CONTEMPORARY TRENDS IN ADHD RESEARCH Edited by Jill M. Norvilitis Contemporary Trends in ADHD Research Edited by Jill M. Norvilitis Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2012 InTech All chapters are Open Access distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, which allows users to download, copy and build upon published articles even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. As for readers, this license allows users to download, copy and build upon published chapters even for commercial purposes, as long as the author and publisher are properly credited, which ensures maximum dissemination and a wider impact of our publications. Notice Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published chapters. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Igor Babic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer InTech Design Team First published February, 2012 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Contemporary Trends in ADHD Research, Edited by Jill M. Norvilitis p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-858-8 Contents Preface IX Part 1 Basic Research in ADHD 1 Chapter 1 Sensory Integration in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Implications to Postural Control 3 Dalia Mohamed Hassan and Hanan Azzam Chapter 2 Variability, Noise and Predictability in Motor Response Times: Adaptation or Misadaptation? 15 Tymothée Poitou and Pierre Pouget Chapter 3 Endocrine Dysfunction and Growth in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 29 J. Paul Frindik Chapter 4 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Birth Season and Epidemiology 45 Cristina Morales, Amalia Gordóvil, Jesús Gómez, Teresita Villaseñor, Maribel Peró and Joan Guàrdia Chapter 5 Hypothyroxinemia in Pregnancy is Related with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 57 Miriam Muñoz Lopez Chapter 6 Cutting Corners: Neuropsychological Research into the Energetics of ADHD 69 Jens Egeland Part 2 ADHD in Applied Contexts 85 Chapter 7 Adolescent Academic Outcome of Childhood Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder – A Population-Based Study 87 Kirsten Holmberg VI Contents Chapter 8 Remedial Education for Children with ADHD in Sweden 107 Jane Brodin Chapter 9 Evaluation of the Level of Knowledge of Infant and Primary School Teachers with Respect to the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Content Validity of a Newly Created Questionnaire 127 Marian Soroa, Nekane Balluerka and Arantxa Gorostiaga Chapter 10 ADHD Symptomatology, Academic Dishonesty, and the Use of ADHD Stimulant Medications Without a Prescription 153 Kelly Custode and Jill M. Norvilitis Chapter 11 Understanding the Distracted and the Disinhibited: Experiences of Adolescents Diagnosed with ADHD Within the South African Context 165 J. Seabi and N.A. Economou Chapter 12 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and Males in the Juvenile Justice System 183 Robert Eme Preface Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is one of the most widely diagnosed behavior disorders in childhood, with a worldwide pooled prevalence of 5.29 % (Polanczyk et al., 2007). With so many children and adults affected by the disorder, researchers strive on multiple fronts to understand the underpinnings of ADHD and associated factors. At a basic level, our understanding of the biological origins is not definitive and much remains to be learned. While scientists work to unlock these answers, others work to improve the lives of children with ADHD as the children struggle academically and socially. Equally vital, this applied work addresses many of the immediate needs and concerns of this population. This goal of this book is to explore some of the broad array of research in the field of ADHD. The 12 chapters represent the work of 23 researchers from countries around the globe and cover such topics as varied as postural control, endocrine dysfunction, juvenile justice, and academic outcomes. The first section of the book explores basic research in the field, examining questions related to the nature of the disorder. Chapter 1, “Sensory integration in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Implications for postural control,” investigates difficulties in static postural control in children with the combined subtype of ADHD. Results indicate significantly increased risk for poor balance, particularly in challenging situations, suggesting the need to evaluate postural control in children referred for ADHD and to consider the role of such deficits in the reported poor coordination and clumsiness of children with the disorder. Chapter 2, “Variability, noise and predictability in motor response times: Adaptation or misadaptation?” considers intra-individual-variability in cognitive performance. Although such variability is often treated as error or noise in testing, the authors present compelling evidence for the utility of analyzing and understanding such variability. Chapter 3, “Endocrine dysfunction and growth in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder,” reviews the conflicting literature on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis activity in ADHD, and also examines growth and growth hormone treatment in children with ADHD. Chapter 4, “Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Birth season and epidemiology,” describes the prior work on the relationship between season and month of birth, and X Preface ADHD, which has found conflicting results, with differing studies indicating higher rates of ADHD birth in autumn, spring and summer and still other research reporting no relationship at all. The authors also report the results of their own research, which did not support a relationship between birth season and ADHD. Chapter 5, “Gestational hypothyroxinemia is associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in the progeny of Spanish mothers,” examines the role of prenatal hypothyroxinemia in ADHD through a longitudinal study of children born to mothers with and without thyroid problems during pregnancy. Although there were no other differences at birth, at the time of assessment, the children exposed to low prenatal thyroid hormones were at significantly increased risk for inattention and hyperactive symptoms. These intriguing results suggest a need for improved follow up for children exposed to hypothyroxinemia. Chapter 6, “Cutting corners: Neuropsychological research into the energetics of ADHD,” explores the Cognitive Energetic Model of ADHD. The author discusses bottom up motivational processes and effort allocation in the combined and inattentive subtypes of the disorder, noting significant differences between the two subtypes. The second half of the book addresses ADHD in applied settings, such as school, treatment, and the juvenile justice system. Chapter 7, “Adolescent academic outcome of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder—a population based study,” examines the role of ADHD symptoms in the academic achievement of both clinically diagnosed and subthreshold children. The results indicate significant academic risks for both groups and highlight the need for multi-disciplinary intervention. Chapter 8, “Remedial education for children with ADHD in Sweden,” continues this vein and addresses educational issues for children with ADHD in general and, more specifically, within the Swedish educational system, highlighting the critical need for teacher training and proactive interventions. Chapter 9, “Evaluation of the level of knowledge of infant and primary school teachers with respect to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): Content validity of a newly created questionnaire,” addresses the need to be able to assess teachers’ knowledge of and attitudes toward ADHD. The authors describe the creation of a new standardized measure that will allow for the assessment of the efficacy of teacher training and to examine to what degree teacher knowledge of ADHD affects student outcomes. Chapter 10, “ADHD symptomatology, academic dishonesty, and the use of stimulant medications without a prescription,” examines the increasing misuse of stimulant medications for ADHD among college students by those who do not have prescriptions. Such users are more likely to have more symptoms of undiagnosed ADHD and to struggle with their motivation to attend college, suggesting a need for both prevention and intervention. Chapter 11, “Understanding the distracted and the disinhibited: Experiences of adolescents diagnosed with ADHD with the African context,” gives a voice to adolescents in treatment for ADHD in South Africa through qualitative analysis. The participants candidly discuss their problems, treatment and [...]... contribute to increased intraindividual variability in cognitive performance Alterations in the dopamine system are well documented in populations that exhibit increased behavioral intra-individual variability, including the elderly, ADHD children (Bellgrove et al 2005), schizophrenics and patients with Parkinson’s disease These findings have been substantiated in computational modeling studies showing that... 1996), suggesting that variability in responding is a contributing factor to expression of diagnostic characteristics of ADHD Further, several studies have demonstrated that close family members of individuals with ADHD demonstrate increased variability in responding, including, siblings sharing an ADHD diagnosis, discordant dizygotic twins, and siblings who do not meet criteria for diagnosis of ADHD (Bidwell,... profile of children with ADHD Children with ADHD have been found to have an increased velocity of postural sway than normal 4 Contemporary Trends in ADHD Research children (Zang et al., 2002; Shum & Pang, 2009) In daily activities, they manifest problems performing certain athletic sports, were frequently and involuntarily bumping into things, lacking bounce when walking and running, and became more easily... seem to be in the current state of behavioral inquiry? When intra-individual variability in a given attribute is small, the inter-individual differences in that attribute supply the useful information, from a prediction standpoint; when intra-individual variability is large, however, they may not Indeed, in the latter case, scores from only one occasion can yield highly misleading interindividual-differences... to maintain performance over extended time periods (Stuss, Meiran, Guzman, Lafleche, & Willmer, 1996; Stuss, Murphy, Binns, & Alexander, 2003) Recent findings indicate that under conditions requiring higher degrees of response control, increased variability in ADHD is present throughout the RT distribution, regardless of ADHD subtype, reflecting inefficiency in neural mechanisms critical to engaging... electroencephalograms (EEGs) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), are tempting to link behavioral intra-individual variability to brain function Functional imaging studies in children with ADHD did observe abnormalities in inferior and medial prefrontal, striatal and temporoparietal brain regions during tasks of interference inhibition (Vaidya et al., 2005; Konrad et al., 2006; Rubia et al.,... the postural control in the studied children with ADHD/ C History of postural control problems should be included as routine in evaluation of ADHD/ C children and referral for postural testing could be done whenever possible The effects of CNS stimulants in balance improvement in this population warrant to be investigated Retraining for Balance may be a functional technique for training children and youth... condition in both study groups 10 Contemporary Trends in ADHD Research 4 Discussion In the present study, children with ADHD/ C could not maintain quiet stance and showed more sway while performing all SOT conditions The composite equilibrium score was 15% lower than the TD children (table 1) This could be the result of a lack of adequate interaction among the three sensory inputs that provide orientation information... 2009) Inconsistent findings of either increased or decreased frontal, parietal, temporal and cingulate activation in adults with ADHD compared to control subjects were also observed in fMRI studies of other executive functions as such motor response inhibition and working memory (Epstein et al., 2007; Banich et al., 2009; Dibbets et al., 2009; Cubillo et al., 2010) The inconsistencies between findings... (ADHD) children Beijing Da Xue Xue Bao, vol.18, No 35, pp 280-3 Zang Y., Bomei G., Qian Q & Wang Y (2002) Objective measurement of the balance dysfunction in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children Chinese Journal of Clinical Rehabilitation, vol 6, pp.1372-1374 14 Contemporary Trends in ADHD Research Zang F., He Y., Zhu Z., Cao J., Sui Q., Liang M & et al (2007) Altered baseline brain . CONTEMPORARY TRENDS IN ADHD RESEARCH Edited by Jill M. Norvilitis Contemporary Trends in ADHD Research Edited by Jill M. Norvilitis Published by InTech Janeza. X Preface ADHD, which has found conflicting results, with differing studies indicating higher rates of ADHD birth in autumn, spring and summer and still other research reporting no relationship. 2009). In daily activities, they manifest problems performing certain athletic sports, were frequently and involuntarily bumping into things, lacking bounce when walking and running, and