research methodology for economics and business 2

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY FOR ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS

Chapter 1: OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH METHODOLOGY1.1 The nature of research

Methods = refer to techniques and procedures to obtain and analyze dataMethodology = refers to the theory of how research should be done

1.1.1 Methodology

 Methodology is the theoretical framework to support the methods chosen It is aperspective taken on the research, which dictates how it is approached.

 Examples of this are:

o Phenomenology: “Phenomenology provides us with interpretations regarding

the distinctions between the internal and external world as well as levels ofobjectivity and subjectivity.”

o Critical theory: “strands of critical theory exist in terms of criticism of

occidental complacency and that ruling elites and ideologies should bechallenged as well as greater equality and liberty sought.”

o Ethnography: “research is undertaken in the field and attempts to capture and

understand social action and the meaning of this action The researcher is notbased in a constructed setting or experiment but part of the everyday naturalsituation within those under investigation (or those involved with researchproject) exist.”

1.1.2 Methods

 Methods are the specific approach to collecting your data This could include:o Interviews

o Surveyso Focus groupso Experimentso Case studies o Observational studieso Online data collection

 Every method varies in style, so it is important that you research these beforeapplying them For example, an interview could be structured or semi-structured Asurvey could be multiple choice or long answer questions.

1.1.3 How are methods chosen?

 Every discipline uses different methods for research For example, a study on stressesstudents could be examined through focus groups in the Humanities or by trackingheartrates in the Sciences Each of these are valid but would generate different data.Sometimes a mix of methods can be used.

 When selecting methods, you should:o Do a literature review or similar studies.o Read about methods & methodologyo Speak to your supervisor

1.1.4 Methods versus Methodology

select a research technique.

Methodology is analysis of all the methods and procedures of the investigation.Methods are applied during the later stage

of the research data.

Methodologies are applied during the initial stage of the research process.

It comprises different investigation

techniques of the study It is a systematic strategy to fine solution to the research problem.Methods encompasses of carrying out

experiments, conducting surveys, tests, etc.

Methodology encompasses several techniques used while conducting these experiments, surveys, tests, etc.

1.1.5 The nature of research

People conduct research to systematically investigate things in order to enhance theirknowledge, but research is not merely collecting data.

answer to a specific problem.

1.2 Business and management research

 Management research is different from other kinds of research because it istransdisciplinary (multiple studies are involved with it) and it is a design science. Moreover, it has to be theoretically and methodologically accurate, while at the same

time being of practical relevance in the business world.

 The researcher Michael Gibbons has introduced 3 modes of knowledge creation:o Mode 1 – creating fundamental knowledge

o Mode 2 – creatin practical relevant knowledge, with emphasis oncollaboration

o Mode 3 – creating knowledge that is mainly relevant to the human condition

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 Research that only emphasizes Mode 1 ways of creating knowledge which onlyfocuses on understanding business and management processes and their outcomes iscalled basic, fundamental or pure research.

 Another type of research is called applied research where the emphasis is more on

Mode 2 In this case research is only being conducted direct relevance to managers

and is presented in ways these managers can understand and act upon.

 Pure and applied research are two extremes, in order to successfully conduct businessand management research there has to be a balance between the theoretical (Mode 1)and practical (Mode 2) part of research.

 The characteristics or pure/basic and applied science are summarized in figure 1.1

1.3 The research process

 When doing research on needs to go through several stages, usually involving:o Formulating and clarifying the research topic

o Reviewing the literatureo Designing the research o Collecting the datao Analyzing the datao Writing

 However, it is not always necessary to pass through these stages one at a time Morefrequently the stages in a research process will cross-refer to other stages, meaningthat there is no linear in the research process.

 Therefore, it’s important to have a strong research topic and to revise ideas manytimes.

Chapter 2: RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY AND ETHICS IN RESEARCH

2.1Why is philosophy important?

 The way one chooses to collect data belongs in the center of the research ‘onion’, asdisplayed below.

 The research onion depicts the aspects underlying the choice of data collectiontechniques.

2.2 Why research philosophy is important?

 A pragmatist is someone who thinks that concepts are only relevant where theysupport action.

 He believes that one philosophical position could be more likely lead to the answer tohis research question than another.

 In addition, a pragmatist also believes that it is possible to work with multiplephilosophical positions.

 According to a pragmatist, there is not one way of thinking.

 Research philosophy is a term that describes the development of knowledge and thenature of that knowledge.

 Understanding research philosophy is important because the very purpose of researchis also to develop new knowledge.

 It is not true that one philosophy is better than another, but they might be suited toachieve different things.

 Two major ways of thinking in philosophy are: ontology an epistemology. Ontology (Bản thể luận) :

o Ontology is a philosophical position that refers to the nature of reality Oneaspect of ontology is objectivism This means that things exist with a purposeindependent of those social actors concerned with their existence.

o Another aspect is subjectivism, which holds that social occurrences arecreated through the perceptions and consequent actions of the involved socialactors People who adopt a subjectivist way of thinking find it is necessary toexplore the details of a situation t o be able to understand what is going on.

o This is termed social constructionism Objectivists think that the culture of anorganization is something that an organization ‘has’ while subjectivist tend toview the culture as something an organization ‘is’.

o Management theory is leaning towards the objectivist way of thinking.

 The researcher is independent of the subject of the research, he is valueneutral (his feelings) are included in the research).

 Cyclical relationship between hypothesis testing and theoreticaldevelopment

 Quantifiable observations that lend themselves to statistical analysis.

 Realism (Chủ nghĩa hiện thực) :

o Realism claims that whatever we sense is reality: objects exist withoutconcern of the human mind Therefore, realism contradicts idealism, whichstates that only the mind and its contents exist Just like positivism, realismalso assumes a scientific approach to the development of knowledge Thereexist two kinds of realism:

 Direct realism – what you see is what you get, what we perceive andexperience with our senses displays the world in an accurate way. Critical realism – what we experience are sensations, images of

existing things in the real world, not the existing things themselves.What we experience are mere illusions.

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o There is a difference between these two kinds of realism regarding thecapacity of research to change the world.

o A direct realist would state that the world is relatively unchangeable whereas acritical realist would claim that the researcher’s understanding to that which isbeing studied could be changed Many researchers claim that what we exploreis just part of the bigger picture Thus, researchers usually adopt a criticalrealism point of view

 Interpretivism (Chủ nghĩa diễn giải) :

o Interpretivism claims that it is necessary for researchers to understand thedifferences between humans in our role as social actors.

o We interpret our daily social roles in accordance with the meaning we give tothese roles Interpretivism stems from two intellectual heritages:

 Phenomenology considers the way in which we as humans make senseof the world around us.

 Symbolic interactionism: we are all in a continual process ofinterpreting the social world we live in and we interpret the actions ofthe people that interact with us These interpretations lead toadjustments of our own meaning and actions

o It is important for a researcher to understand the world of his research subjectsand to understand the world from their point of view

 Axiology (Ch ủ nghĩa duy mỹ) :

o Axiology is a strand of philosophy that studies judgments about value.o This includes values in the fields of ethics and aesthetics.

o One’s own values play a crucial role in all stages of the research process Ourvalues are the guiding line for all our actions (Heron 1996).

 Research Paradigms (M ô hình thí nghiệm) :

o The term paradigm is frequently used in the social sciences, but it often leadsto confusion because of its many meanings.

o Here we define paradigm as a way of examining social occurrences fromwhich understandings of these phenomena can be gained and explanationsattempted

 Functionalist paradigm: frequently used in business management.

Functionalists assume that an organization is rational entities, in whichrational solutions to rational problems.

 Radical structuralist paradigm: concerned with understanding

structural patterns within organizations (hierarchies for example) andreporting relations and the extent to which these relationships mayproduce dysfunctionalities.

 Interpretive paradigm: concerned with understanding the

fundamental meanings attached to organizational life Instead ofrationalities, this one wishes to discover irrationalities In this paradigmbeing involved in the everyday activities of the organization in order tounderstand and explain what is happening is more important that to tryto change things.

 Radical humanist paradigm: this dimension adopts a critical

perspective of organizational life It emphasizes the consequences ofone’s words and deeds on others Working with paradigm one wishes tochange things

2.3 Research approaches

Three main research approaches can be adopted when conducting research: o Deductive approach

o Inductive approacho Abductive approach

2.3.1 Deductive approach

 Testing theory top-down (from theory to data).

 Deduction is the development of theory and hypotheses which are tested by using aresearch strategy.

 Deductive reasoning is done when a conclusion is logically derived from a set ofpremises (stellingen).

 The conclusion will be true when all these premises are proven to be true.

 Occurs when the conclusion is derived logically from a set of premises, theconclusion being true when all the premises are true.

 Theory and hypotheses and the design of a research strategy to test those hypotheseswhich are expressed in operational terms.

 Modifying theory in light of the findings if necessary and search to explain causalrelationships

 Owes more to positivism.

 Quantitative data and controls to allow hypothesis testing. Structured methodology to allow replication.

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 Operationalization, reductionism (problems as a whole are better understood whenthey are reduced to the simplest possible elements) and generalization.

 There are 5 stages in a deductive research:

o Step 1: Forming a hypothesis to form a theoryo Step 2: Deduce testable premises

o Step 3: Examine these premises and the logic of the argument that producedthem, relate it to existing theories.

o Step 4: Testing the premises by collecting data to measure variables orconcepts.

o Step 5: Analyze the results, if they are not consistent with the premises thetheory is false and should be rejected or modified If the results are consistentthat a new theory is formed

 There exist 3 general characterizations for deduction:

1 Reliability: Every research should use a highly structured methodology, so

that it is easy to replicate If this is the case the research is reliable

2 Concepts need to be operationalized in such a way that enables facts to be

3 Generalization

2.3.2 Inductive approach

 Building theory bottom-up (from data to theory).

 With inductive reasoning it is not true that when a set of premises are true that a clearconclusion can be formed This is because the conclusion is based on observationsmade by humans, and humans make mistakes A conclusion is therefore neverguaranteed.

 Collect data and develop a theory based on data analysis Owes more tointerpretivism Bottom-up (from data to theory) Well suited for areas about whichrelatively little is known Often based on qualitative data, concerns itself withcontext, small sample Allows alternative explanations

 Mix of induction and deduction.

 Data and theory are being moved back and forth, combining deduction and induction.Abduction begins with the observation of a surprising fact, then it works out aplausible theory of how this could have occurred These surprises can occur at anystage in the research process, including when writing your project report.

2.4 Research ethics

 Ethics refers to the standards of behavior that guide your conduct in relation to therights of those who become subject of your work or are affected by it and usually

accompanied by social norm (Saunders 2012) A social norm is an indicator of thetype of behavior an individual should adopt in a specific situation.

 Two conflicting philosophical positions have been identified regarding ethics:o Deontological view – following rules to guide researcher’s conduct When one

acts outside these rules it can never be justified.

o Teleological view – deciding whether an act is justified should be determinedby its consequences and not by predetermined rules.

 ‘Codes of ethics’ were developed to overcome ethical dilemmas arising from varioussocial norms Codes of ethics are a list of principles which outlines the nature ofethical research and a statement of ethical standards.

 Many universities have research ethics committees to ensure that research conductedby students is non-controversial and pose minimal risk to participants Researchethics committees review all research conducted by those in the institution thatinvolves human participation and personal data.

 Ethical issues associated with internet-mediated research – list of general ethicalissues associated with internet-mediated research is listed below:

o Scope for deception

o Lacking respect and causing harmo Respecting privacy

o Nature of participation and scope to withdrawo Informed consent

o Confidentiality of data and anonymity of participantso Analysis of data and reporting the findings

o Management of data

o Safety of data and reporting findings

 The term netiquette refers to ‘net etiquette’, or in other words the social standardswhich one should use online.

 Netiquette concerns the use of emails and messaging since they may be poorlyworded and may seem unfriendly or unclear to the receiver.

2.5 Ethical issues during the specific stages of the research process

 Most ethical issues can be predetermined and dealt with during the design stage of aresearch process

 One should be sure that the intended research is in line with the ethical principle ofnot causing any harm to participants.

 When seeking access, a researcher should not put any pressure on the members of anorganization, since this might be unpleasant to them.

 Ethical issues during data collection :

o Once participants or organizations have approved to take part in a research,they maintain certain rights.

o These include that they may withdraw from the research at any point theywant, and that the researcher should keep the aims of his research project thathe agreed, if this is not the case, he is deceiving the participants.

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o Moreover, a researcher should not ask of participants to participate insomething that will cause them any harm or intrude their privacy.

 Another ethical principle during the data collection stage of the research is that the

researcher should be objective and should ensure that he collects data accuratelyand fully:

o The importance of this also relates to the validity and reliability of a research.o When using observational techniques, one should avoid attempting to observe

behavior related to personal life (phone calls and etc, ), because this willcause the relationship between researcher and participant to break down.o Moreover, the issue of reactivity may raise here as well Reactivity refers to

the reaction of the participants to the researcher and their research instruments.o The solution of this problem may be to undertake a convert study so that theparticipants are not aware of the fact that they are being observed But theproblem of reactivity may diminish when participants are becoming more andmore accustomed to the researcher’s presence.

o This adaptation is referred to as habituation After observation has taken place,a researcher has to inform the participants about what has occurred and forwhat reason This is called debriefing.

 Ethical issues during the analysis and reporting stages :

o A researcher needs to maintain his objectivity in order to not misrepresent thedata he has collected.

o He should not collect that identify participants where it is not needed to do so o Confidentiality and anonymity play an important role in this stage of the

research as well.

Chapter 3: CLARIFYING THE RESEARCH TOPIC AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

3.1 Choosing a research topic

 Characteristics of a good research topic Generating and refining research ideas

 The transformation from research data to research project

3.1.1 Characteristics of a good research topic

 Before generating ideas for a research topic, it is always useful to address theassessment criteria.

 The topic of research should be something that really excites the researcher, and itshould lie within his capabilities These capabilities depend on constraints on timeand financial resources, possession of the necessary skills and access to the relevantdata

 Moreover, it is useful for a researcher to have knowledge of the literature associatedwith the topic and to be able to provide bright insights.

 It is important to have a symmetry of potential outcomes, which means that the resultwill have to be of similar value whatever you find out If this is not the case, there isa chance you find an answer of little importance.

 Also consider your career goals, consider how this research could be useful in yourfuture career

3.1.2 Generating and refining research ideas

 There are many different techniques that can be used to generate research ideas Theycan be divided into those techniques that involve rational thinking:

o Examine own strengths and interests, choose a topic in which you are likely

to do well

o Explore your own university staff research interests.

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o Analyze past project titles of your university such as dissertations (projects

from undergraduates) and theses (projects made by postgraduates)o Discuss with colleagues, friends or university tutors.

o Search through literature and media (articles in journals, books, reports).

Review articles in particular, since they contain a lot of information about aspecific topic and can therefore provide you with many ideas

…and those that are more based on creative thinking:

oNoting ideas down in a notebookoExploring preferences using past projectsoBrainstorming

oExploring relevance of an idea to business using the literature, articles may be

based on abstract ideas (conceptual thinking) or on empirical studies(collected and analyzed data)

 Most often it is a combination of these two ways of thinking that leads to a goodresearch idea:

o Refining ideas : There exist different techniques for refining research

techniques, one of which is the Delphi technique This approach requires agroup of people who are involved with or share the same interest in theresearch idea to generate and pick a more specific research idea Another wayto refine a research idea is to turns it into a research question before turning itinto a research project This is called preliminary inquiry.

o Integrating idea : The integration of the ideas from the techniques is an

important part of a research project This process includes “working up andnarrowing down”, which means that each research idea needs to be classifiedinto its area, its field, and ultimately the precise aspect into which one isinterested.

3.1.3 The transformation from research idea to research project

 Writing research questions :

o It is very important to define a clear research question at the beginning of theresearch process These may be:

 Descriptive – question usually starts with ‘When’, ‘What’, ‘Who’,‘Where’, or ‘How’

 Evaluate – question may start with ‘How effective ’ or ‘To whatextent…’

 Explanatory – question mainly starts with ‘Why’ or has this word in it.o Do not make the research question too simple or too difficult to answer.o The ‘Goldilocks test’ may be helpful to determine if a question is too big

(when it demands too many resources), too small (provides insufficient data),too hot (when it is a sensitive subject) or ‘just right’.

o It is also essential for a research question to provide new insights.

 Writing research objectives :

o Research questions can be used either to produce more detailed investigativequestions or as a starting point for research objectives.

o Writing objectives is more generally accepted as a way to specify sense anddirection in a research project than research questions This is because they aremore precise in displaying what one would like to make clear.

o Research objections operationalize the research question, which means thatthey show the steps that are required to take to answer it.

 What is theory and why is it important? :

o Theory is concerned with causality This means that it regards the effect relationship between two or more variables.

cause-and-o For example, theory explains why and how a promotion influencesemployee’s behavior Logical reasoning is essential here to explain in a clearway why this is the case.

o The role of theory is to explain the relationship between variables and to makepredictions about possible new outcomes Advising on how to take research ina certain way (Variable 1) is based on the theory that this will eventuallycreate effective results (Yield B).

o By understanding research, it is possible to collect data with which newtheories could be developed.

 A research project is designed to either test a theory or to develop a theory: Whensomeone is taking a clear theoretical standpoint and wishes to test this through thecollection of data one is using a deductive approach An inductive approach is usedwhen someone builds a theory from the collected and analyzed data.

 There exist three kinds of theories:

o Grand theories – Newton’s gravity theory, Darwin’s evolution theory, etco Middle range theories – these are significant, but they don’t change the way in

which we think like grand theories do.

o Substantive theories – focused on a particular, setting, group, or time theories.

3.2.Developing your research proposal (Writing a research outline)

 The research proposal is a structured outline of a research project.

 Making a research proposal demands that you think through what you want to do andwhy It helps you to guide the project through all of its stages.

 When producing a proposal think of these general criteria:

o Research project needs to be coherent, which means that all differentcomponents of the project need to be in relationship with each other.

o It needs to be feasible as well This means that the project should be possibleto achieve.

 Structure of a r esearch proposal :

o Title – This should summarize the research question:

o Background – This is an introduction for the reader to the problem or issue, itgives answers to the questions ‘what is going to be done’ and ‘for whatpurpose?’ The background also shows the relationship between a theory and aparticular context, and it should demonstrate the relationship between theresearch and what has been done before in this subject area.

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o Research question and objectives – the background should eventually lead to astatement of the research questions and objectives and the observableoutcomes.

o Method – This is the longest section and reveals how the research will be

conducted It consists of two parts: Research design and data collection. Research design is an overall overview of the chosen method and

provides the reason for choosing this method Here you will explain thechoice for a certain research strategy and determine an appropriate timeframe for the project.

 This section ‘data collection’ will specific how and where the data willbe collected and will explain the various analysis techniques that willbe used during the research.

o Time scale – In this section, you will divide the research into different stagesand explain how much time each stage will approximately take.

o Resources – In this fact of the proposal certain resource categories such asfinance, data access and equipment will be taken into consideration Thissection will also include the expenses that may be involved with thesecategories.

o References – This section consists of the literature sources to which you havereferred to

3.3 Critically reviewing the literature

3.3.1 What is a literature review? (Tổng quan nghiên cứu)

 A literature review is a review in which on makes reasoned judgements about thevalue of pieces of literature.

 When doing this, it is necessary to organize valuable ideas and findings. There are two kinds of reviews:

o The first kind of review goes along with the initial research for research ideas,because that’s when you browse through pieces of work and judge which onesare relevant and which ones are not (Xuất phát từ nghiên cứu ban đầu thuthập nghiên cứu liên quan tới các thành phần trong bài nghiên cứu)

o The second kind of reviews are referred to as critical reviews To be able toshow the significance of a research project, it is necessary to understand the

subject field and its concepts, ideas and key theories One is ‘critically

reviewing literature’ when one chooses those pieces of literature that are

relevant to the research (Đọc, tổng hợp và rút ra được các nhóm luận điểm/ýkiến)

3.3.2 Critical review

 A critical review should be a constructively analysis that critically develops atransparent argument about what the chosen literature tells you about a researchquestion.

 It should not simply summarize what a piece of literature is about Rather, it isnecessary to evaluate what is significant to the research project and what is not

 The goal of a critical review: