoveterinary medicine is preferred to conventional medicine in rural areas where veterinary services are insufficient and expensive and where people must rely on local animal health systems for emergency situations because they are accessible, simple to prepare and administer, economical, effective,and environmentally friendly.
Table 4.5 List of medicinal plants used for ethnoveterinary medicine by the local farmers in Misamis
Occidental, Philippines, with their conservation status.
Scientific Name Family Name RFC ᵃPlant form Local Name ᵇPlant part Preparation ᶜMode Admi of nistrat ion
Application frequency ͩᵈDisease/ health problem treated ᵉAnimal treated
Malvaceae 0.40 Sh Alikway Le Pound leaves of the plant and place over the wounds.
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Euphorbiaceae 0.33 Sh Bologasi Le Pound the leaves of the plant and extract the juice from it.
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Acanthaceae 0.33 Sh Laguloy Le Decoct the leaves of the plant Use it as drinking water.
Or Administer once a day until it is cured.
Allium cepa L Amaryllidaceae 0.80 He Sibuyas Le Pound the leaves of the plant or squeeze them to extract the juice.
Or Administer once a day until it is cured.
Co; Cc At NA NA
Bu Chop a small part of bulb of the plant and mix it to the feeds of the animal.
Aloe vera L Asphodelaceae 0.44 He Aloe vera Le Cut the leaves of the plant into half and put them to the affected part of the animal.
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Cut the leaves of the plant into small Or Administer daily until it Co; Cc Po pieces and give them to the animal as feed is cured.
Annona muricata L Annonaceae 0.31 Tr Karnaba Le Decoct the leaves of the plant Use it as drinking water.
Or Administer once a day until it is cured.
Du Sw; Ru LC NA
Arachis hypogaea L Fabaceae 0.42 He Mani Nu Pound the leaves or nuts of the plant and apply it to the affected part of the animal.
Or Administer daily until it is cured.
Bidens pilosa L Asteraceae 0.40 He Tulay-tulay Le; Ro Decoct either the leaves or the roots of the plant and give the mixture to the animal as drinking water.
Or Administer twice a day (morning and afternoon) until it is cured.
Asteraceae 0.87 Sh Gabon Le Pound or squeeze the leaves to extract the juice.
Or Administer twice a day until it is cured.
Solanaceae 0.18 Sh Katayubong Le Crush the leaves of the plant and apply it to the affected part of the animal.
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Wo Sw; Ru EW NA
Le Pound the leaves of the plant and extract the juice from it.
Or Administer once a day until it is cured.
Capsicum frutescens L Solanaceae 0.69 Sh Siling labuyo Fr Pound the fruit of the plant and apply it to the affected part of the animal
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Poaceae 0.47 Gr Amorsiko Le Pound the leaves of the plant and put them directly on the affected part of the animal.
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Rutaceae 0.51 Tr Limon Fr Pre-heat the fruit of the plant before extracting the juice.
Directly squeeze the juice into the mouth or mix in drinking water
Or Administer once a day until it is cured.
Cc Sw; Po NA NA
L Arecaceae 0.44 Tr Lubi Fr Extract the juice of the plant from its young fruit Drench it to the animal.
Or Administer once a day until it is cured.
Remove and grind the coconut meat Cc Po
Coix lacryma- jobi L Poaceae 0.33 Gr Katigbi Le; Se Decoct the leaves and the seeds of the plant and give the mixture to the animal as drinking water.
Or Administer daily until it is cured.
Lamiaceae 0.93 Sh Kalabo Le Pound the leaves of the plant and extract the juice from it.
Or Administer twice a day until it is cured.
Ncd Sw; Po NA NA
Lamiaceae 0.89 Sh Mayana Le Decoct the leaves of the plant Or Administer twice a day until it is cured.
Di Sw; Ru NA NA
Le Pound the leaves of the plant and extract the juice from it.
Araceae 0.40 He Gabi Le; St Chop the leaves a small part of bulb of the plant and mix it to the feeds of the animal.
Or Administer three times a day until it is cured.
Di Sw; Ru NA NA
Asteraceae 0.51 He Gapas-gapas Le Pound the leaves of the plant and apply it to the affected part of the animal.
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Wo Sw; Ru NA NA
L Zingiberaceae 0.44 He Turmeric Rh Pound the rhizome of the plant and feed them to the animal.
Or Administer three times a day until it is cured.
Pound the rhizome of the plant and extract the juice.
Or Administer daily until it is cured.
Dioscorea hispida Dennst Dioscoreaceae 0.31 Vi Kubong Fr Scrape the fruit of the plant, mix it with small amount of pounded Capsicum frutescens L and
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Asparagaceae 0.33 Su Tigre-tigre Le Pound the leaves of the plant or squeeze them to extract the juice Apply the extracted juice to the affected part of the animal.
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Elephantopus mollis Kunth Asteraceae 0.38 He Dila-dila Le Feed the leaves to the animal Or Administer twice a day (morning and afternoon) until it is cured.
Di Sw; Ru NA NA
Asteraceae 0.42 He Pisaw-pisaw Le Boil the leaves of the plant Use the mixture as drinking water.
Or Administer three times a day until it is cured.
Co; Cc At NA NA
Garcinia mangostana L Clusiaceae 0.53 Tr Mangostan Fr Dry the pericarp of the fruit of the plant.
Once dried, boil it and use it as drinking water.
Or Administer daily until it is cured.
Ipomoea aquatica Forssk Convolvulaceae 0.51 Vi Tangkong Le; St Feed the leaves of the plant to the animal Or Administer three times a day until it is cured.
(L.) Lam Convolvulaceae 0.64 Vi Kamoteng balagon Le Mix the leaves of the plant with the feed of the animal.
Or Administer twice a day until it is cured.
Mangifera indica L Anacardiaceae 0.53 Tr Mangga Le Boil the leaves of the plant Use the mixture as drinking water.
Or Administer three times a day until it is cured.
Ia; Di Sw; Po DD NA
Melastomataceae 0.31 Sh Hantutungaw Le Pound the leaves of the plant and extract the juice from it.
To Administer three times a day until it is cured.
Le Pound then apply directly to the affected area of the animals.
Or Administer daily until it is cured.
Moringa oleifera Lam Moringaceae 0.84 Tr Kamunggay Le Pound a handful leaves of the plant and add half a teaspoon of salt.
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Le Pound the leaves of the plant and extract the juice from it.
Or Administer twice a day until it is cured.
Colla Musaceae 0.69 Tr Saging tundan St; Fr Cut the plant stem or the fruits into small pieces and feed to the animals
Or Administer twice a day until it is cured.
Di; De Sw; Ru LC NA
Colla Musaceae 0.71 Tr Saging saba St; Fr Cut the plant stem or the fruits into small pieces and feed to the animals
Or Administer twice a day until it is cured.
Di; De Sw; Ru LC NA
Nees Musaceae 0.67 Tr Abaca St Scrape the stem of the plant and apply the scraped plant to the affected part of the animal.
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Nicotiana tabacum L Solanaceae 0.47 He Tabako Le Pound the leaves of the plant Apply the pounded leaves to the affected part of the animal.
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Wo Sw; Ru NA NA
Persea americana Mill Lauraceae 0.71 Tr Abokado Le Boil the young leaves of the plant with the leaves of Psidium guajava L.Use it as drinking water.
Or Administer daily until it is cured.
Piper betle L Piperaceae 0.51 Sh Buyo Le Pound the leaves of the plant and put them directly on the affected part of the animal.
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Wo Sw; Ru NA NA
Polygala paniculata L Polygalaceae 0.36 He Bino-bino Ro Boil the roots of the plant and give it as drinking water to the animal.
Or Administer once a day until it is cured.
Bl Sw; Ru NA NA
L Myrtaceae 0.96 Tr Bayabas Le Decoct the young leaves of the plant with the leaves of
Persea americana Mill Use it as drinking water.
Or Administer daily until it is cured.
Fr Feed the fruits of the plant to the animals.
Saccharum officinarum L Poaceae 0.56 Gr Tubo St Extract the juice from the stem of the plant and drench 1 liter of it in the animal.
Or Administer twice a day until it is cured.
(Jacq.) Sw Cucurbitaceae 0.69 Vi Sayote Sa Collect the sap of the plant, either from its leaves or fruits, and apply it to the affected part of the animal.
To Apply once a day until it is cured.
Bu Sw; Ru NA NA
Fr Use the peel of the fruit of the plant and put it on the affected part of the animal.
L Malvaceae 0.28 Sh Escoba Ro Boil the roots of the plant and give it as drinking water to the animal.
Or Administer once a day until it is cured.
Bl Sw; Ru NA NA
Myrtaceae 0.44 Tr Tambis Ba Scrape the bark and add it to 1 glass of warm water.
Or Administer once a day until it is
Co; Di; Ia Sw; Ho;
Menispermaceae 0.58 Vi Panyawan Le Extract the juice of the plant from its leaves Give it directly to the animal.
Or Administer once a day until it is cured.
E.Pritz ex Diels Urticaceae 0.29 He Alingatong Ro Decoct the roots of the plant Or Administer daily until it is cured.
Ia; Di; Cc Sw; Ru NA LC
L Lamiaceae 0.82 Sh Lagundi Le Pound the leaves to extract juice Give it directly to the animal.
Or Administer twice a day until it is cured.
Zingiberaceae 0.33 He Luy-a Rh Pound the rhizome of the plant to extract its juice or decoct them.
Use the mixture as drinking water.
Or Administer twice a day until it is cured.
Note: ᵃPlant form: Gr: Grass, He: Herb, Sh: Shrub, Su: Succulent, Tr: Tree, Vi: Vine; ᵇPlant part: Ba: Bark, Bu: Bulb, Fr: Fruit, Le: Leaves, Nu: Nuts, Rh: Rhizome, Ro: Roots, Sa: Sap, Se: Seeds, St: Stem; ᶜMode of Administration: Or: Oral, To: Topical; ᵈDisease/Health problem treated: Bl: Bloat, Bu: Burn, Cc: Common cold, Co: Cough, De: Dehydrated, Di: Diarrhea, Du: Difficulty in urinating, Ia: Inappetite, Ic: Infectious coryza, Ncd: Newcastle disease, Wo: Wounds, ᵉAnimal treated: At: All type, Ho: Horse,Po: Poutry, Sw: Swine, Ru: Ruminants; ₁IUCN, CDFP: DD: Data deficient, EW: Extinct in the wild, LC: Least concern, NA: Not assessed, NT: Near threatened.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATION
This study focused on the ethnoscience for regenerative agriculture, particularly the ethnoagriculture and ethnoveterinary medicine practiced by the local farmers in Misamis Occidental, specifically in the four upland barangays, Barangay Liboron and Lake Duminagat in the Municipality of Don Victoriano and Barangay Sebucal and Mialen in the City of Oroquieta It is expressly limited to their crop and livestock farming practices Moreover, during the study period, participants were interviewed in their natural setting and availability The use of questionnaires and the conduct of individual interviews, field observations, and focus group discussions were employed to gather the necessary data for the study, wherein the collected data were meticulously and in-depth evaluated utilizing thematic analysis through hand analysis in narrative and descriptive forms.
Online databases such as CO’s Digital Flora of the Philippines (2011), theInternational Plant Names Index (2023), World Flora Online (2022), Plants of theWorld Online (2023), and the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (2023) were also used to identify the correct and accepted scientific names and family names of the crops and animal species, as well as the medicinal plant species used by local farmers in their ethnoagriculture and ethnoveterinary practices For the assessment of the conservation status and endemicity of the medicinal plants species,COs’ Digital Flora of the Philippines (2011), Philippine Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Order No 2017-11 (DENR-DAO 2017-11) and the international online data from the IUCN (2022) were used as the primary basis Experts, including a botanist from the University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines, and licensed veterinarians and agriculturists from Misamis Occidental, were consulted for the validation of the results.
There were various crops and some flowers cultivated by the local famers in the study areas However, Allium cepa L., Brassica oleracea L., Brassica rapa L.,
Capsicum frutescens L., Cocos nucifera L., Fragaria vesca L., Musa acuminata
Colla, Musa textilis Nees, Oryza sativa L., Zea mays L., and Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott and flowers like Anthurium andraeanum Linden ex André and Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Spreng were the major sources of income for the local farmers Fruits trees were cultivated primarily for domestic family consumption.
On the one hand, animals such as Bubalus bubalis L and Equus caballus L were raised and utilized to cultivate the land for the production and hauling of agricultural products While Anas platyrhynchos L., Bos indicus L., Capra hircus L., and Gallus gallusL.were raised for family food consumption.
These crops, flowers, and animals were utilized for the farming practices employed by the local farmers in their farms, such as container gardening, free-range farming, intercropping, "kaingin"/swidden farming, mulching, pasture farming, pest and disease management, the practice of ethnoveterinary medicine, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, and zero tillage, for the purpose of harvesting more yields,preventing and controlling crops and animals from pests and diseases, as well as controlling weed growth and the conservation of water Despite having a variety of farming practices, local farmers are nevertheless impacted by environmental problems These are shifting rainfall patterns, temperature increases, pest and disease problems, and depletion of soil nutrients, which were identified by the key informants during the interview These environmental issues are the most prevalent ones affecting their farming operations.
The present study documented a total of 52 plants species belonging to 47 genera and 32 families used for the ethnoveterinary medicinal practices of the local farmers Most of the documented medicinal plant species were trees, followed by herbs, shrubs, grass, succulents, and vines There were 10 plant parts used for the preparation of ethnoveterinary medicine These are bark, bulb, fruit, leaves, nuts, rhizome, roots, sap, seeds, and stem, in which leaves were the plant part most frequently used The highest number of species recorded belonged to the families Asteraceae and Poaceae Hence, Psidium guajava L had the highest RFC value. There were 13 common animal diseases and health problems observed by the local farmers in the study areas The most observed animal health problem is diarrhea which could be treated using 16 different plant species These medicinal plants were utilized for farm animals like horses, poultry, swine, and ruminants However, it was revealed that local farmers practiced ethnoveterinary medicine and utilized mostly in swine Ethnoveterinary medicine was used and given orally, either as a decoction, ex tract, or feed.
Poultices, extracts, pastes, or powdered substances combined with additional ingredi
Medicinal plant species were utilized in the area due to their abundance and availability Based on the IUCN (2022) database, most of the plant species identified in the study areas were not assessed for their conservation status On the other hand, CDFP (2011) revealed two (2) plant species under the Least Concern category, namely Blumea balsamifera (L.) DC and Urtica fissa E.Pritz ex Diels However, based on DENR-DAO 2017–11, none of the plant species identified for ethnoveterinary practices by the local farmers were under threat In terms of endemicity, all plant species utilized by the local farmers for ethnoveterinary medicine are not endemic, based on CDFP (2011).
The traditional practices and knowledge of local farmers in Misamis Occidental in terms of their ethnoagriculture and ethnoveterinary practices are rich despite their low level of education They rarely employed advanced technologies in their farming operations due to their inadequate knowledge of them However, most of their farming practices show factual justification based on published scientific standards They are ethnoscientists in their own right due to the abundance and diversity of their traditional knowledge, which is vital for present agricultural development towards regenerative agriculture Hence, farmers must also consider the impact of their practices on the environment as mitigation for the environemtal issues they face On the one hand, this also revealed that the local farmers inMisamis Occidental are well knowledgeable about using medicinal plants to treat their animals However, standardization and validation of the efficacy of these treatments are needed before their recommendation for utilization Besides, farmers must be educated on the importance of conservation measures since unrestricted usage of plant-based medicines may lead to the extinction of medicinal plants.
Documentation of the traditional knowledge and practices of the local farmers contributes to the scientific records of ethnoscience, particularly for ethnoagriculture and ethnoveterinary medicine, where modern and educated individuals could benefit from these Alongside, it could serve as written evidence of their culture, which helps strengthen their identity and could be adopted by the future generation of farmers, especially those who are members of the Subanen tribe Through this, the preservation of their traditional knowledge, which is gradually disappearing due to the pressure of modernization and non-Subanen influence, could be done Thus, this must be given importance to improve their knowledge and enhance their skills on farming Moreover, this study will serve as a basis for responsible government agencies to provide appropriate interventions that could alleviate the status of the local farmers, especially the smallholders and indigenous farmers, and mitigate the problem of food insufficiency in the country.
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