an investigation of teachers beliefs and practices of culture integration into high school english classes in ben tre province

In addition, to my knowledge, there have not been any studies exclusively investigating language teachers‟ beliefs and practices of cultural integration into English classes in Ben Tre p

BINH DUONG PROVINCIAL PEOPLE‟S COMMITTEE

THU DAU MOT UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN VAN VU HUNG

AN INVESTIGATION OF TEACHERS‟ BELIEFS AND PRACTICES OF CULTURE INTEGRATION INTO

HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH CLASSES IN BEN TRE PROVINCE

MAJOR: ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES MAJOR CODE: 8 22 02 01

MASTER THESIS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES

BINH DUONG PROVINCE, AUGUST 2023

BINH DUONG PROVINCIAL PEOPLE‟S COMMITTEE

THU DAU MOT UNIVERSITY

NGUYEN VAN VU HUNG

AN INVESTIGATION OF TEACHERS‟ BELIEFS AND PRACTICES OF CULTURE INTEGRATION INTO

HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH CLASSES IN BEN TRE PROVINCE

MAJOR: ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES MAJOR CODE: 8 22 02 01

MASTER THESIS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE STUDIES SUPERVISOR: Dr NGUYEN THUY NGA

BINH DUONG PROVINCE, AUGUST 2023

Secondly, I am very grateful to the school management board who have supported me much time to implement this thesis

My sincere thanks also go to Ms Nguyen Hong Diem Trang, my colleague, for all her help and encouragement I would like to thank the research participants who have contributed to this study

Last but not least, I warmly thank my family for their countless support, greatest sympathy and unconditional love

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I certify my authorship of the Master’s Thesis submitted today entitled:

AN INVESTIGATION OF TEACHERS‟ BELIEFS AND PRACTICES OF CULTURE INTEGRATION INTO HIGH SCHOOL ENLISH CLASSES IN BEN TRE PROVINCE

In terms of the statement of requirements for Theses in Master’s programs issued by the Higher Degree Committee of Postgraduate Institute, Thu Dau Mot University

Binh Duong, August 2023

NGUYEN VAN VU HUNG

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, NGUYEN VAN VU HUNG, being a candidate for the Master of Art degree in English language, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my Master’s Thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for the care, loan, and reproduction of the thesis

Binh Duong, August 2023 Signature

NGUYEN VAN VU HUNG

1.2 Statement of the problem 3

1.3 Rationale for the study 4

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8

2.1 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices 8

2.1.5 The importance of studying beliefs and practices 14

2.1.6 The relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and their classroom practices 16

2.2 Culture in English language teaching 17

2.2.1 Definition of „Culture‟ 17

2.2.2 Culture integration in language teaching 18

2.2.2.1 Cultural contents in Culture teaching 19

2.2.2.2 Language functions in Culture teaching 19

2.2.2.3 Learning activities in Culture teaching 19

2.2.2.4 Teachers‟ role in Culture teaching 21

2.3 Previous research on teachers‟ beliefs and practices regarding culture integration 22

2.4 Theoretical framework for the study 24

3.5 Data collection procedure 33

3.6 Data analysis procedure 34

3.7 Reliability and Validity 36

3.8 Chapter summary 37

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 38

4.1 Data analysis from the questionnaire 38

4.1.1 Teachers‟ beliefs of culture integration 38

4.1.1.1 Teachers‟ beliefs about cultural contents of culture integration 384.1.1.2 Teachers‟ beliefs about language functions of culture integration 39

4.1.1.3 Teachers‟ beliefs about learning activities of culture integration

40

4.1.1.4 Teachers‟ beliefs about teacher roles in culture teaching 41

4.1.1.5 Summary 41

4.1.2 Teachers‟ practices 41

4.1.2.1 Teachers‟ practices regarding cultural contents 41

4.1.2.2 Teachers‟ practices regarding language functions 42

4.1.2.3 Teachers‟ practices regarding learning activities in culture teaching 43

4.1.2.4 Teachers‟ practices regarding teacher roles in teaching culture 444.1.2.5 Summary 44

4.2 Data analysis from the interview 44

4.2.1 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices regarding cultural contents 44

4.2.2 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices regarding language functions 46

4.2.3 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices regarding learning activities 47

4.2.4 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices regarding teacher roles 48

4.2.5 Summary 49

4.3 Relationship between teachers‟s beliefs and teachers‟ practices 49

4.3.1 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices regarding cultural contents 51

4.3.2 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices regarding language functions 52

4.3.3 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices regarding leaning activities 52

4.3.4 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices regarding teacher roles 53

4.3.5 Differences between the groups analysis 54

4.3.6 Summary 58

4.4 Discussion 58

4.4.1 Teachers‟ beliefs about culture integration 58

4.4.2 Teachers‟ practices of culture integration 60

4.4.3 Relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and teaches‟ practices 61

4.4.4 Summary 62

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS 63

5.1 Summary of research findings 63

5.1.1 Research question 1: The EFL high school teachers‟ beliefs of the

cultural integration in English classes 63

5.1.2 Research question 2: The EFL high school teachers‟ practices of the culture integration in English classes 63

5.1.3 Research question 3: The relationship between the EFL high school teachers „beliefs and practices of culture integration in their teaching 64

5.2 Implications 66

5.2.1 Recommendations for educational management 66

5.2.2 Recommendations for EFL teacher educators 68

5.2.3 Recommendations for EFL teachers 69

5.3 Limitations and recommendations for further research 70

5.4 Recommendations for Further Research 71

5.5 Chapter summary 71

REFERENCES 73

APPENDICES 85

Appendix 1 Questionnaire 85

Questionnaire (Vietnamese version) 88

Appendix 2 Interview questions (English version) 91

Interview questions (Vietnamese version) 93

Appendix 3 Questionnaire and Cronbach‟s alpha of 08 samples 96

Appendix 4 Cronbach‟s alpha of 154 samples 103

Appendix 5 KMO and Bartlett‟s Test 107

Appendix 6 Krejcie and Morgan (1970)‟s Table for Determining Sample Size from a Given population 110

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ASEAN: Association of Southeast Asian Nations EFL: English as Foreign Language

IC: Intercultural Competence

ICC: Intercultural Communicative Competence ICLT: Intercultural language teaching

KMO: Kaiser- Meyer- Olkin L1: The first language

L2: The second language

MOET: Ministry of Education and TrainingSPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences

TESOL: Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Summary of previous studies 23

Table 3.1 Descriptive statistics of the high school English learning and teaching in Ben Tre context 29

Table 3.2 Demographic of the study participants (questionnaire) 30

Table 3.3 Demographic of the study participants (interview) 31

Table 4.1 Teachers‟ beliefs about cultural contents 38

Table 4.2 Teachers‟ beliefs about language functions 39

Table 4.3 Teachers‟ beliefs about learning activities 40

Table 4.4 Teachers‟ beliefs about teacher roles 41

Table 4.5 Teachers‟ practices regarding cultural contents 42

Table 4.6 Teachers‟ practices in using language functions 42

Table 4.7 Teachers‟ practices regarding learning activities 43

Table 4.8 Teachers‟ practices regarding teacher roles 44

Table 4.9 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices of culture integration in comparison 50

Table 4.10 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices of teacher roles in comparison 50

Table 4.11 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices in comparison regarding cultural contents 51

Table 4.12 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices in comparison regarding language functions 52

Table 4.13 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices in comparison regarding leaning activities 52

Table 4.14 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices in comparison regarding teacher roles 53

Table 4.15 Factors contributing to teachers‟ beliefs about integrating culture into EFL teaching 55

Table 4.16 Factors contributing to teachers‟ practices in integrating culture into EFL teaching 55

Table 4.17 Factors contributing to teachers‟ beliefs about teacher roles 56

Table 4.18 Post Hoc Tests 57

Table 4.19 Factors contributing to teachers‟ practices of teacher roles 57

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 A model of teachers‟s cultural integration beliefs and practices 25

APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Questionnaire 85

Questionnaire (Vietnamese version) 88

Appendix 2 Interview questions (English version) 91

Interview questions (Vietnamese version) 93

Appendix 3 Questionnaire and Cronbach‟s alpha of 08 samples 96

Appendix 4 Cronbach‟s alpha of 154 samples 103

Appendix 5 KMO and Bartlett‟s Test 107

Appendix 6 Krejcie and Morgan (1970)‟s Table for Determining Sample Size from a Given population 110

ABSTRACT

An increasingly important curricular aim of teaching EFL is to develop learners‟ intercultural competence for communication with people from different cultures through English EFL teachers‟ beliefs and practices in relation to integrating culture with English learning seem to have been less explored in Vietnam This research reports a study of views and practices collected through a questionnaire and an interview about culture integration in EFL teaching from high school English teachers in Ben Tre province The findings showed that the teachers were unanimously positive in their attitudes towards the motivating power of culture (including popular culture) in language teaching, and also revealed their creativeness of how culture to be integrated in EFL teaching; the connectivity between cultural components and examinations; and the various roles of teachers in practicing culture integration The findings suggest the need for EFL teachers to deploy culture as a discursive resource for meaning-making, and to consider culture pedagogy as interlingua and intercultural exploratory dialogues with the students The need for more official guidance and professional support from the authority to EFL teachers is highlighted

Key words: Culture integration, Teachers‟ beliefs, teachers‟ practices, intercultural competence, communication.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the introductory information about the conducted research First, research background, statement of problem and rationale of the study are introduced Next, research aims and relevant research questions are presented to specify the problems stated Research scope is then followed to narrow down research areas, objectives, and participants Lastly, the outline of the study is presented in the last section of the chapter

1.1 Research background

English is believed to be an international language in the world today It is the most commonly preferred and learned second language and foreign language It is estimated that the speakers of English as the second or a foreign language are more numerous than native English speakers (Crystal, 2004) According to Philipsen (2002), communication is culturally tied to individuals and communities That is why developing competence to communicate effectively and appropriately across cultures, which is known as intercultural competence, should be an integral objective of teaching English besides building learners‟ linguistic competence and communicative competence

In the context of increasing regional integration and globalization, teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) in Vietnam undertakes a fresh commission - to contribute to the interculturality for Vietnamese to become capable global citizens Intercultural objectives are more prominent in the new overall curriculum for teaching English in secondary education and higher To specify, the stated objectives of the mentioned curriculum are (1) raising comprehensive cultural awareness, (2) building positive intercultural attitudes towards the selfness and otherness, and (3) initially reflecting the values of the home culture in English (MOET, 2018) As a measure to achieve these objectives, a body of intercultural content of English speaking culture, Vietnamese culture, and other cultures has been added in the new textbook series of Tieng Anh 10, 11, and 12, which was still in piloting stage, known as pilot textbooks (developed by Vietnamese MOET, 2014) Besides the improvement of the course books, teachers should play an

active role to contribute to the success of this educational reform because they are the main implementers, who know best their students‟ interests, motivations, aptitudes, or even their personal and cultural identity

According to Le (2007), most of EFL learners have developed good linguistic competence, they still face communicative difficulties arising from the lack of sociolinguistic competence In addition, they are not fully aware of the fact that language of each community of countries in the world has its own feelings, message expressing ways The ways that people in a community communicate is the performance of their culture It seems that they do not pay much attention to cultural or intercultural elements in their English learning Consequently, learners usually use the language they learn in the way of their native language expressing, which is inappropriate This unexpected result must be a part of EFL teachers‟ responsibility because language teachers undeniably play a vital role in helping language learners acquire a language effectively

Theoretically, culture holds an important role in foreign language acquisition process Marcal (2010) maintains that students need to learn foreign cultures to understand others‟ viewpoints, prepare for personal encounters with foreign cultures and use the language in context; and Thanasoulas (2001) discusses that culture can enhance and enrich learners‟ communicative competence as well as lead them to empathy and respect toward different cultures and promote objectivity and cultural perspicacity Also, culture is considered communicative competence (Hymes, 1972), or the 5th language skill Obviously, incorporating culture in language teaching and learning is essential

About English language teaching in Ben Tre high school context, two English textbook sets published by Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam are currently being used One is the pilot and the other is the standard version Regarding to the pilot English textbooks, the cultural contents named

communication and culture appear one period every three weeks while it seems

hard to find a real lesson about culture in the standard textbook Indeed, the portrayal of culture is clearer and more detailed in the pilot curriculum than the

standard one (Chau & Truong, 2019) Besides, one of the aims of the standard textbooks, according to Hoang (2011), is to build the understanding of the cultures of English-speaking countries and Vietnam for learners through the familiarity of cultural input included in English lessons Also in the standard textbooks, the cultural contents are sometimes integrated within the lesson content solely The familiarity of the topics prepares students for relevant communicative situations, from which students could understand cultural differences (Hoang, 2011) In short, the outcome of teaching culture contents in the two textbook sets could be different because of cultural inputs

1.2 Statement of the problem

From my observations, in the context of actual teaching and learning of target languages in high schools in Ben Tre province, there are some emerging notable issues The first one comes from the students Less interested in cultural elements contained in each lesson, less positive intercultural attitudes are obviously two common manifestations among students The causes of the problem can be the target cultural elements in the lessons designed in the form of comparisons among different countries, checking students‟ target cultural understanding through reading comprehension, lack of updating information related to the culture of the target language Another reason is that EFL teachers deal with cultural elements in language lessons with inappropriate instructions The second one that needs to be considered comes from EFL teachers Some of them still do not really consider intercultural communicative competence as an objective to be achieved in the outcome of English teaching The reasonable interpretation for this real situation is that there is a gap between the aim of the cultural lesson and the regular tests The aim of the lesson is to provide more profound understanding about culture for language learners whereas the tests tend to focus on testing students‟ linguistic knowledge instead of their target cultural knowledge Furthermore, EFL teachers have not been officially trained how to teach or integrate culture into language lessons and a number of them pay less attention to teaching target culture to students Finally, the objective factors can be

considered as obstacles partly preventing EFL teachers from doing the job of culture integration in the English teaching context of high schools in Ben Tre province They are namely the shortage of time, the mixed- level of students, the large size classes and the real intercultural environment All these factors directly affect the effectiveness of cultural integration into language lessons and inevitably an expected outcome is difficult to achieve

Among the three issues related to the integration of culture into language lessons, the one arising from the EFL teachers are considerable That is because the teachers‟ performances as the driver of cultural integration into the English language lesson Harste and Burke (1977) argued that teachers plan their instruction in the light of the beliefs they have about learning and teaching The existence of the contextual factors mentioned earlier appeared to play a significant role in determining whether teachers are capable of implementing instructions congruent with their beliefs (Graden 1996; Gebel and Schrier 2002; Feryok, 2008) Therefore, determining how teachers‟ beliefs about culture integration are reflected in their practices, the examination of the constraints that prevent teachers from enacting their beliefs are important topics for further inquiries

1.3 Rationale for the study

The study was conducted for the three reasons

Firstly, I started this study based on my own perception that EFL teachers play an important role in the development of learners‟ intercultural competence by integrating culture into language teaching Teachers‟ beliefs are considered as a key factor that most influences the teachers‟ practices and then the outcome of the teaching process The findings of the study can be useful and significant to the language teaching in terms of preparing students for successful intercultural communication and fulfill the needs of the country in the development of its international relations with many other countries in a multilingual and multicultural environment

The second reason was concerned with the current EFL education in Ben

overall curriculum for teaching English in secondary education and higher in 2018, there has been a strong focus on aspects of language, such as grammar and vocabulary, rather than on the cultural dimension of language learning This context interests and lead me to conduct this study to find out the answers In addition, to my knowledge, there have not been any studies exclusively investigating language teachers‟ beliefs and practices of cultural integration into English classes in Ben Tre province

The third reason was that findings on teachers‟ beliefs about cultural integration could serve as persuasive evidence for local language teacher educators to take appropriate actions in Ben Tre language teaching context Based on the evidence, they also nationally propose reconsiderations of teacher training, curriculum design and materials development

1.4 Research aims

This study (1) investigates EFL high school teachers‟ beliefs and their classroom practices of the culture integration and (2) examines the relationship between their beliefs and practices of culture integration in English classes

different aspects relating to culture integration such as cultural contents, language functions, learning activities and teacher roles were investigated

Besides, regarding teachers‟ practices, this study mainly dealt with the investigation of teachers‟ instruction of culture integration in their classrooms including their teaching procedures, teaching foci and teaching approach Therefore, in this study, teachers‟ instructional behaviors, decisions and choices referred to their practices

1.7 Research significance

The results of the study may provide further evidence for the insights on EFL teachers‟ beliefs, their practices and the relationship between the two about culture integration into English classes More specifically, the findings of the study can offer educational administrators and educational policy-makers information regarding the match and mismatch, the congruence and incongruence between the teachers‟ beliefs and their actual practices of culture integration The findings also have suggestions for educational policy-makers to revise their teacher education programs which can lead to teachers‟ developing conceptual understanding of management for successful teaching

1.8 Definition of terms

This study will use the following terms as they have been defined in the literature Some definitions combine different parts from different authors Other definitions have also been adapted to suit this study:

Teachers‟ beliefs refer to a set of assumptions, values, knowledge, feelings,

and attitudes that might be consciously held by EFL teachers, which are evaluative in nature and which can be expressed in the statement of what „should be done‟ and what „is preferable‟ in teaching culture (Pajares, 1992; Borg, 1999b, 2006;

Basturkmen, Loewen and Ellis, 2004)

Teachers‟ practices refer to the actions that teachers take to organize what

they know and to map out what is possible, which can also be affected by new

beliefs and situations (Freeman, 1992)

Culture integration in English language teaching refers to the acts of

integrating the four language skills within a context of meaningful cultural learning

Chapter 2 is the literature review which defines key terms- “beliefs”, “practices” and “culture” and presents a review of related literature consisting of the importance of studying beliefs and practices, the relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and their classroom practices, culture integration in language teaching The chapter also offers a review of previous studies in both foreign and domestic sources relevant to the study And the frameworks of the study are discussed in this chapter

Chapter 3 describes the research methods applied in the study It consists of research instruments including questionnaire and interview used to investigate the teachers‟ beliefs and practices of culture integration in English classes Research design, research setting, participants, data collection procedure and data analysis procedure are then explained

Chapter 4 reports the results collected from the questionnaires, interviews and analyzed critically through tables The findings were analyzed and discussed to clarify teachers‟ beliefs and practices in integrating culture into English classes and the relationship between the two

Chapter 5 summarizes of research findings relating to research questions Also, pedagogical implications, limitations and recommendations were presented

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter reviews the literature relevant to this study from two main and interrelated perspectives The first part deals with the literature regarding teachers‟ beliefs and practices (section 2.1) The second (section 2.2) focuses on the definition of culture and culture integration in language teaching The third section (2.3) reviews the previous research into teachers‟ beliefs and practices regarding culture integration The fourth section (2.4) determines the theoretical framework for the study and the last section (2.5) is the chapter summary

2.1 Teachers‟ beliefs and practices

2.1.1 Definition of „beliefs‟

The term „belief‟ is one of the most complex concepts to be defined (Mansour, 2009) According to Pajares (1992), the difficulty in studying teachers‟ beliefs has occurred due to definitional problems, poor conceptualizations, and differing understandings of beliefs and belief structures When discussing conceptualizations, researchers used different terms to refer to the term „belief‟ While for some researchers, beliefs differ from knowledge (Calderhead, 1996; Roehler et al., 1988; Shavelson and Stern, 1981), for the majority (e.g Borg, 2006; Kagan, 1990; Meijer, Verloop and Beijaard, 2001; Pajares, 1992; Thompson, 1992; Woods, 1996;) knowledge and beliefs are closely intertwined One argument supporting the claim that beliefs differ from knowledge is that while beliefs remain the same in the teachers‟ minds, knowledge changes with the new experience (Roehler et al., 1988) It has further been argued that teachers rely on beliefs only when knowledge is not available (Shavelson and Stern, 1981) The distinction between beliefs and knowledge is rather vague However, according to Issa, (2011), knowledge and beliefs can be considered the same when the knowledge is personal and related to specific contexts

As well as the beliefs and knowledge controversy, researchers have used other terms to refer to beliefs such as „teacher perspectives‟ (e.g Thompson, 1992), „implicit theories‟, „implicit knowledge‟, „maxims‟ (Richards; 1996, 1998),

and personal theories (Olson, 1980) However, Borg (1999b, 2006, 2003) has used the term „teacher cognition‟ as an overarching term that encompasses “teachers‟ beliefs, knowledge, theories, assumptions and attitudes”, stating that all these terms are just superficial artifacts producing more confusion than clarity, but which nonetheless reflect only the overlap in meanings Following Borg (2001, 2003, 2006), this study uses the term „belief‟ as the term „cognition‟

Green (1971, cited in Richardson, 2003) has defined the term belief “as a proposition that is accepted as true by the individual holding the belief” This psychological nature of beliefs makes them “neither easily defined nor studied” (Johnson, 1994) As a result, researchers defined this term differently depending on the purpose of each study Pajares (1992), for example, defined beliefs as “attitudes and values about teaching, students, and the educational process” Moreover, Basturkmen et al (2004) argued that beliefs are “statements teachers made about their ideas, thoughts and knowledge that are expressed as evaluation of what should be done, should be the case and is preferable” In addition, Borg (2001) conceptualized the term as that of a “proposition which may be consciously held, is evaluative in that it is accepted as true by the individual, and is therefore imbued with emotive commitment; further it serves as a guide to thought and behaviour” The differences in these definitions are attributed to many reasons One reason is that definitions are context-specific; they differ from one researcher to another and from one study to another (Pajares, 1992) Another reason is related to whether the researcher considers beliefs to be different from knowledge

Teachers‟ beliefs, in this study, mean assumptions, values, knowledge, feelings, and attitudes that might be consciously held by language teachers, which are evaluative in nature and which can be expressed in the statement of what „should be done‟, and what „is preferable‟ in teaching culture The reason for adopting this definition is that it covers all major terms (e.g thoughts, assumptions, feelings, knowledge, attitudes, values and ideas) used by researchers to define the term It also emphasizes the difference between „what should be done‟ (i.e teachers‟ beliefs) and what is really done (i.e teachers‟ practices), it

considers beliefs as a guide to teacher practice, and also highlights the interrelationship between beliefs and practices

2.1.2 Factors influencing teachers‟ beliefs

As the matter of fact, human cognition is built on different social and personal factors In order to depict the factors affecting teacher cognition, Borg (1997, 2003) used a framework illustrating “schematic conceptualization of teaching within which teacher cognition plays a pivotal role in teachers‟ lives” In the framework, he highlighted four main elements affecting teachers‟ cognition namely schooling, professional coursework, classroom practice and contextual factors Those are also the main influential factors identified in the literature

2.1.2.1 Schooling

„Schooling‟ factor can refer to „prior language learning experiences‟ which

were mentioned by scholars and researchers like Johnson (1994), Woods (1996), Peacock (2001) and Gursoy (2013) For instance, Johnson (1994) observed that when pre-service teachers enter teacher education programs, they bring with them an accumulation of prior experiences that manifest themselves in the form of beliefs that tend to be quite stable and rather resistant to change These early experiences were also called as “the apprenticeship of observation” (Lortie, 1975) Although it is argued that this factor only shows its impact on teachers‟ instructional behaviors to the point that the teachers themselves accept them (Bailey et al., 1996), it forms the basis of teacher beliefs about their teaching

2.1.2.2 Professional coursework

Regarding the impact of „professional coursework‟ or teacher educational

and training programs, a number of studies conducted in the contexts of service and in-service training have produced different findings at different levels of impact Some researchers (e.g Lamb, 1995; Almarza, 1996; Richardson, 2003) found that short training programs only made little positive changes in teacher beliefs and in teachers‟ practices within a short period of time while the others (e.g Soldat, 2009; Debri, 2012) might see great impact of this factor on teacher

pre-beliefs In another attempt to find out which factor- education or experience is more effective in forming teacher beliefs, Gursoy (2013) did not come to conclusion of a single choice but agreed that both factors were influential Therefore, the effects of teacher education on the ways teachers think and believe might depend on different contexts and the types and length of the training programs

2.1.2.3 Classroom practice

Besides these two factors mentioned above, „classroom practice‟ or

teaching experience has been indicated to leave great impact on teacher cognition (Nunan, 1992; Breen et al., 2001; Larcote & Canabal, 2005) It is even considered as the most influential factor on teacher cognition which controls their instruction performance (Phipps & Borg, 2009)

2.1.2.4 Contextual factors

To mention contextual factors, Feiman-Nemser and Floden (1986)

postulated the term „culture of teaching‟ with reference to social and institutional context As for them, there was a wide range of factors regarding teaching environment that should be taken into consideration, for instance, teachers‟ interactions with their students, other teachers, administrators, students‟ parents, and the rewards for teaching career, the intrinsic value of teaching profession and the working environment This point of view, in fact, drew attention from some scholars and researchers (Richards &Lockhart, 1994; Burns, 1996; Bailey, 1996) However, Borg (2003) critically claimed about the glaring absence of research exploring the impact of contextual factors on teachers‟ decisions Such weak point of traditional research on teacher cognition was identified as follows:

[…] the shortcoming of existing research on teaching cognition lies in their tendency to isolate teachers from the wider context of teaching which not only involves the relationship between teachers and their students but also includes their relationship within the community of teaching practice and other relevant elements within the context (Li, 2008, p 1)

In response to such gap, in a study on a group of Vietnamese teachers‟ beliefs and practices of form-focused instruction, Le (2011) drew out a number of important factors shaping teachers‟ beliefs, namely professional training, experience as language learners, institutional factors and learner variables, instructional materials, teachers‟ personal experience and the experience of others in the professional community In another study in Vietnam, Nguyen (2013) identified a list of factors hindering teachers‟ implementation of task-based teaching approach including teachers‟ core beliefs, subjective norms, lack of theoretical understanding, public examinations, perceptions of students‟ proficiency and motivation and other institutional factors such as discipline, physical setting and textbook content However, the number of similar studies considering contextual factors is still limited in the field of teacher cognition in both global and Vietnamese contexts Therefore, it is necessary to address this gap in the literature with more studies exploring teacher cognition with a broader consideration of contextual factors

Furthermore, since teacher cognition is contextually situated (Borg, 2006) and develops through a social construction process (Pajares, 1992), it is hard to separate different types of influencing factors Given the lack of attention to this research area, there is a need to continuously explore how such types of factors are interrelated As Le (2011) argued that since teachers‟ beliefs are both intrapersonal and interpersonal, they partly originate from the public theories, and partly from their life experiences, and are modified through their practical environments In this regard, it is suggested that researchers take a wider view on factors affecting the inner part of teaching in order to see deeply inside the correlation between the ways teachers think and behave

Section 2.1.1 and 2.1.2 gave literature review on beliefs, teachers’ beliefs and factors influencing teachers’ beliefs The following section will examine teachers’ practices and factors influencing teachers’ practices

2.1.3 Definition of „practices‟

Although teacher practices are more and more researched, not many definitions are given about this construct According to Fives, Lacatena and Gerald (2015), teacher practices might be involved in all activities associated with the practice of teaching, including but not limited to lesson planning, assessment activities, instruction, and interactions with students, parents, and colleagues Specifically, Isac, Dinis da Costa, Araujo, Calvo and Albergaria-Almeida (2015) categorized teachers practices into two main areas, namely teacher instructional practices and teacher collaborative practices, in which the former one refers to the instructional strategies that the teachers use in the classroom; and the later is involved in collaboration with peers outside the classroom As for them, those two types of activities are different but yet interconnected Depending on different purposes of each study, the concept of teachers practices might be generally understood as what teachers do in the classroom (Borg, 2003) or with a wider range of activities

In this study, although the other aspects related to teachers‟ interactions with their students were examined; a stronger focus was placed on their instructions in the classroom, in which their teaching procedures, teaching foci and teaching approaches were mainly dealt with In other words, teacher practices mentioned in this study include teacher pedagogical instructions and interactions with students

2.1.4 Factors influencing teachers‟ practices

Like teachers‟ beliefs, teachers‟ practices are under the effect of various factors within their teaching context In a substantial review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe and do, Borg (2003) drew out a number of common reasons for teachers instructional decisions such as the concern for the cognitive processes facilitating learning, the concern for language management, the pacing and timing of lessons or the quantity of teachers talk and the quality of their explanations and instructions to ensure students understanding and motivation In such review, Borg (2003) also recalled what he reviewed previously that:

“teachers practices are also shaped by the social, psychological and environmental realities of the school and classroom [ ] These factors include parents, principals requirements, the school, society, curriculum mandates, classroom and school layout, school policies, colleagues, standardized tests and availabilities of resources.” (p 94)

That is why in Borg‟s (1997, 2003) framework regarding elements and processes in language teacher cognition, he defined classroom practice as the interaction of cognitions and contextual factors Therefore, while exploring teachers practices, it is necessary to put it in relation to both teachers‟ cognitions and influential factors inherent in their teaching context

Since the type of influencing factors are diverse and may involve aspects inside or outside the classroom‟ borders, these factors will be divided into context-

related, teacher-related, and student-related constraints Student-related constraints

are those which emerge mainly from students and result sometimes in teachers‟ beliefs not being reflected in their instructional practices These factors include the students‟ low proficiency level, large class sizes, and the students‟ discipline in class Teachers may also change their instruction depending on the proficiency level of the students they teach For example, Snow and Lohman (1984) revealed that low-achieving students benefited more from structured and teacher-centred instruction unlike high-achieving students who benefited more from the more complex and less structured instruction Issa (2011) showed how students‟ low proficiency level resulted in fewer communicative activities, in less participation, and in a change in teachers‟ roles Studies investigating teachers‟ beliefs and practices have also found that teachers change their practices when responding to students of different proficiency levels

2.1.5 The importance of studying beliefs and practices

As early as the 1970s, the developments in cognitive psychology highlighted the importance of thinking and its influence on behaviour (Borg, 2006) Until then, learning was viewed as a product of teaching or as what is termed as the „process-product‟ approach During the mid-1970s and early 1980s,

the interest in teachers‟ thinking became a topic of interest not just in psychology but also in education studies, focusing mainly on teacher decision-making (Borg, 2006) The teacher started to be viewed as the planner, judge and decision-maker within the teaching context (Clark and Yinger, 1977; Shulman and Elstein, 1975) However, the research on teachers‟ decision-making was criticized as it ignored teachers‟ beliefs (Munby, 1984) In the late 1980s and 1990s, the study of teachers‟ beliefs marked an important step in teacher thinking research Researchers (e.g Borg, 1999a, 1999b, 2006; Kagan, 1992; Lin et al., 1999; Pajares, 1992) started to recognize the importance of studying beliefs not only with regard to their influence on behaviours but also for improving teachers‟ professional development and practices Consequently, teaching is no more viewed as applying predetermined principles and rules, but rather as a thinking activity where teachers construct their own workable and personal theories of teaching (Borg, 2003)

According to Phipps and Borg (2009), while beliefs act as filters through which teachers interpret new experiences and information, they are not always manifested in what teachers do inside their classrooms As a result, studies about teachers‟ beliefs highlighted the importance of studying teachers‟ practices through their beliefs as a more realistic understanding of the relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and practices can emerge when the analysis of what teachers do is the basis of eliciting and understanding the beliefs (Phipps and Borg, 2009) This indicates that eliciting teachers‟ beliefs through their practices (e.g by means of classroom observations) provides researchers with a view of what beliefs are (i.e in reality) rather than what they could be (i.e ideally) which can enrich our understanding of teachers and teaching, rather than describing in theoretical terms what teachers believe and know (Borg, 2006) The present study attempts to understand teachers‟ beliefs about culture integration through their practices, which will help to uncover their different belief systems and reveal the diverse factors that stand behind their practices

2.1.6 The relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and their classroom practices

Many researchers have drawn attention to the relationship between beliefs and practices (e.g Andrews 2003; Borg, 2006; Elbaz 1983; Karakas-Doukas, 1996; Kennedy and Kennedy, 1996; Woods 1996) This relationship has been described as a highly complex one, neither linear nor causal (Fang, 1996), but rather dialectic (Clark and Peterson, 1986), symbiotic (Foss and Kleinsasser, 1996) and interactive While teachers‟ beliefs influence what teachers do in the classroom, teacher classroom practices are not always reflected in their stated beliefs (Almarza, 1996) In other words, teachers‟ stated beliefs are not always manifested in their actual practices (Kennedy and Kennedy, 1996; Karavas-Doukas, 1996; Richards, 1996)

Therefore, there are two conflicting findings, consistency and inconsistency (i.e match or mismatch/ congruence and incongruence) encountered in the literature with regard to the relationship between beliefs and practices in general (Fang, 1996) While some studies (Johnson, 1992; Woods, 1996; Maiklad, 2001; Bai and Ertmer, 2008; Farrell and Kum, 2008) noted that there is a congruent relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and practices, other studies (Christ and Makarani, 2009; Gahin, 2001; Hiep, 2007; Philips and Borg, 2009), discovered several instances of incongruence between teachers‟ beliefs and their practices However, it is important to note that these studies were conducted in different contexts, with different target populations, different research methods, and for different research purposes, all of which could account for the differences observed in the findings

In conclusion, when examining the relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and practices, the picture remains unclear regarding the state of in/congruence that occurs between teachers‟ beliefs and practices The different findings in these studies might be attributed to the differences in the research methods employed since the theoretical profiling instruments may elicit beliefs about what should be the case, while less structured interviews, perhaps grounded in concrete classroom

events, may be better able to elicit beliefs about instruction as it actually unfolds (Borg, 2006) Other possible reasons may be ascribed to differences in the institutional context (e.g teaching methods, exam effects), differences in the target populations (e.g., teacher education, teacher practical experience, workload), and/or the students (e.g proficiency level, cultural background)

2.2 Culture in English language teaching

beliefs, and attitudes, notions of appropriate behavior, statuses, role expectations and world view, material objects and knowledge of their purpose and use

Since there are so many different definitions of culture, in this study culture is just understood to the extent of language teaching Based on the field of anthropology, Moran (2001) defined “culture as an evolving way of life consisting of shared products, practices, and perspectives of persons within specific social setting and communities” (p.9) In order words, according to Moran (2001), five

dimensions of culture are Cultural Products (artifacts, places, institutions and art forms), Cultural Practices (cultural and linguistic behaviors as operations, acts, scenarios and lives), Cultural Perspectives (perceptions, beliefs, values, and attitudes as well as etic (outsider) and emic (insider) view), Cultural Communities

(the national community, coexisting communities and relationships) and Cultural

Persons (concepts of identity and life histories) Generally, this research has

employed the five dimensions of culture (cultural products, cultural practices, cultural perspectives, cultural community and cultural persons)

2.2.2 Culture integration in language teaching

In discussing the integration of culture to the four language skills, which are reading, writing, listening and speaking, Al-Mahrooqi et al (2014) highlights its significance in English language teaching They argued that incorporating cultural aspects provides a solid foundation for initiating motivating activities that cover the four language skills, the culture of the target language, and the students‟ own backgrounds According to them, EFL teachers should be advised to vigilantly decide on resources and course books that not only support integrating the four language skills, but also add to it the integration of cultural aspects which will eventually enhance students communicative competence Language learning should entail culture learning and whenever a language is being taught, a simultaneous teaching of cultural customs and aspects, ways of thinking, norms, and feelings is taking place EFL teaching should integrate the four language skills within a context of meaningful cultural learning (Kramsch, 1993; Damen, 1997; Brown, 2000; all cited in Al-Mahrooqi et al., 2014)

2.2.2.1 Cultural contents in Culture teaching

Fiorito (2000 cited in Moran, 2001) stated that according to James Hammers- a German instructor at Interlochen Arts Academy- learners should learn four cultural aspects, and they are the physics (geography and climate), the society (family, friends, and people around us), the history and the genetic heritage of the culture Using an experiential approach to teaching and learning culture, Moran (2001) developed the „cultural experience‟ based on the experiential learning cycle proposed by Kurt Lewin (in Kolb, 1984) The cultural experience consists of four

kinds of cultural learning, or cultural knowings namely knowing about (acquiring cultural information or cultural experiences), knowing how (developing cultural behaviors or cultural descriptions), knowing why (discovering cultural explanations or cultural interpretation), and knowing oneself (articulating personal responses to

what they are learning or articulation of personal responses)

2.2.2.2 Language functions in Culture teaching

The present study has employed language functions discussed by Moran (2001) to investigate the EFL teachers‟ practices of culture integration in their teaching Particularly learners use the language functions to (1) participate in the cultural experience including socializing, establishing/maintaining relationships, influencing people, giving and responding to feedback, (2) describe the cultural experience including knowledge, comprehension, descriptions and cognitive functions, (3) identify, explain, and justify cultural perspective and compare and contrast these with perspectives from the individual‟s own culture and other cultures including rational inquiry and exposition, analysis and cognitive functions and (4) express their thoughts, feelings, questions, decisions, strategies and plan regarding the cultural experience including evaluation, expressing emotions, and expressing/inquiring about

2.2.2.3 Learning activities in Culture teaching

Regarding learning activities for teaching culture, Thanasoulous (2001) searched and cited many learning activities mentioned by different authors For example, teachers should use culture comparisons in teaching culture (Ertelt-Vieth,

1990, 1991 cited in Byram and Morgan et al., 1994, all cited in Thanasoulous, 2001); cultural capsules known as culturegrams and cultural problem solving (Singhal, 1998, cited in Thanosoulous, 2001); cultural assimilators and cultoons (Henrichsen, 1998, cited in Thanosoulous, 2001) In the same way, Brown (2000) also mentioned simulation games, culture assimilators, cultural capsules and culturegrams are the learning activities that teachers should use in their cultural classes Moran (2001) mentioned a variety of techniques teachers can employ, and they are “critical incidents, cultural assimilators, culturegrams, role-plays, cultural simulations, field experiences, ethnography, experiential activities, cross-cultural training techniques, values clarification, film, video, literature, realia, authentic materials, and many more

Besides, teachers can bring to class posters, pictures, maps and other learning activities teachers can use to help learners develop a mental image (Peck, 1998); or books and other visual aids and cultural clusters (Peck, 1998) In a similar way, regarding learning activities, Celik and Turkan (2007) suggested using movies, lectures and audio-taped interviews of native speakers and video-taped observations of the target language community and authentic reading and realia Besides these learning activities, Celik and Turkan (2007) proposed the use of personalization activities and discussion activities (surveys, and questions and answer tasks a mean of teaching culture) Similarly, cultural islands (posters, pictures, maps, signs and many kinds) were recommended to use in teaching culture by Nadera, (2012); or readings, films were advised by Fantini, 1997; Ramirez, 1995; Levine et al, 1987; Mc Groarty and Galvan 1985, Kohls, 1984, all cited in Brown, 2000

Thanasoulous (2001) himself also advocated that teachers should offer learners opportunities to take part in and become a part of their own tradition such as national sports, social festivals or songs; and teachers should also help learners familiar with various non-verbal communication forms and help learners expose literacy works Nadera (2012) shared the same idea with Thansoulous (2001) about offering learners opportunities and using non-verbal communication and literacy

works in teaching culture when he said that teachers should celebrate festivals, use literacy works (literature) and kinetics and body language (non-verbal communication and gesture) More particularly, Donahue and Pasons (1982, cited in Brown, 2000) discussed that to enhance learners‟ oral communication, teachers should use role-play in their classes and according to Brown (2000), teachers should explore the dialogue between students and between teaches and students

As mentioned above this research emphasized on the EFL teachers‟ practices in the integration of cultural elements in English classes to enhance students‟ cultural behaviors, cultural understandings, cultural interpretations and students‟ self-awareness, so the Moran‟s (2001) discussions on learning activities were applied in this research to investigate EFL teachers‟ practices Particularly, according to Moran (2001), in English classrooms, (1) to improve students‟

cultural behaviors, teachers use operations (use of tools, artifacts, or other products of the culture), rituals (brief exchanges enacted in the classroom that reflect the

everyday tasks of teaching and learning, done in the manner of the target culture),

dialogues, role-plays, performance, drama, simulations and field experiences; (2) to improve students‟ cultural understandings, teachers use authentic material, pedagogical material, experiences and personal accounts; (3) to improve students‟ cultural interpretations, teachers use cultural analyses, research, research projects and field experiences; and to develop students‟ self-awareness teachers use

reflection, focused talking and focused writing

2.2.2.4 Teachers‟ role in Culture teaching

When integrating cultures in language learning, teacher role is to facilitate students‟ own inquiry Teachers‟ effective demonstrations and instructions help students grasp quickly Therefore, this study has additionally investigated teachers‟ beliefs and practices of teacher roles in integrating culture into English classes According to Moran (2001), teacher roles in teaching culture cover (1) a model and a coach in helping learners acquire cultural behaviors, (2) a source, a resource, an arbiter and an elicitor in helping learners acquire cultural information, (3) a guide, and a co-researcher in helping learners acquire cultural explanation, (4) and

a listener, a witness and a co-learner in helping learners develop their awareness These propositions can cover nearly all the potential teacher‟s roles when teachers embed cultures in language learning

self-2.3 Previous research on teachers‟ beliefs and practices regarding culture integration

During the past decade, a number of studies have been conducted on the language teachers‟ perceptions and practices of (inter)cultural language teaching (ICLT) in different contexts (e.g Guilherme, 2000; Long, 2014; Oranje & Smith, 2017; Sercu et al., 2005; Young & Sachdev, 2011; Zhou, 2011) These studies mainly sought to shed light on the instructional knowledge of foreign language teachers regarding the main elements of intercultural communicative competence (ICC) and their appreciation of its objectives Generally speaking, it is argued that teachers need to be familiar with the target language culture to be able to assist learners to cope with similarities and differences among L1, L2, and other cultures The majority of these studies indicate that teachers mostly have some vague understanding of ICC and fail to translate ICC theories into practice

In foreign context, Gonen and Saglam (2012) investigated 60 Turkish EFL teachers of different educational backgrounds rather than cultural backgrounds in terms of what they think about various aspects of culture and integrating it into their classes The results gathered through a comprehensive questionnaire and interviews have yielded that although there are some differences between teachers of different backgrounds about which aspects of the target culture to give priority, they were generally aware of the importance of teaching and integrating culture in the foreign language classroom It is also revealed that all teachers have knowledge about the aspects of the target culture to some extent, but how they deal with the target culture is affected highly by the curricular considerations and limitations Based on the results, several implications are derived from the study for the integration of culture in the foreign language class and suggestions are made for future studies

In Vietnam context, Nguyen (2014) addressed Vietnamese English teachers‟ practices in the integration of culture into their language classes and development of the learners‟ ICC level The participants were 15 Vietnamese EFL teachers from a university in Northern Vietnam and the data were collected through semi-structured interviews and class observations The results indicated that there was a gap between the language education policies and the teachers‟ actual practices in the classrooms Chau (2019) conducted a research focusing on teachers‟ perceptions and practices of intercultural teaching and applicability of the Intercultural Language Learning Teaching model to integrate culture in EFL teaching in upper- secondary schools of Tra Vinh province, Vietnam The research was an action one designed with instruments of teacher questionnaires, classroom observation, teacher interviews and students‟ evaluations sheets In term of teachers‟ perceptions and practices of intercultural teaching, the research findings showed that EFL teachers of upper secondary schools in Tra Vinh province were willing to incorporate culture in teaching English to facilitate students‟ language learning and build their intercultural knowledge, but not yet to target their intercultural culture The teachers‟ practices were described as teacher-centered, knowledge-based, and coursebook-driven It was necessary to verify the applicability of an intercultural approach to integrate culture into teaching EFL lessons to empower the teachers with intercultural integration practice in their own curricula (Chau, 2019) However, until recently, to the best of my knowledge, most research on the cultural teaching has examined teachers‟ beliefs, teachers‟ practices and little is known about the relationship between the two The present study, in parallel with the investigation of teachers‟ beliefs and practices, aims at filling this gap, by examining the complex relationship between teachers‟ beliefs and practices regarding culture integration

Table 2.1 Summary of previous studies

instrument

Key findings

Gonen and Saglam (2012)

60 Turkish EFL teachers of different educational

Teacher questionnaires, Teacher interview

EFL teachers were generally aware of the importance of teaching and integrating culture in the foreign language classroom They have knowledge about the aspects

backgrounds of the target culture to some extent, their practices are affected highly by the curricular considerations and limitations Nguyen

(2014)

15 Vietnamese EFL teachers from a university in Northern Vietnam

Semi-structured interviews and class

observations

There was a gap between the language education policies and the teachers‟ actual practices in the classrooms

Chau (2019)

- 101 EFL teachers in upper-secondary schools in Tra Vinh province, Vietnam - 2 EFL classes of Grade 10 (using the pilot and standard Tieng Anh 10)

Teacher questionnaires, Class

observations, Teacher

interviews and Students‟ evaluations sheets

EFL teachers were willing to incorporate culture in teaching English to facilitate students‟ language learning and build their intercultural knowledge, but not yet to target their intercultural culture The teachers‟ practices were described as teacher-centered, knowledge-based, and coursebook-driven

2.4 Theoretical framework for the study

The research aims determined in this study include the exploration of teachers‟ beliefs and their classroom practices of the culture integration in English classes To construct the framework for the study, as discussed above, the three concepts involving teachers‟ beliefs, teachers‟ practices and culture integration in language teaching were defined

To address the first and the second research question, based on the culture

experience proposed by Moran (2001), this study concentrated investigating the

English teachers‟ beliefs and practices in culture integration including cultural content (knowing about, knowing how, knowing oneself, knowing why), language function (participating, describing, interpreting, responding) and cultural learning activities (developing skills, gathering information, discovering explanations, reflection) For the study, culture integration in language teaching indicates the

embedment of culture into English language classes, which is the culture of English- speaking countries, namely target culture (Clandfield, 2008) and the culture of other countries (Devrim & Bayyurt, 2010; Lai, 2013)

As can be seen from Figure 2.1, the framework shows the relationship between these concepts and different factors which can affect teachers‟ beliefs and their classroom practices For the study, the definition of „beliefs‟ can be expressed in the statement of what „should be done‟, and what „is preferable‟ in teaching culture or culture integration They address the teachers‟ thoughts about culture

integration in their language teaching and this can be a one-way relationship Regarding to the relation between teachers‟s beliefs and teachers‟ practices as discussed in Section 2.1.1, beliefs are considered to be as a guide to teachers‟ practices, this could be an interrelationship However, the question is still open as to whether beliefs guide practice, practices- and particularly the results of practice- guide beliefs, or that they interact such that beliefs or practice may be dominant and affect the other depending on many factors Quite recently, Tillema (2000) conducted a study with teacher candidates, and examined the relationship between beliefs and classroom performance, he concluded that beliefs are concomitant to behavior or intermingled with it This is not to say that performance or action in teaching can do without beliefs… But one cannot contend that they guide action

Figure 2.1 A model of teachers‟s cultural integration beliefs and practices

Teachers‟ Practices

Lesson planning, pedagogical instructions, interactions with

students

Culture integration in language teaching

- Cultural contents, Language functions, Learning activities - Teachers‟ role

Contextual factors

Working environment, interactions with students, learner variables, instructional materials, personal experiences, …

Classroom and school layoutSchool policies

Teachers‟ Beliefs

Assumptions, values, knowledge,

feelings, attitudes

Colleagues, students‟ motivation

Schooling

Knowledge, conceptions, perspectives,

…

Professional coursework

Teachers‟ teaching experiences, learning, curricula, materials, instructional activities,…

Standardized tests, curriculum mandates and availabilities of resources

2.5 Chapter summary

This literature review chapter has addressed two major topics The first topic tackled the theoretical framework of teachers‟ beliefs and practices, by highlighting the importance and usefulness of studying the teachers‟ professed beliefs through their observed practices This could provide a better understanding about the relations between what teachers do (i.e., realities) and what they believe they should do (i.e., ideals) The second topic presented the culture integration and the teacher roles in language teaching Additionally, a number of studies about teachers‟ beliefs, their practices in culture integration have been also reviewed The chapter ends by presenting the theoretical framework for the study The methodological procedures that were employed to find out the answers to research questions will be described in the following chapter