Impacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of Vietnam

Impacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of VietnamImpacts of sexual harassment in the workplace on job burnout and labour turnover, moderated by psychological empowerment: Evidence from the hospitality industry of Vietnam

INTRODUCTION TO THE RESEARCH

Overview of Chapter 1

Chapter 1 introduces the foundation of research problems related to this thesis. This chapter has nine (09) parts, including (1) the backgrounds of the research, (2) gaps from previous research, (3) research objectives, (4) Research questions, (5) the research subjects and scopes, (6) the novelty of the research, (7) the importance of the research,

(8) research ethics, and (9) the structure of the thesis.

Backgrounds of the research

The intricacies of workplace dynamics have been a focal point of numerous studies, with a particular emphasis on phenomena that impede the optimal functioning of an organisation This research investigates three interconnected parameters significantly affecting workplace cohesion and productivity: sexual harassment in the workplace, job burnout, and labour turnover.

Diez-Canseco et al (2022), Acquadro Maran et al (2022), and Heymann et al.

(2023) indicate that sexual harassment is a pervasive issue that plagues various industries across the globe It represents an egregious violation of an individual’s rights and dignity, with profound negative implications on the victim’s psychological health and job performance Despite numerous legal provisions and organisational policies to curb this vice, sexual harassment remains a daunting challenge and creates job dissatisfaction (Acquadro Maran et al., 2022; Julios, 2022) Job burnout, one of the results of sexual harassment in the workplace, has evolved from being a mere byproduct of high-stress working environments to being recognised as a critical factor impairing personal well- being and job performance It is characterised by emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and reduced personal accomplishment, often resulting from prolonged occupational stress (Halbesleben, 2006; Kim et al., 2020; Lu & Gursoy, 2013) The severe consequences of burnout, reduced efficiency, and health problems make it an essential subject of inquiry (Edú-Valsania et al., 2022).

Moreover, the interplay between sexual harassment and job burnout warrants an in- depth exploration, as the former may be a potential stressor contributing to the latter

(Alrawadieh et al., 2022) With the negative impact of job burnout, employees may voluntarily leave their organisations, or so-called “labour turnover” Labour turnover refers to the rate at which employees leave an organisation and are replaced by recruits (Bolt et al., 2022) Ghani et al (2022) state that high turnover rates can harm an organisation’s performance due to the associated costs of recruitment, training, and loss of organisational memory, and it can disrupt the social and communication structures within the team, leading to decreased morale and productivity (Michael & Fotiadis, 2022).

Therefore, identifying the links between sexual harassment, job burnout, and employee turnover provides insights into the complex dynamics within the workplace. Notably, a hostile work environment characterised by sexual harassment may fuel job burnout (Maslach & Leiter, 2022), which, in turn, could lead to higher turnover rates (Baquero, 2023) Conversely, high turnover rates might cultivate a work environment more susceptible to harassment and burnout due to the lack of stability and continuity in staff relationships These potential associations underscore the need to understand these variables and their interplay comprehensively.

The thesis aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by analysing the intricate relationships between these parameters This investigation’s findings will offer a theoretical understanding of these phenomena and provide evidence-based suggestions for policy development and intervention strategies to promote a healthier and more productive working environment.

1.2.1 Myths about sexual harassment in the workplace

Fitzgerald (2017) shows that the most noticeable idea of sexual harassment in the workplace is commonly referred to as myths, a term that mainly originated in anthropology and sociology, which is described as conceptions used to explain the world and that are generally accepted while being demonstrably incorrect In other words, myths explain things that would otherwise be unknown, unacceptable, or unexplained. Sexual harassment in the workplace contains four myths.

The first and foremost myth about sexual harassment is that it only happens to women (Goh et al., 2022; Loukaitou-Sideris & Ceccato, 2022) Nonetheless, sexual harassment can happen to anyone, regardless of their gender (Murphy-Oikonen & Egan, 2022; Nazareno et al., 2022) While women are more commonly targeted, men and individuals of LGBTQ+ communities can also experience sexual harassment It is essential to recognise that both men and women can be victims and perpetrators of sexual harassment (Cortina & Areguin, 2021).

The second myth about sexual harassment is that it is always overt and explicit Sexual harassment can manifest in various ways (Galdi & Guizzo, 2021) While some involve direct physical or verbal advances (Ford et al., 2021), others may involve subtle forms of harassment, such as inappropriate comments, gestures (Jones & Wade, 2020), or unwelcome advances (Tews et al., 2019) It is essential to understand that the impact of sexual harassment depends on the perception of the victim, and even seemingly minor incidents can have a profound effect.

The third myth states that victims of sexual harassment are responsible for the harassment Nonetheless, the responsibility for sexual harassment lies entirely with the perpetrator, not the victim (Fitzgerald & Cortina, 2018) No one should be blamed or held responsible for the inappropriate actions or behaviours of others Victims are not at fault for experiencing harassment, regardless of their clothing, behaviour, or other factors (Maswandi et al., 2022; Wood et al., 2022) The focus should be on addressing and preventing harassment rather than questioning the actions or choices of victims.

The fourth myth is that reporting sexual harassment always leads to immediate resolution. Hart (2019) indicates that reporting sexual harassment can be challenging, and resolution may not always be prompt or satisfactory Victims may face various obstacles, including fear of retaliation, disbelief, lack of support, or inadequate organisational responses It is crucial to improve support systems, encourage reporting, and ensure appropriate measures are in place to address complaints effectively.

1.2.2 #Metoo movement, sexual harassment and its related issues in reality

The #MeToo movement is a global social movement that emerged in October 2017 to raise awareness about the widespread prevalence of sexual harassment and assault, particularly in the workplace (Gibson et al., 2019) The movement encourages survivors to share their experiences and aims to combat the culture of silence and stigma surrounding these issues.

The campaign was initially created by activist Tarana Burke, who began using the phrase “Me Too” in 2006 to support and empower survivors of sexual violence, particularly women of colour (Daigle, 2021) However, the movement gained significant momentum and visibility in October 2017 when actress Alyssa Milano tweeted, “If you’ve been sexually harassed or assaulted, write ‘me too’ as a reply to this tweet.” This tweet went viral, with millions using the hashtag #MeToo to share their experiences or express solidarity with survivors (Kaufman et al., 2021) The #MeToo movement quickly spread across various social media platforms, with survivors from different countries, industries, and backgrounds sharing their stories (Irshad & Samad, 2021; Tranchese,

2023) The movement exposed the issue’s magnitude and created a sense of solidarity among survivors, showing that sexual harassment and assault are pervasive and systemic problems affecting individuals from all walks of life (Bongiorno et al., 2020; Rivara et al., 2019) These allegations and subsequent legal actions against influential individuals fueled public discussions and demands for change The #MeToo movement has profoundly impacted public discourse (Peleg-Koriat & Klar-Chalamish, 2020), increasing awareness (Castle et al., 2020), accountability (Zhang et al., 2020), and conversations about consent (Clarke- Vivier & Stearns, 2019), power dynamics (Kovach, 2020), and gender equality (Reyes- Menendez et al., 2020) It has created a platform for survivors to be heard, challenged societal norms, and prompted policies, laws, and workplace culture changes to address sexual harassment and assault more effectively (O’Mochain, 2020).

Gaps from previous studies

1.3.1 The situation of sexual harassment in the workplace

1.3.1.1 The victims and perpetrators of sexual harassment

Sexual harassment in the workplace is a complex and pervasive issue that victimises individuals across various industries, professions, and demographics(Brunner & Dever,

2014) While it is essential to underscore that anyone can become a victim of sexual harassment, certain groups have been identified as more vulnerable due to various socio- cultural and structural factors Women are disproportionately affected, with research suggesting that they are more likely to experience sexual harassment than their male counterparts (Camargo et al., 2017; Quick & McFadyen, 2017) This gender disparity can be attributed to entrenched patriarchal norms that objectify women and devalue their contributions, leading to an environment conducive to harassment (Bongiorno et al.,

2020) Moreover, Ram (2018) shows that individuals in lower-ranking positions or those in jobs historically dominated by the opposite sex are at greater risk Herein, power dynamics play a crucial role, with those in positions of power often exploiting their status at the expense of those who are subordinate or in the minority.

According to Shields et al (2021), young workers, mainly those new to the workforce, are another group frequently victimized They may lack the experience or confidence to navigate workplace dynamics effectively, making them easy targets for harassers Similarly, individuals from marginalised groups, including ethnic minorities and LGBTQ+ individuals, are more prone to sexual harassment due to societal prejudice and discrimination (Klein & Martin, 2021; Roscigno, 2019; A Schuyler et al., 2020; Sears et al., 2021) These individuals often confront a double burden, as they must contend with sexual harassment and discrimination based on their identity Furthermore, temporary workers (Jacobs et al., 2015; Shaw et al., 2018), contractors (Valantine et al.,

2022), or those in precarious employment conditions (Reuter et al., 2020) are vulnerable as they may fear losing their jobs or suffer retaliation if they report incidents of harassment This fear is amplified in industries that lack robust worker protections or where there is a significant power imbalance between employers and employees.

In the context of why individuals become victims of sexual harassment, the issue is deeply rooted in power dynamics (Quick & McFadyen, 2017), cultural norms (McDonald, 2012; Wamoyi et al., 2022), and structural inequities (Minnotte & Legerski,

2019) Those in power often use harassment to assert dominance and control over others,particularly in hierarchical organisations Cultural norms and societal attitudes that normalise or trivialise sexual harassment also contribute to its prevalence For instance, workplaces that tolerate sexist jokes, objectification, or gender stereotyping create an environment where sexual harassment can thrive Similarly, structural inequities, such as gender and racial disparities in leadership positions, can perpetuate a culture of harassment by reinforcing power imbalances.

The complex interplay of personal, organisational, and societal factors makes specific individuals more susceptible to sexual harassment (Schuyler et al., 2020; Sears et al., 2021; Zurbrugg & Miner, 2016) However, it is essential to note that the responsibility for sexual harassment lies solely with the harassers and the systems that enable them As such, addressing this issue requires a multi-faceted approach that empowers not only potential victims and encourages reporting (Cheng & Hsiaw, 2022; Jacobson & Eaton, 2018) but also promotes cultural and structural changes within organisations (Hennekam & Bennett, 2017) to prevent harassment in the first place It includes cultivating a culture of respect and equality (Johnson et al., 2018), implementing effective anti-harassment policies (Quick & McFadyen, 2017), and holding perpetrators accountable regardless of their position or status within the organisation (Sadler et al.,

2018) We can only create safer, more inclusive workplaces for all by tackling the problem at its roots.

Perpetrators of sexual harassment in the workplace are individuals who engage in unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favours, or other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature that creates a hostile or intimidating work environment (Pina et al., 2009) These individuals may include employees (Davis et al., 2023; Mathews et al., 2019b), managers (Basile et al., 2020; Minnotte & Legerski, 2019), or customers (Kundro et al., 2022).

Moreover, sexual harassment is a form of gender-based violence (Jatmiko et al.,2020; Latcheva, 2017) that can have severe and long-lasting effects on the victims and the overall work environment (Bondestam & Lundqvist, 2020; Hứgh et al., 2021).Thomas and Kopel (2023) indicate that perpetrators of sexual harassment often exert power and control over their victims, utilising their authority or influence to exploit and demean others One common characteristic of perpetrators of sexual harassment is a sense of entitlement and a belief in their right to objectify or harass others (Loxton & Groves, 2022) They may hold sexist attitudes, reinforce gender stereotypes, and view their targets as objects of sexual gratification rather than as colleagues or professionals (Serrano-Bernal, 2023) Moore and Mennicke (2020) prove that perpetrators often display a lack of empathy and disregard for the feelings and well-being of others, focusing solely on their desires and self-interest.

In some cases, perpetrators may perceive their behaviour as harmless or even as a form of flirting, failing to recognise the impact of their actions on the victims (Pina et al., 2009).

Bell et al (2018) demonstrate that perpetrators of sexual harassment in the workplace may also use intimidation and coercion tactics to maintain control over their victims They may use threats of retaliation, such as demotion, termination, or denial of promotions, to silence the victims and prevent them from reporting the harassment. Additionally, perpetrators may create a hostile work environment by spreading rumours, derogatory comments, or engaging in verbal or psychological abuse (Espelage et al.,

2016) It can contribute to a climate of fear and silence, making it difficult for victims to come forward and seek support (Bendixen & Kennair, 2017; Stubbs-Richardson et al., 2018).

1.3.1.2 Reasons for sexual harassment in the workplace

Quick and McFadyen (2017) indicate that sexual harassment in the workplace is a pervasive issue that has severe implications for both individuals and organisations based on different reasons One of the primary arguments is that it occurs due to power dynamics It is a multi-faceted dimension that includes both official and perceived power. Official power refers to the hierarchical structure within an organisation where individuals in higher positions have more control than those in lower positions (Bakker & de Vries, 2021; Hessels et al., 2017; Pinion et al., 2017) On the other hand, perceived power refers to an individual who has influence over others, which can derive from factors such as charisma or personal connections (LePine et al., 2016; Sun et al., 2016).Tinkler and Zhao (2020) prove that power can be misused to exploit or dominate others,leading to sexual harassment An individual in a position of power may feel entitled to act without consideration for the rights and feelings of those with less power This sense of entitlement and disregard for others can manifest as sexual harassment, as the aggressor uses their power to coerce, intimidate or otherwise exploit their victim It is not to say that all individuals in positions of power will engage in sexual harassment, but rather that the power dynamics within an organisation can create conditions in which sexual harassment is more likely to occur.

The second main reason for sexual harassment in the workplace is the perpetuation of discriminatory and sexist attitudes (Taylor et al., 2018) Shi and Zheng (2020) argue that despite advancements in gender equality, a persistent cultural undercurrent still views women as objects or inferior to men This cultural narrative, which often goes unnoticed or unchallenged, can infiltrate the workplace and influence the behaviour of its members. Darke (1990), Sundaram and Jackson (2018), and Henry and Flynn (2019) state that sexual harassment often manifests these attitudes, serving to degrade, humiliate, and objectify women It can occur in several ways, from blatant acts such as unwanted sexual advances to subtler forms of discrimination like belittling comments or inappropriate jokes (Marín et al., 2021; Mills & Scudder, 2023) Furthermore, these attitudes can also contribute to a culture of silence around sexual harassment, where victims feel unable or unwilling to report incidents for fear of not being believed, being blamed, or facing retaliation (Ford et al., 2021; Spiliopoulou & Witcomb, 2023) This culture of silence can further perpetuate the problem, as it allows perpetrators to act with impunity and discourages victims from seeking help or redress.

The third reason for sexual harassment in the workplace, as stated by Ram (2018), is the lack of effective policies and enforcement mechanisms Organisations may have formal procedures to prevent and address sexual harassment Still, if these policies are not enforced, or employees are not aware of them, they will do little to deter potential harassers Furthermore, policies focusing merely on compliance without addressing the underlying issues of power dynamics and discriminatory attitudes are unlikely to result in significant change (Carstensen, 2016) Sadler et al (2018) said that effective sexual harassment prevention requires transparent and enforceable policies and a commitment from leadership to create a respectful and inclusive culture It includes regular training on what constitutes sexual harassment and how to respond to it, establishing clear procedures for reporting and investigating complaints, and ensuring that perpetrators are held accountable for their actions Without this commitment, policies and practices will likely be ineffective and may even contribute to a culture of complacency and silence around sexual harassment.

1.3.1.3 Cultural viewpoints on sexual harassment in the workplace

Workplace sexual harassment is a universal concern, yet cultural contexts can significantly influence perceptions and interpretations Cultural norms and values shape understanding of what constitutes appropriate behaviour, and therefore, the threshold for what is considered sexual harassment can vary across cultures (Pina et al., 2009). According to Mishra and Stair (2019), in patriarchal cultures, traditional gender roles can normalise power imbalances, leading to a higher tolerance for sexual harassment In such societies, unwelcome sexual advances may be dismissed as “normal” behaviour, making it less likely to be reported and more difficult for victims to seek redress (Merkin & Shah,

Research objectives

The thesis examines and evaluates the relationships among sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover in hospitality in Vietnam The study also assesses the moderating effects of psychological empowerment in awareness, perceptions, and reactions towards sexual harassment and its outcomes in the hotel industry The result will suggest relevant theoretical implications from the collected and analysed data for future research It also has a managerial impact on hotels to sustain and develop a robust human resource foundation, increase employees’ motivations and commitment, promote future financial development, and, more importantly, preserve a clean and healthy working environment for hotels in Vietnam.

There are three main detailed objectives for the thesis including:

Objective 1: Examining and evaluating the relationships among sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover.

Objective 2: Examining and evaluating the moderating effects of psychological empowerment in the three relationships: (1) sexual harassment to job burnout, (2) job burnout to labour turnover, and (3) sexual harassment to labour turnover.

Objective 3: Providing theoretical and managerial implications for the hospitality industry’s future sustainability.

Research questions

The following research questions are to fulfil the research objectives of this thesis:

Question 1: How negative are the relationships among sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover in the hospitality industry in Vietnam?

Question 2: Is there any negative direct influence of sexual harassment on labour turnover and indirect effect from the mediating roles of job burnout in the hospitality industry in Vietnam?

Question 3: Does psychological empowerment have negative moderation roles in the relationships among sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover in the hospitality industry in Vietnam?

Question 4: What implications could be withdrawn from the research to apply for both academic and natural working environments in the hospitality industry in Vietnam?

Research subjects and scopes

The subjects of the thesis are employees working in the luxury hotel industry in Vietnam. They had experienced sexual harassment in the workplace at least once, felt burnout and decided to change their jobs within 12 months The subjects can be from different nationalities, but they must work in hotels in Vietnam, regardless of 4 or 5-star hotels, in various departments, including front of the house (such as front desk, food and beverages, concierge or customer service) and back of the house (like housekeeping, sales and marketing, finance, and likewise) The age ranges vary from 18 years old to retirement age of 65 All heterosexual and homosexual groups are welcome to take part in the research.

Theoretical scope: The thesis utilises three main theories to explain the relationships of variables, which are Conservation of resource (COR), Social Cognitive theories (SCT), and Cultural Dimension Theory (CDT) Besides, the new concept of Psychological empowerment is considered a moderator to justify the result of each relationship The central idea of sexual harassment in the workplace represents one of the main external reasons for job burnout Labour turnover is a concept that represents individual action resulting from sexual harassment.

Research scope: The research is conducted with employees working in 4 and 5 hotels or equivalent in Vietnam in international or domestic brands The selected hotels are located in different cities in three regions: the North, the Central and the South Vietnam Employees in various locations will vary their perception of sexual harassment at work and come out with several reactions The participants are working or have experience working in three positions: management, supervisory, and staff It ensures different viewpoints and outcomes regarding the issue of sexual harassment.

Timing scope: The research thesis was conducted through many adjustments during implementation The official thesis implementation time is from 2021 to 2023. The interview with experts will take place in June 2023, and the time to collect survey questionnaires (both pilot and official survey) will be from July to October 2023.

The research utilises qualitative research and quantitative research methods While the qualitative method is solely used in adjusting a research model and measurement scales, quantitative research is the primary method used in Pilot tests and official research.

Sexual harassment and its influences in the workplace are too sensitive to be discussed publicly; therefore, it is ideal to discuss it privately with in-depth interviews (Nguyen, 2013b, p 110) The qualitative research method assists the research model and the research scale amendment The interviews will be jotted down and recorded based on the questions or topics However, the order and ways of asking questions may depend on the context and characteristics of the interviewees The results from in-depth interviews will be collected and adjusted to suit the Vietnamese context and will later form a draft scale for the pilot test and official quantitative research.

The study uses descriptive and inferential statistics to fulfil different purposes. Descriptive statistics are used to analyse the study sample Inferential statistics are applied to test the model and research hypotheses to determine the relationships among concepts in the research model.

The Pilot Test (n = 50): Data from the pilot test is analysed with Cronbach Alpha to examine validity and reliability before being tested with Exploratory Factor Analysis(EFA) to observe the convergent and discriminant values of the variables in the scale.Only valid variables will be represented in the official survey using the quantitative research method.

The official research (n = 270): The thesis conducts a survey using a final questionnaire The scales will be retested for reliability, validity, convergent, and discriminant by Cronbach’s Alpha and EFA before being evaluated by analysing the PLS- SEM software’s measurement and linear structural models The PLS-SEM method is essential because this method allows for handling a small sample size The study used the PLS Bootstrapping technique with a repeated sample size of 5,000 observations to test the research hypothesis.

The general research framework: sexual harassment will significantly influence labour turnover directly Job burnout is also an undesirable result of sexual harassment and a mediating part leading to labour turnover Psychological empowerment has moderating effects on relationships among sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover.

The novelty of the research

Research regarding sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover in the workplace has been conducted separately, yielding numerous valuable findings. However, the interconnections among these three critical issues remain largely unexplored, thus creating gaps in the existing literature and opportunities for upcoming research This thesis proposes an innovative perspective, emphasizing the correlation and causal relationships among sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover.

Sexual harassment in the workplace is a pervasive issue that has been extensively studied, but its impact on job burnout and labour turnover is under-researched The proposed research aims to delve into this less-explored area, i.e psychological empowerment, hypothesizing that sexual harassment contributes to job burnout and increases labour turnover This triadic relationship, if established, would provide deeper insights into the psychological and social phenomena in the workplace, enriching the existing body of knowledge.

Job burnout, characterized by exhaustion, depersonalisation, and decreased professional efficacy, is a frequent concern in today’s fast-paced work environments.While the literature has linked job burnout with high turnover rates, the role of sexual harassment as a contributing factor to this burnout-turnover link is yet to be thoroughly examined By investigating the potential influence of sexual harassment on job burnout, the research will contribute a new dimension to understanding burnout drivers and their subsequent impact on labour turnover.

Labour turnover, often an organisational challenge, has been linked with direct and indirect costs such as recruitment, training, and loss of productivity While the links between job burnout and turnover have been established, the role of sexual harassment as a precipitating factor in this dynamic has not been thoroughly explored The thesis will, therefore, not only yield insights into the root causes of turnover but also provide actionable strategies for organisations to mitigate this costly issue.

The proposed research will be novel in its methodology as well Most previous research in the same area preferred using qualitative methods, but this thesis implements the quantitative method By employing a quantitative approach, the study will provide a more nuanced understanding of the complex dynamics among sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover This methodological novelty will allow us to capture the depth and breadth of employees’ experiences and provide more comprehensive insights.

The implications of this novel research are multifold For academia, it will fill a significant gap in the literature, fostering a more comprehensive understanding of the interplay between sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover Understanding these dynamics could lead to more effective interventions for organisations to reduce sexual harassment, curb job burnout, and decrease labour turnover The findings could inform policymakers of legislative and regulatory measures to protect employees from sexual harassment and job burnout.

This study aims to contribute significantly to academic knowledge, practical organisational strategies, and public policy by exploring an under-researched area.Drawing from psychology, sociology, and business studies, this interdisciplinary approach offers a comprehensive and innovative perspective on the complex issues of workplace dynamics.

The importance of the research

Firstly, the theories used in this thesis are summarised and flexibly applied to sexual harassment in the workplace, job burnout, and labour turnover in Vietnam Three theories, Conservation of Resources theory (COR), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), and Cultural dimension theory (CDT), are systemised to concentrate on the problem of sexual harassment in the hospitality workplace in Vietnam It assists hospitality organisations in realising, thinking, and solving the issues of sexual harassment rationally.

Secondly, the research model is formed by theories and initially tested in Vietnam with expected results, including:

(1) The Sexual Experience Questionnaire (SEQ) is suitably applied to the questionnaire on Gender discrimination in Vietnam’s context Sexual harassment in the workplace negatively impacts employees’ well-being and partially creates the intention to leave the organisation.

(2) Sexual harassment is a global issue, but it varies from one country to another. The SEQ is constructed by Fitzgerald et al (1995) in Western contexts, so it may not be entirely suitable for Vietnam Therefore, experts have adjusted the SEQ questionnaire to ensure the correct results are collected The author has adjusted, supplemented, and tested the scale The concepts are turned into variables to suit Vietnam’s context.

(3) Researchers can assess the relationships among the mentioned theories and reexamine the above relationships in other areas.

Research results assist hotel managers, employees in hospitality, institutions, and policymakers (at all levels of government) in predicting, preventing, and protecting victims from sexual harassment and labour turnover Additionally, it improves the level of safety in the working environment, which can be used as an advantage for Vietnam to attract more talented employees to work, commit and dedicate themselves to the organisation.

For hotel managers: Because workers are a source of value and profits for every business, employers and associated human resource departments must understand their employees unbiasedly Protecting employees with appropriate treatments and justice is essential for long-term financial and non-financial development.

For hotel employees: Each employee should be well-trained with information, abilities, and skills Besides focusing on laws and self-protection rights, being professional at work and aware of sexual harassment is crucial to reducing the chance of becoming a victim of sexual harassment The deeper the understanding is, the more committed it will be.

For educational institutions: Each school should offer courses on gender equality, sexual orientations, and sexual concerns to teach students to enhance their knowledge and abilities as soon as possible because, as prospective victims of harassment get mature, they will incorporate social variables into their beliefs and accept them as standards As a result, sexual education should be applied widely in education.

For policymakers : Several decisions, decrees, and laws have been issued but have not mentioned specific content to identify or prevent sexual harassment Therefore, research results help policymakers identify clear and practical policies and solutions It also helps to prevent sexual harassment in the workplace, especially in the hospitality industry.

Understanding the importance of a practical perspective in different regions of Vietnam (the North, Centre, and South) is crucial in addressing issues such as sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover In a country with diverse cultural and regional characteristics, the practical perspective allows for considering unique local dynamics, customs, and attitudes towards these issues By recognizing different regions' specific social, economic, and cultural contexts, more effective interventions and policies can be developed to combat sexual harassment, alleviate job burnout, and reduce labour turnover.

Moreover, the practical perspective also enables a deeper understanding of the moderation effect of psychological empowerment on these issues Understanding this moderation effect is essential for tailoring interventions and strategies to the specific power dynamics present in each region, thereby enhancing their effectiveness.

Ultimately, taking a practical perspective in different regions of Vietnam facilitates a more nuanced and contextually relevant approach to addressing sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover while considering the impact of psychological empowerment This approach can lead to more successful and sustainable solutions to these critical workplace issues.

Research ethics

Researching sensitive topics such as sexual harassment in the workplace, job burnout, and labour turnover requires a strict application of ethical principles Ethics in research ensures the protection of participants’ rights, dignity, and well-being while upholding the integrity and quality of the study.

Informed consent is paramount Participants must understand the nature of the study, the procedures involved, the potential risks and benefits, and their right to withdraw at any point without penalty In the context of sexual harassment in the workplace, it’s crucial to clearly define the term to ensure participants understand what they consent to discuss The researcher must also ensure that participation is voluntary and free from coercion.

Confidentiality and anonymity are further ethical considerations Given these topics’ personal and sensitive nature, researchers must implement measures to safeguard participants’ identities and responses It might include using pseudonyms, ensuring secure data storage, and presenting findings in a way that does not allow individual identification When discussing sexual harassment, the emotional safety of participants must be prioritized, and researchers should be prepared to provide referrals to support services if necessary.

Moreover, the author must consider the potential for harm Discussing experiences of sexual harassment and job burnout can be distressing and even traumatising for some participants The author was trained in trauma-informed approaches and offered participants the chance to debrief or access support after participating The research should aim to contribute positively to understanding and preventing sexual harassment in the workplace, job burnout, and labour turnover The author must ensure that the potential benefits of the research outweigh any possible harm or discomfort to the participants.

The author must also consider the power dynamics inherent in investigating workplace issues They should strive for an egalitarian relationship with participants,avoiding exploitation or manipulation Participants’ perspectives should be respected and valued, and findings should be reported honestly and accurately.

Structure of the thesis

Chapter 1: Introduction to the research topic:

This chapter presents the necessity of the research problem, the objectives, the methods of conducting the research, the units, the scope, and the thesis structure.

The second chapter presents, summarizes, and systematizes background theories and research concepts This foundation establishes the research model with the relevant hypothesis in Vietnam's hospitality industry.

This chapter presents the research procedures and methods It consists of the sampling methods, the process of data collection and process, the methods of model testing, and the methods for hypothesis testing The primary purpose is to analyze concepts’ relationships and levels of influence.

This chapter presents the characteristics of the research samples on sexual harassment,job burnout, and labour turnover in Vietnam’s hospitality industry Next, the technical analysis steps include Cronbach Alpha, the exploratory factor analysis (EFA), and PartialLeast Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to evaluate the measuring and structural models The thesis examines and evaluates the initially proposed hypotheses and discusses the results.

Chapter 5: Conclusions, implications, recommendations, limitations, and directions for future research

This chapter summarizes the research findings Based on the final analysis, the thesis provides managerial implications to help hospitality organisations, institutions, and employees prevent, protect and sustain healthy relationships in the workplace and reduce the potential for labour turnover In addition, the study presents existing limitations and suggests directions for future research.

LITERATURE REVIEWS

Introduction to Chapter 2

In Chapter 2, the particular research concepts will be expressed The thesis utilises three (3) foundational theories, including the theory of Conservation of resources (COR), Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), and Cultural dimensions theory (CDT) From these theories, there are three concepts to be analysed: (1) impacts of sexual harassment on job burnout, (2) influences of negative perceptions on turnover intention, and (3) moderating effects of psychological empowerment on job burnout and labour turnover in terms of sexual harassment The thesis uses theories, previous research references, and articles to strengthen the relationships of variables As a result, the hypothesis and the conceptual framework are proposed and presented in this chapter.

Research concepts

2.2.1 Sexual harassment in the modern world: from daily life to workplaces

Sexual harassment, which can be characterized as any physical, verbal, or nonverbal sexual activity, as well as any sex-based behaviour that compromises the integrity of all sexual orientations, is a severe form of sex discrimination and a violation of civil rights Since the perception of sexual harassment varies among nations, different countries have various ways of explaining sexual harassment.

Fitzgerald and Cortina (2018) have created more sophisticated words to define sexual harassment to more accurately assess and account for the behaviours that constitute sexual harassment and explain how targets experience such behaviours Sexual harassment is classified into three categories: gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion (Stark et al., 2009).

In the Equality Act (2010) of the U.K., sexual harassment is defined as any unwelcome sexual behaviour that upsets, scares, offends, or humiliates someone or is intended to do so (Humphreys, 2010) Sexual harassment is a kind of sexual assault,defined as any sexual behaviour or act that occurs without permission Someone sexually harasses another person if they engage in unwanted sexual activity with the intention or effect of either breaching the other person's dignity or creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating, or offensive environment.

In the U.S., harassment can include "sexual harassment," or unwanted sexual approaches, demands for sexual favours, and other sexual verbal or physical harassment (Department of State, 2019) Harassment does not have to be sexual and might include disrespectful statements regarding a person's gender or sexual orientation The victim and the harasser might be female or male and can be of the same gender (Fitzgerald et al., 1997; Hay & Elig, 1999).

In Vietnam, according to decree 144/2021/NĐ-CP (2021), sexual harassment is a type of sexual violence Non-consensual physical contact, such as grabbing, pinching, slapping, or sexually rubbing against another person, is sexual harassment It is also non- physical violence, such as catcalls, sexual comments about a person's body or appearance, demands for sexual favours, sexually suggestive staring, stalking, and exposing one's sex organs Domestic violence, for example, can occur in the private realm, at work, or in public areas.

Thus, a wide range of sexual behaviours and actions may be considered sexual harassment, including unwanted sexual statements or approaches, sexual jokes, the display of photos or posters that objectify others, physical touching, and sexual assault.Sexual harassment is a severe kind of gender discrimination and a violation of human rights International Labour Organisation (ILO, 2019b) states that sexual harassment is uninvited sexual activity that causes insult, embarrassment, and intimidation Sexual harassment consists of three types: verbal, non-verbal, and physical Verbal sexual harassment includes comments and inquiries about one's looks, lifestyle, sexual orientation, and rude phone calls At the same time, non-verbal sexual harassment consists of whistling, sexual gestures, and the show-off of sexual materials Physical harassment is about physical aggression, touching, and unacceptable closeness.Harassment may occur in various social situations, including the workplace, the family,the school, and others Harassers and victims can be of any sexual orientation (EEOC,2019).

Sexual harassment is a type of gender discrimination It includes unwanted sexual approaches, demands for sexual favours, and other sexually related verbal or physical actions when (1) submission to that behaviour is made a requirement or condition of employment either expressly or tacitly, (2) individuals' submission to or rejection of such behaviour is utilised as a component of the rationale for employment decisions affecting that individual, or (3) the conduct is intended or has the effect of significantly interfering with an individual's work performance or producing a hostile, or offensive work environment (Boland, 2005, pp 34-39; Lilia M Cortina & Maira A Areguin, 2021). Sexual harassment happens at different levels (Adler et al., 2021; Ranganathan et al.,

2021) Both the victim and the harasser might be female or male, which means there is no exception for genders in terms of being sexually harassed (Cesario, 2020; Lilia M. Cortina & Maira A Areguin, 2021; Fitzgerald & Cortina, 2018).

Notably, sexual harassment in the workplace has two main elements: (1) quid pro quo and (2) a hostile work environment (ILO, 2019a, 2019b) Quid pro quo represents any physical, verbal, or non-verbal lead of a sexual sort and other direct dependents on sex influencing the respect of ladies and men, which is unwanted, nonsensical, and hostile to the beneficiary An individual's dismissal of, or accommodation to, such direction is utilised unequivocally or verifiably as a reason for choosing which influences that individual's work An example of quid pro quo is a pattern of sexual harassment that occurs when approval or rejection of a sexual offer is equivalent to appointments, career advancement, pay increases, bonuses, work and task distribution, or contract extension or renewal Hostile work environment behaviour makes the recipient's working environment frightening, unpleasant, or humiliating Unwanted or embarrassing sexual jokes, insults, or depictions of undesirable sexually explicit content are typical examples of a hostile work environment (ILO, 2019a).

Different nations vary in sexual harassment and its existence in the workplace.Each country has proposed a law to identify and justify sexual harassment in the workplace Eight countries in Appendix 1 in different regions imply laws on workplace sexual harassment, including developing and developed countries in America, Europe,and Asia-

Pacific The problem of sexual harassment is not synchronized, and the judgments are pretty subjective It shows that sexual harassment is well-perceived in Western countries, and punishments are insignificant On the other hand, Asian nations struggle to identify sexual harassment and prevent and impose penalties on those perpetrators Even though some codes of labour or laws implement significant penalties for harassers, the problem of sexual harassment is still vague.

Sexual harassment laws vary across countries, but many nations have recognised the need to address this issue and have implemented legal protections While the summary provides a brief overview, it is essential to consider sexual harassment in the workplace with different cultures and scenarios Different countries may have varying definitions and classifications of sexual harassment However, common elements include unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favours, or other verbal, non-verbal, or physical conduct of a sexual nature that interferes with an individual’s work or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive environment.

In Western countries, including the United States, European nations, and Australia, laws against sexual harassment are typically based on principles of equality and non- discrimination These laws ensure a safe and respectful working environment for all individuals Many Asian countries have recently enacted legislation that places the responsibility on employers to prevent and address sexual harassment in the workplace. These laws often require employers to establish policies, procedures, and training programs to educate employees about their rights and responsibilities Employers are typically expected to investigate complaints, take appropriate disciplinary action against perpetrators, and support victims It is crucial to note that cultural, social, and legal contexts differ across countries, leading to variations in the level of protection and enforcement of sexual harassment laws Some nations may have more comprehensive legal frameworks, while others may have limited or no specific rules.

In the workplace, the harassers vary from the victim's boss, an employer's agent, a supervisor in another department, a co-worker, or a non-employee, such as a vendor or a client (Basile et al., 2020) Besides the directly sexually harassed victims, anybody impacted by unpleasant behaviour is considered a victim (Goh & Lee, 2018; Gramazio et al., 2021) Usually, sexual harassment might occur without causing economic harm or discharging the victim, but the harasser's behaviour must be unwanted (Tews et al., 2019).

Sexual harassment creates exceptionally adverse outcomes for victims, especially in the workplace Both victims and organisations may quantify the problems To victims, sexual harassment in the workplace creates decreased financial, emotional, and psychological status (Boland, 2005, pp 132 - 133) Victims feel terrible and may leave the organisations when they feel unsafe and change to another place with a safer environment, but this does not guarantee higher incomes The victims may not find an immediate replacement for the lost job since they may choose a new company with the same expertise or a different job field They are jobless because of getting away from sexual harassment (McLaughlin et al., 2017) Sexual harassment also negatively pressures victims' mental and physical health (Fitzgerald & Cortina, 2018) According to Willness et al (2007), sexual harassment is linked to an increased risk of anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, lower self-esteem, and psychological prosperity The victims of sexual harassment tend to have higher intentions toward withdrawal from the organisation (Cheung et al., 2017), higher absenteeism (Hersch,

2018), not focusing on assignments and reduced productivity (H McLaughlin et al.,

Theoretical framework

The Conservation of Resources Theory (COR) is also widely used to identify the relationship between the workplace and labour turnover by explaining the reasons for job burnout (Mackey et al., 2016) Jin et al (2016) prove that improved person-organisation fit will lead to higher work satisfaction and diminish a loss of resources Therefore, it results in a lower desire to leave Choi (2020) also states that sexual harassment creates stress and job dissatisfaction, directly decreasing individuals' energy As a result, victims of sexual harassment lose their resources, reduce their job performance, and lower their civil consciousness behaviours (Choi, 2020) Emotional labourers exhaust employees in the hospitality industry, and they may leave the organisations if bad manners or treatment happen (Wang, 2019) Yousaf et al (2019) also prove that there are two significant relationships between (1) occupational stress and job engagement and (2) occupational stress and employee turnover intentions in hotels, which can redirect the levels of job satisfaction The COR enables a better understanding of the impact of occupational stress on key employee outcomes such as labour turnover or decreased commitment (Yousaf et al., 2019) Zhao and Tinkler (2020) utilise the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory to give insights into supervisors’ harassment in predicting employees’ behaviours, i.e., actual resource loss, including self-esteem and social support in the hotel environment.

Xu et al (2020) state that since emotional employees in the hospitality industry take other people’s emotions as their emotional resources, they tend to act intensely when performing their assignments As such, they attempt to reserve resources to cope with internal and external stresses Then, job commitment reduces (Xu et al., 2020) The COR is commonly used to explain the relationship between emotional labour and job satisfaction in the hospitality industry Still, the COR solely examines surface acting rather than deep acting, which needs improvement in future research.

Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) is used in social science to examine personal behaviours in social interactions The SCT examines the links between employees and career-related social contexts, impacting job retention and labour turnover (Lin, 2017). External factors of the environment can shift the perceptions of a person Liao et al.

(2016) show that the SCT is commonly used to examine the impact level of sexual harassment on victims’ moral identities It is because socio-environmental signals influence people's cognition, including self-regulation, and, as a result, their actions. Sexual harassment via the SCT is an important social-environmental signal that can be used as a moderator for work-life balance In the workplace, the SCT explains why job satisfaction changes based on the working ambience.

Regarding sexual harassment in the workplace, the SCT is utilised to improve employees' self-efficacy by providing different scenarios with which to get acquainted(Medeiros & Griffith, 2019) In the hospitality industry, the SCT is suitable because of its attachment to the workplace and employees' emotions In the flexible working environment of any hotel, individuals are proactive, innovative, and capable of devising plans of action that lead to desired goals.

Sexual harassment varies from one country to another Several studies have compared perceptions of sexual harassment in different countries (Mishra & Davison,

2020) Because sexual harassment is an acute problem in Asian countries, it is advisable to consider the Cultural Dimensions Theory (CDT) In male-dominant countries like Asian ones, women tend not to report sexual harassment cases (Luthar & Luthar, 2002).

In addition, Asian respondents are more tolerant of sexual harassment-related acts than non- Asian ones (Kennedy & Gorzalka, 2002) Applying the CDT in business management has not been widely considered in previous studies Still, since sexual harassment is difficult to capture in Vietnam, the CDT should be involved independently to justify the actions of perpetrators and the reactions of victims.

Three theories explain sexual harassment in the workplace and different cultures. Each theory exerts dimensions to evaluate sexual harassment and its adverse outcomes and clarifies the unveiled problems of sexual harassment in the workplace The leading theory used to explain the final result of labour turnover by sexual harassment is the conservation of resources theory, and the other three theories support defining other relationships of variables.

2.3.2 Conservation of Resources Theory (COR)

Because sexual harassment psychologically stresses victims, the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory analyses such issues According to Hobfoll and Shirom (2001), COR shows that stress is not primarily a result of individuals' feelings or experiences It consists of environmental, social, and cultural factors to acquire and protect the circumstances that ensure their well-being and distance themselves from threats The stress arises from the difficulties of accomplishing the common goals for which members of society strive Sexual harassment is a barrier to sustaining employees’ commitments(Choi, 2020).

COR theory shows that people are driven to safeguard their present resources while acquiring new ones Objects, situations, circumstances, and other things people value are informally characterized as resources Individuals' perceptions of the worth of resources differ and are influenced by their unique experiences and circumstances (Hobfoll, 1989) Many concepts about the causes of stress have been generated, refined, and changed to form the Conservation of Resources Theory (COR) Hobfoll (1989) emphasizes that COR theory is an alternative to other stress theories since it emphasizes the objective and cultural views of the environment rather than the individual's point of view in influencing the stress process Resource loss is fundamental to stress (Hobfoll & Shirom, 2001) As a result, regaining the lost resources is critical to balancing people's lives, and resources play crucial roles in preventing the loss of the following resources. Sexual harassment causes workplace stress and increases labour turnover in the service business Based on COR, victims lose their resources of a safe working environment and tend to choose a better workplace (Halbesleben, 2006; Hobfoll & Shirom, 2001) As a result, regaining the lost resource is critical to balancing people's lives, and resources play crucial roles in preventing the loss of the following resource Sexual harassment causes workplace stress and increases labour turnover in the service business Victims lose their resources of a safe working environment and tend to choose a better place to work.

2.3.2.2 COR explains the relationship between sexual harassment and labour turnover in the hospitality industry

COR theory states that resources are things that people value Resource loss is a fundamental component of creating problems These losses are psychologically stressful and are blamed for people's poor mental health (e.g., burnout and depression) (Meng &Choi, 2021) Furthermore, when people sense a loss of resources, they try to save resources to deal with threatening situations (Hobfoll, 1989; Hobfoll, 2001; Hobfoll &Shirom, 2001) Halbesleben (2006) states that the Conservation of Resources theory(COR) explains stress-coping behaviours It contends that individuals have motives to invest appropriate resources to complete activities and collect resources to avoid potential future loss Employees frequently try to escape job pressures brought on by dysfunctional clients Employees evaluate the stress in their regular jobs since these clients may represent a high psychological cost to employees and physical damage to service companies (i.e., possible exhaustion) (Lee & Ok, 2014) Working in the hospitality industry, employees face sexual harassment in different forms Sexual harassment is likely to drain patients' resources and deplete their job engagement to the degree that resource content is necessary for job engagement (Ranganathan et al., 2021) The experience of sexual harassment is a stressor that demotivates employees and depletes their resources Harassment victims may safeguard their remaining resources (such as energy) by withdrawing from workplace involvement and reducing their proactive performance attempts (Kim et al., 2020) Therefore, the link between job resources and proactive employee behaviour fluctuates through job engagement.

According to Hobfoll and Shirom (2001), resources are not allocated evenly, and those with fewer resources are more vulnerable to subsequent losses Frontline personnel are generally resource-poor individuals controlled by the power imbalance produced by solid hierarchical systems in the hospitality sector As a result, when confronted with sexual harassment, employees in the hospitality sector who lack resources tend to adopt passive reactions to save their remaining resources in stressful situations (Park et al.,

2020) It helps explain why, in the hotel sector, few victims make harassment complaints (Cheung et al., 2018).

In the COR model, job instability, unsafe workplace, and everyday situations of hospitality employees are viewed as work stressors that deplete employees' resources. Therefore, COR theory varies in several perspectives of the service industry (Lee & Ok,

2014) Firstly, employees in the service business frequently adapt to client aggression. Even in mild cases of client aggression, they might experience grief, pain, hatred, and resentment (Choi et al., 2019) Employees get emotionally upset and psychologically and physically strained as a result of such exposure to violence According to Yeh et al.

(2020), individuals strive to safeguard and maintain their psychological, social,emotional, and physical resources Individuals might use this tendency to guarantee their survival and avoid dangers Employees either withdraw from their employment (e.g., excessive job withdrawal behaviour) or buffer the negative impact by draining other personal resources to reduce resource drain (e.g., social support) Anser et al (2020) also indicate the relationships between age, job burnout, and job satisfaction The conservation of resources (COR) theory hypothesizes a negative relationship between subjective age and work satisfaction Job burnout modulates the personal age-job satisfaction relationship based on the progressive depletion of physical and emotional energy Job burnout costs businesses money because of the negative consequences on employees' work-related results (Anser et al., 2020) Employees' emotional, physical, and behavioural health suffer from job burnout It also leads to decreased job satisfaction, turnover, absenteeism, and reduced commitment (Teo et al., 2021).

Hypothesis development and conceptual framework

2.4.1 The relationship between sexual harassment and labour turnover

According to Salman et al (2016), sexual harassment did influence employee turnover plans The findings showed that sexual harassment increased employee turnover despite the respondents' reluctance to share their experiences As a result, the employer must have paid high turnover expenses Furthermore, since sexual harassment lowered work satisfaction and raised turnover intention, the two had a negative inverse relationship Future studies should concentrate on qualitative methodology to understand the most prevalent form of harassment experienced Given that the findings of Salman et al (2016) showed that sexual harassment substantially impacted employee turnover intentions, it was vital to identify the types of sexual harassment employees most frequently experience It would be beneficial in various ways, especially when developing response models.

Furthermore, Aytac et al (2016) indicated that sexual harassment was a serious issue that affected not only people's health and safety but also the productivity of businesses and the quality of life for their workers The research looked into the effects of sexual, physical, and verbal abuse at work on employees' commitment to their jobs and their intention to leave them A statistically significant correlation existed between the desire to leave a job and sexual violence The result showed that those exposed to workplace violence had a significantly higher rate of job turnover intention than those without Although it was found that this group had a poor commitment rate, the difference was not statistically significant (Aytac et al., 2016).

Ram (2018) showed much violence in the travel and tourism sector Three significant factors: structural causes, inadequate managerial abilities, and widespread misconceptions about the tourism industry, led to bullying, violence, and sexual harassment of employees Negative organisational indicators like high staff turnover rates and low profitability resulted from the harmful effects on victimized employees, including their intentions to quit and psychological distress Victims' peers were also adversely impacted Research has not yet been conducted on the effects on customers who observed bullying, violence, or harassment Additionally, the high frequency of violent acts harmed the reputation of the travel and hospitality sectors (Ram, 2018).

Poulston (2008a) stated that gathering information from hotels and restaurants was challenging Nearly half of the answers were obtained directly from young employees, which tipped the data toward younger age groups and shorter employment durations. Findings from this research were thought to have been influenced by the data but not validated The study was conducted in a region that relied on youth labour and had a high staff turnover rate However, the findings of this study suggested that training was likely to reduce workplace issues like theft and staff turnover Therefore, care should have been taken when extrapolating the results to other groups, particularly those where the staff was older and less transient.

Park et al (2022) considered the effects of sexual harassment on male employees in the hotel industry They explored how male victims of a phenomenon typically associated with male perpetrators and female victims perceived and experienced verbal, physical, visual, and psychological sexual harassment Sexual harassment against men in the workplace had been ignored because it typically involved a male perpetrator against a female victim who was lower in the organisational hierarchy However, Park et al (2022) pointed out four main limitations First off, since this study's coverage of male sexual harassment was restricted to the hotel sector, caution was advised when extrapolating its findings to larger groups Second, these results did not apply to hotel workers in other nations and areas and only to male hotel employees in a particular country It was because sexual harassment and cultural norms vary by nation, especially if it is a high- power nation with a distinctively male- and customer-centred culture Third, because we did not hear from female hotel workers who had experienced sexual harassment, any generalizations should have only applied to males The study focused on instances of male sexual harassment in motels As a result, it can be noted that self-reported data may not accurately reflect reality because victims of sensitive situations may have usually been reluctant to share their experiences.

According to Heather McLaughlin et al (2017), approximately 35% of this effect was attributed to targets changing jobs, a typical response to severe sexual harassment. Some women quit their jobs to avoid harassment, and others left because they were dissatisfied or frustrated with their employer's response In both cases, harassment targets frequently reported that leaving their jobs was the only way to escape the toxic workplace environment (Heather McLaughlin et al., 2017).

Furthermore, it is recommended that three elements of sexual harassment, i.e. gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion, should be imposed and analysed carefully to evaluate the influence of sexual harassment on labour turnover.

2.4.1.1 Gender harassment vs labour turnover

First, gender harassment, the most frequent sexual harassment, also known as gender-based harassment, is discrimination against people based on gender It is known as sexism when someone harasses another person because of their gender or the gender they identify with (Fitzgerald & Cortina, 2018) Gender harassment is difficult to distinguish from sexual harassment, although it is evident when the harasser's behaviour is sexually related Gender harassment creates a hostile work environment for individuals of one gender (Johnson et al., 2016) Gender harassment can take many forms in the workplace, including negative behaviour between two or more co-workers, a boss and a subordinate, and various scenarios (Harnois & Bastos, 2018) Sexual harassment has continuously affected working women, including changes in job attitudes (e.g., decreased job satisfaction) and reactions (e.g., increased work withdrawal) According to Leskinen et al.

(2011), Bothma and Roodt (2012), Faldetta et al (2013), Shechory-Bitton and Zvi

(2020), and Rothgerber et al (2020), harassment impacts turnover intentions As a result, examining gender harassment is necessary to determine whether it can be attributed to labour turnover and draw a possible conclusion for further research.

H1a: Gender harassment negatively influences labour turnover

2.4.1.2 Unwanted sexual attention vs labour turnover

Secondly, unwanted sexual attention can range from being touched without consent to sexual activities that cause anxiety, fear, or discomfort, as well as rape and sexual misconduct It may happen to people of any sexual orientation due to harassers' activities (Clarke et al., 2016) Respondents may learn about the full scope of sexual harassment in this section, which helps reduce misunderstandings about answering surveys because three forms of harassment are depicted However, it must be contextualized in Vietnam since cultural factors negatively influence how people perceive unwanted sexual attention (Khuat, 2020) Because it was allowed by civilizations, certain modest acts are not considered sexual harassment As a result, creating pertinent questions based on the present national condition is critical for obtaining the best results.

Unwanted sexual attention within the workplace constitutes a form of sexual harassment that can significantly impact employees' psychological well-being, job satisfaction, and, consequently, their decisions to remain in or leave their positions(Clarke et al., 2016) This phenomenon can lead to labour turnover for several reasons.

First, exposure to unwanted sexual attention creates a hostile work environment, undermining the affected individuals' sense of safety and belonging Such experiences can lead to increased stress, anxiety, and depression, severely impacting an individual's mental health and work performance The psychological toll can make the work environment intolerable, pushing employees to seek employment elsewhere where they feel respected and safe (Tews et al., 2019).

Second, according to Gunby et al (2020), the presence of unwanted sexual attention often indicates a failure in the organisational culture and management to address and prevent such behaviours effectively This failure can lead to diminished trust in leadership and the organisation's commitment to employee welfare, further eroding job satisfaction Employees may question the value the organisation places on creating a respectful and inclusive work environment, leading to disillusionment and decreased organisational commitment.

Third, the professional consequences of experiencing or addressing unwanted sexual attention can also influence turnover Victims may face retaliation, isolation, or professional stagnation if they report the harassment or if the work environment becomes untenable due to unresolved tensions Such outcomes can force individuals to leave their positions to escape further harm or to seek advancement opportunities no longer available to them in their current roles.

H1b: Unwanted sexual attention negatively influences labour turnover

2.4.1.3 Sexual coercion vs labour turnover

Thirdly, sexual harassment, in general, is a significant and widespread problem in the service sector, which can be attributed to the stressful nature of the service industry and its symbolic cultural norm The respondents' experiences with these actions result in mental and bodily anguish, job loss, and hatred Sexual coercion occurs when victims are pressured or compelled in a sexually psychological manner (Fitzgerald & Cortina, 2018).Sexual coercion makes victims think they owe someone sex, usually between employees and upper-level executives (Curry, 2019) Sexual coercion can lead to sexually transmitted infections, low sexual self-esteem, melancholy, flawed sexual self- perceptions, and unpleasant sentiments in victims (Saez et al., 2019) Unlike unwanted sexual attention, which may happen to anybody, sexual coercion only happens to those with previous relationships (Keplinger et al., 2019) As a result, sexual coercion is the final piece to the puzzle of sexual harassment and conveys the image of a workplace where sexual coercion is a condition.

Summary of Chapter 2

Chapter 2 presents the leading theory of Conservation of resources (COR) to explain why victims of sexual harassment at work prefer to change their workplace and job to preserve their energy and pride Besides, two other theories, social cognitive theory (SCT) and cultural dimension theory (CDT), are utilised to strengthen the relationships of variables in the model There are fourteen hypotheses in the proposed research model. The research methods will be expressed in Chapter 3.

RESEARCH METHODS

Introduction to Chapter 3

Because sexual harassment may necessitate the investigation of numerous research hypotheses, quantitative analysis would be the most appropriate methodology.However, because the model's concepts are novel in Vietnam, they must be modified to reflect local conditions As a result, qualitative research could be used to fine-tune the scale before employing the quantitative method This topic aims to introduce the research methods and approaches used to investigate the impact of sexual harassment in the workplace on labour turnover and job burnout at various psychological empowerments.This topic contains general information about the system under investigation, the research contexts, measurement, sampling, data collection, and data analysis procedures.

Research context

The issues of sexual harassment happen in hospitality more frequently because of various reasons such as gender implications, fast-paced environment, and close-up working ambience (Ram, 2015) Since the labour turnover caused by sexual harassment happens in different positions, the targeted interviewees were hotel managers, supervisors, and employees who had experienced sexual harassment in various forms. The respondents or interviewees are currently working or are experienced in 4- and 5-star hotels They have experienced at least one form of sexual harassment and have been introduced carefully to sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover Only full- time contracted employees will be selected to ensure the validity of the collected results. Respondents are equally separated by their sexual orientations (homosexual or heterosexual) to expand a new dimension of perception The luxury hotels chosen are located from North to South Vietnam.

Sexual harassment is a pervasive issue worldwide, and Vietnam is no exception.However, the perception and understanding of sexual harassment can vary significantly across different regions within a country, influenced by a myriad of factors such as cultural norms, socio-economic conditions, and educational levels To understand perceptions of sexual harassment among people in the North, South, and Central regions of Vietnam, it is clear to identify whether the problem could be solved effectively.

According to Krantz et al (2005), this cultural backdrop may influence perceptions of social issues in the region For instance, victims of sexual harassment may be less likely to report incidents due to fear of disrupting social harmony or humiliating their families Northern Vietnam is often viewed as the cultural and political heartland of the country The region is characterized by its adherence to traditional values and Confucian principles, emphasising respect for authority and social hierarchy (Kelley, 2006; Nguyen & Angelique, 2017) Furthermore, the patriarchal norms prevalent in this region may contribute to a culture of victim-blaming, where victims are often held responsible for the harassment they experience (Ha, 2008; Tran & Walter, 2014). However, it is essential to note that urbanization and the influence of Western culture are gradually changing these perceptions, particularly among the younger generation (Thi et al., 2021; Trung & Van, 2020).

Central Vietnam, with its unique history and cultural heritage, presents a different perspective on sexual harassment Cham ethnic, for instance, in central Vietnam, is known for its matriarchal society, which may influence perceptions of gender roles and sexual harassment (Do et al., 2019; Nakamura, 2020) In this context, women may be more empowered to speak out against sexual harassment, and there may be less victim- blaming compared to other regions However, the region's relative economic disadvantage compared to the North and South could limit access to education and resources for addressing sexual harassment (Hong & Cong, 2021), potentially leading to underreporting and a lack of awareness about the issue.

Southern Vietnam, particularly Ho Chi Minh City, is often seen as the country's economic powerhouse characterized by its openness to foreign influences and progressive attitudes (Do & Sum, 2021) These factors may contribute to a more liberal perception of sexual harassment compared to the North and Central regions (Selvarajah & Meyer,

2020) Pham and Hoang (2021) state that the influence of advanced international feminist ideas, coupled with higher education and economic development, may lead to greater awareness and recognition of sexual harassment in the South of Vietnam However, despite these progressive attitudes, societal pressure and fear of retaliation may still deter victims from reporting incidents, suggesting that even in the most developed regions, sexual harassment remains a complex issue (Karunaratne & Harris, 2022).

Research procedure, samples, and questionnaires

The research was conducted with several steps, from qualitative to quantitative methods, to find out the main problems, revising related articles to develop hypotheses and observable variables, interviewing experts with qualitative questions to reconfirm the validity of the research and finalising the questionnaire before quantitative research, collecting and analysing data to conclude, and give recommendations (see figure 3.1).

To conduct this research, the author had to observe sexual harassment in a natural working ambience for almost seven years and compare it to previous research with related topics The next step is to summarise the main ideas from other relevant research in the literature review Because literature research aims to understand previous authors' studies, it is an essential step in the research process Previous research revealed that the concepts included in the research model had been studied and tested when studying the theory The matrix of research gaps in literature reviews helped develop a hypothesis and observe the research variables later.

An interview with experts was conducted to verify the relevance and validity of the questionnaires The author asked three lecturers in Human resource management, four hotel management level respondents and two hotel supervisors to test the significance of the questionnaire Some of them were distributed directly in online form, whereas others got direct interviews All managers required that the questionnaires be straightforward and not offensive to respondents and organisations The questionnaires were translated into both English and Vietnamese by qualified translation companies The experts would read through the questionnaires, highlight the unclear points, and show them to the author for further adjustments All the statements from each questionnaire were revised before heading to the Pilot quantitative test and the official survey.

Figure 3.1 The general procedure of research - source: the author (2022)

Purposive sampling was used in both the qualitative and quantitative tests It is a practical approach in which respondents focus on specific characteristics to help with the survey because of certain limitations The following criteria should be met by the target respondents in the current study: (1) to ensure that all respondents clearly understand and evaluate sexual harassment, job burnout, labour turnover, and their power at work; and

(2) to ensure that all respondents' data collection procedures are consistent (e.g., introduction to concepts, relationships of variables, conduct survey questionnaire).

For quantitative research, data analysis consists of the Pilot test and the official survey Respondents will be asked to complete four questionnaires about sexual experience, job burnout, labour turnover and psychological empowerment Respondents must focus on each statement's suitability and validity and suggest relevant amendments.

The research was conducted over three years with several steps In the first two years, the author focused on the literature review and observation with interviews In the third year, the author looked for the hotels that agreed to research, adjusted the questionnaires, and conducted the study The stages of doing Pilot and official tests are listed in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Stages in doing Pilot and Official tests

Seq Stage Research Methods Size Time Location

1 Pilot tests Qualitative Interview with experts

In Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur (for interview only)

Direct online questionnaires distributed to hotels in

Source: summarised by the author (2023)

3.3.1.1 Phase 1: The Pilot Test a Qualitative Pilot Test

To adjust the current scale to suit the context in Vietnam, Churchill's (1979) procedure is utilised, with face-to-face interviews with nine experts This process aims to adjust the scale's measurement variables to suit the research context, so this study does not fully implement the steps in Churchill's scale design and testing process.

Based on the research objectives, background theories, concepts, and results related to designing a research model are examined After conceptualising the research model, research concepts, hypotheses and relationships between concepts are also connected The questionnaires will be selected based on the information stated by the context and research object Foreign questionnaires used in Vietnam will receive translation support from two translation companies in Vietnam and Malaysia to ensure compatibility in terms of content and meaning of original scales The translated questionnaire is called Draft Scale 1 From the Draft Scale 1, a Pilot quantitative test was conducted by directly interviewing 50 other respondents to adjust the final scales to suit the context. b Quantitative Pilot Test

The Quantitative Pilot study is an essential step in the research process, as it allows the researchers to test the feasibility of their research design and make necessary adjustments before conducting a full-scale study It also provides an opportunity to pretest and validate the questionnaire, ensuring that the questions are clear, relevant, and capable of eliciting the desired information The feedback from the Pilot test can be used to improve the questionnaire and increase its reliability and validity Furthermore, the pilot study can help identify potential problems in the data collection process, such as non- response or social desirability bias, and develop strategies to mitigate these issues. Despite its small scale, the pilot study can provide valuable insights and contribute to the robustness and credibility of the subsequent research The primary goal of the Pilot test is to fine-tune the measurements embedded in the draft questionnaire for word arrangement,relevance, and accuracy The quantitative method used in this pilot study is a survey research design, a popular approach in social sciences due to its ability to collect large amounts of data from a sizeable population in a highly economical way According to Sim and Lewis (2012), the size of a pilot study should be calculated statistically with the desired confidence level for the Standard deviation and the chosen power and significance level of the analysis in the main study At a high level of confidence, a pilot study of at least 50 is recommended in many circumstances The questionnaire was revised and tested after valuable expert recommendations were obtained, and then the author conducted a Pilot Test with a sample size of 50 A direct survey using questionnaires was used to collect information for the Draft Scale 1.

The questionnaire was designed to gather data on the prevalence and impact of sexual harassment at work and its relationship with labour turnover The questionnaire consisted of closed-ended questions, which are easier to analyze quantitatively and provide more standardized responses The questionnaire was divided into several sections to capture different aspects of the research topic The first section collected demographic information such as age, gender, job position, and length of service The second section contained questions about the respondents' experiences of sexual harassment at work, job burnout, labour turnover, and perceptions of psychological empowerment, using a 7-point Likert scale to measure the frequency and severity of such incidents.

One hundred respondents who have worked in the hospitality industry for years were chosen to join the Pilot test In one week, the employees were also asked to evaluate the research items regarding how well they understood the questions in a 7-point Likert scale. The data collected from the questionnaire were then analyzed using statistical software. Using SPSS 27.0 software, Pilot quantitative research was conducted to examine Cronbach's Alpha reliability and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) The criteria for evaluating the pilot test result are in Appendix 9.1.

Descriptive statistics were used to examine the relationships of variables The results of this Pilot study will provide preliminary insights into the research problem and help refine the research design for a more extensive analysis The author extracted the scale's measurement variables based on the test results This stage produces an official questionnaire scale used for official quantitative research.

3.3.1.2 Phase 2: The official quantitative survey by PLS-SEM

Quantitative research requires sufficient samples, which allows a valid and reliable statistical conclusion towards the results Therefore, developing a sampling plan will help specify the respondents needed According to Krejcie and Morgan (1970), the appropriate sample size for the opinions of 100,000 experienced guests should be 384 (approximately

400) respondents (See Appendix 9.2) The number was relevant to analyse the paper since it could identify the ability to use the smaller group of respondents to make inferences about larger groups As such, it saves money for the study and minimises alpha errors (non- existing differences in the population) (Kotrlik & Higgins, 2001).

However, since the author used Partial Least Squares (PLS) to analyse the results, the sample size must differ According to Ramli et al (2018), PLS is a method for analysing relationships in Structural Equation Models (SEM) that allows researchers to analyse several interactions simultaneously The author uses the PLS-SEM to evaluate the research model and hypotheses because of its advantages First, the PLS-SEM analysis method is used because it allows data processing with a small sample size. Secondly, the PLS generally provides higher statistical power for finding statistically significant connections inside a model (e.g., lower probability of a Type II error). Because PLS can discover significant correlations in data, it is more suited for exploratory research and theory development Third, the PLS does not require any distributional assumptions Moreover, testing the moderating relationship among the proposed variables is simpler.

Pilot Quantitative result

To ensure variables are suitable for the research context in Vietnam, the inheritance of the original scale was collected, and through interviews with experts, the meaning and appropriateness to the subject and context were clarified and became Draft Scale 1 Draft scale 1 was used in pilot quantitative research, and the results were analysed for reliability via Cronbach's Alpha and EFA.

The respondents are hoteliers in three hotels in Ho Chi Minh City and Vung Tau City The author arranged meetings with the general managers of each hotel to explain the purpose and methods used to collect data The general managers are then assigned to their director of the human resource department or staff to conduct the Pilot Test All questionnaires were distributed in digital form If respondents were confused about any statement, the author stayed there until they completed the questionnaires The process lasted from July 13 th to July 20 th , 2023, with 50 respondents from 5-star hotels.

Since the author decided to use a digital questionnaire, all respondents replied with a rate of 100% All statements were considered compulsory for rating, so they could not miss any statement.

Research results from 50 survey samples in Table 3.2 show that twenty-seven respondents are from 4-star hotels, and 23 are from 5-star hotels Within 50 respondents are 24% males, 62% females, and 14% LGBTQ+ members Their age ranges are evenly distributed, with 36% from 18 to 22, 30% from 23 to 30, 32% from 31 to 45 and only 2% from 45 years old and above.

For their working experiences, the number of respondents working for hotels for less than one year and more than 5 years are equal (32%), followed by from 1 to 3 years

(26%) and from 3 to 5 years (10%) Most of the respondents have been working for only one hotel (34%), followed by 3 hotels (26%) and 2 hotels (22%) The number of hotels for turnover from three and above only accounts for 18% 68% of respondents are staff, 24% are at the intermediate management level, and 8% are top managers.

Table 3.2 Demographic information in the Pilot test

Demographic information Categories Frequency Percentage

Number of hotels worked before

Source: analysed and combined by the author

3.4.3 Cronbach’s alpha test results for Pilot quantitative research

According to the results shown in Table 3.3, all Cronbach’s Alphas in all questionnaires are greater than 0.6 the highest result of Cronbach’s Alpha belongs to Sexual Experience Questionnaires (SEQ) – Sexual coercion (0.960), and the lowest one is the Turnover Intention Scale (TIS-6), which is only 0.783 All variables meet the condition for total variable correlation greater than 0.3.

However, the total correlation coefficient of variables AGD2 (0.249), JBO12 (0.291), JBO18 (0.030), GTI4 (0.289), GTI7 (0.281) and PES7 (0.240) are less than 0.3, so they are eliminated and not used in the subsequent analysis steps.

Table 3.3 Cronbach’s Alpha results for Pilot Quantitative research

Maslach burnout inventory for the human services survey

Source: analysed and combined by the author

3.4.4 EFA Test results for Pilot quantitative research

The Principal Components method will retain variables that meet the conditions for EFA analysis The results are shown in table 3.4.

Table 3.4 EFA results for Pilot quantitative research

Number groups of Total Cumulative

Maslach burnout inventory for the human services survey (MBI-

Source: analysed and combined by the author

3.4.4.1 EFA results for independent variables in SEQ

SEQ is the leading independent variable group in the research The results of EFA for SEQ’s elements, such as Gender discrimination, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion, are greater than 0.5 All sig levels are less than 0.05 with Eigenvalues greater than 1 Therefore, the discriminant validity values are significant The cumulative variances explained are greater than 50% The result of EFA for the scale of gender discrimination is completed after eliminating the statement ADG2 Each element of SEQ is analysed separately because the three groups in this questionnaire represent different levels of sexual harassment.

3.4.4.2 EFA results for mediating variables (JBO)

MBI-HSS is the mediating scale to examine the effect of job burnout The MBI- HSS questionnaire has three groups: Emotional exhaustion at work, depersonalisation, and reduced personal accomplishment Each group is examined separately because levels of burnout vary After SPSS analysis with the elimination of two variables, JBO5 andJBO6, the EFA results show that all KMOs of the three groups are greater than 0.5 and sig levels are less than 0.05 The cumulative variances explained are greater than 50% Therefore, it is obvious to indicate the discriminant validity.

However, since the author uses MBI-HSS as a mediating scale to evaluate the variable of job burnout, combining three groups is essential Table 3.5 shows that the original 16 variables were grouped into three component groups The Rotated Component Matrix identifies three significant groups A loading factor threshold of 0.5 is utilised to select quality observed variables instead of choosing the corresponding loading factor according to sample size Comparing this threshold with the results in the rotated component matrix, two variables (JBO5 and JBO6) need to be considered for further elaboration The variable JBO5 loads on both factors, Component 1 and Component 2, with loading factors of 0.786 and 0.506, respectively The difference in loading factors is 0.28, which is greater than 0.2 The variable JBO6, loading on components 1 and 2, has a difference of 0.772 – 0.524 = 0.248, which is also greater than 0.2 As such, two variables are kept for the final questionnaire Surprisingly, the variable JBO7 falls into component

2, which is about the segment of depersonalisation The statement of JBO7, “After being sexually harassed, I felt stuck in life”, sounds neutral to both emotional exhaustion and depersonalisation As such, the respondents may get confused regarding the results An academic expert suggests that it should be kept in the segment of emotional exhaustion and further examined in the official test.

However, it is suggested that all three elements of job burnout should be merged into one only The integration of the three core elements of the Maslach Burnout Inventory

– Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS), namely emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, and reduced personal accomplishment, into a singular questionnaire for quantitative research, offers a comprehensive approach to understanding the multifaceted phenomenon of burnout among professionals in human services This consolidation is pivotal for several reasons that enhance the research's validity, reliability, and applicability By combining these elements, researchers can capture the full spectrum of burnout experiences, acknowledging that burnout is not a singular or isolated feeling but a complex interplay of emotional, cognitive, and self-evaluative components Together,these dimensions offer a holistic view of burnout, enabling a more accurate and nuanced understanding of its impacts on individuals in the human services sector It also facilitates a more efficient data collection process Instead of administering multiple instruments to assess each aspect of burnout separately, a combined questionnaire reduces the time and resources needed for both researchers and participants This efficiency can lead to higher participation rates and, consequently, larger sample sizes that enhance the generalizability of the findings The combined questionnaire allows for the exploration of the interrelationships between the three dimensions of burnout in a more coherent manner. Understanding how these elements interact with each other can provide deeper insights into the progression of burnout and identify potential intervention points.

Table 3.5 Rotated component matrix for MBI-HSS

Original code New code Component 1 Component 2 Component 3

Source: analysed and combined by the author

3.4.4.3 EFA results for dependent variables (TIS-6)

The result of EFA for the scale of TIS-6 in Table 3.4 is evaluated after removing the statements GTI4 and GTI7 It shows that KMO is 0.753, greater than 0.5, with sig is0.000 The eigenvalue is greater than 1 Therefore, the discriminant validity values are significant.

3.4.4.4 EFA results for moderating variables (PES)

Six out of seven statements remain to be tested with EFA The results in Table 3.4 indicate that KMO is 0.775 (greater than 0.5), sig is 0.000, and Eigenvalue is greater than

1 As such, PES has significant discriminant validity.

The retained variables will be used for official quantitative research based on thePilot quantitative research results The scales are shown in Appendix 6.7.

Summary of Chapter 3

Chapter 3 shows the research context, methods, procedure, and pilot test results. The original scales are examined with the Pilot qualitative research by interviewing experts to clarify and amend the meaning to suit the Vietnamese environment The Pilot quantitative results form the draft scale one before conducting the official research In Chapter 4, the results of official quantitative research to test the hypothesized model will be presented.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Introduction to Chapter 4

In chapter 4, the thesis will present the research results Chapter 4 will begin with sample information, test models, and hypotheses using 270 valid questions from the survey The main content of the research results includes characteristics of the research sample, results of testing Cronbach's Alpha reliability coefficient, EFA analysis of the scales, evaluation of the measurement model, evaluation of the analytical factor model,and evaluation of the structural model Finally, the thesis discusses the research results(comparing the results of the thesis with the background theory of previous research,presenting new results discovered from the thesis.

Results

Table 4.1 displays specific information about hotel respondents in three regions in Vietnam – The North (8.9%), Centre and Highlands (16%), and the South (75.1%) with a total of 270 samples collected from 113 respondents from four-star hotels (41.9%) and

157 respondents from 5-star hotels (58.1%) Initially, there were three main categories for sexual orientations: Heterosexual male, heterosexual female, and homosexual (LGBTQ+) Most of the respondents were heterosexual females (64.8%) Only 63 out of

270 respondents were heterosexual males And especially in this study, the homosexual group accounted for 11.9%, which was a new point since it focused on the minor group of LGBTQ+.

For ages, 62.2% of respondents were between 18 and 22 The 23-to-30-year-old age group accounted for 30%, the age group from 31 to 45 was 7.4%, while the 45-and-above age group accounted for 0.4% For the working years, 131 out of 270 (48.5%) had less than 1 year of experience, the largest proportion Seventy-three respondents (27.1%) had

1 to 3 years of experience, and 18.5% had 3 to 5 years of experience Only 5.9% of those with more than 5 years of working in the hotel industry participated in this survey.

The respondents worked in numerous hotels before settling down 37% work in one hotel only, while the percentage of respondents working in two, three, four, five and more than five hotels were 33.7%, 12.2%, 14.4%, 1.2%, and 1.5%, respectively Besides, regarding respondents' working positions, staff accounted for 67%, the middle management level and equivalence came in second with 25.2%, followed by senior level and equivalent (5.6%) Only 2.2% of respondents were self-employed Most respondents

(181 out of 270, equivalent to 67%) earned less than ten million Vietnamese Dong (VND) or approximately USD 400.00 monthly The percentages of earning from ten to twenty million VND and 20 million VND and above were 25.2% and 7.8%, respectively.

Working position staff 181 67 middle management or equivalent 68 25.2 senior manager or equivalent 15 5.6

Salary per month less than 10 million VND (400 USD) 181 67 from 10 to under 20 million VND (from 400 - under 800 USD) 68 25.2 from 20 million and above (from 800USD) 21 7.8

Source: analysed by SPSS and summarised by the author (2023)

7-point Likert scales are a commonly used tool in academic surveys due to their simplicity and flexibility One advantage of using 7-point Likert scales is their ability to capture a wide range of responses With seven response options, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree, researchers can obtain a more nuanced understanding of participants' attitudes, opinions, or beliefs (Lodico et al., 2010) This increased granularity allows for finer distinctions and can provide richer data for analysis Another advantage of 7-point Likert scales is their ease of use and familiarity with respondents. The scale is straightforward and easy to understand, which minimizes respondent confusion and reduces the likelihood of response errors (Babbie, 2016) Additionally, 7- point Likert scales have been widely used in academic research, leading to a certain standardization and familiarity among participants (Lodico et al., 2010) This familiarity can improve response rates and enhance the reliability and validity of the collected data. However, there are also some limitations associated with the 7-point Likert scale One drawback is the potential for response bias due to the midpoint response option Including a neutral response (e.g., neither agree nor disagree) can lead participants to select this option as a default choice, even when they may have a more nuanced opinion (Alwin,

1997) It can result in a loss of valuable information and reduce the accuracy of data analysis Another limitation is the restricted range of response options Although 7-point Likert scales offer more response choices than their 5-point counterparts, they may still impose limitations on expressing participants' true attitudes or feelings (Lodico et al.,

2010) Some individuals may find the scale too restrictive and prefer more extreme options to reflect their opinions accurately This limitation may impact the validity and reliability of the collected data.

The interpretation of mean scores on a 7-point Likert scale to determine high, average, and low levels can vary depending on the context and research field However, a commonly used approach is to consider the scale's midpoint as the threshold for determining average or neutral responses Mean scores above the midpoint generally indicate a higher level, while mean scores below the midpoint suggest a lower level For instance, some researchers consider mean scores above 5.5 on a 7-point Likert scale indicative of a high level, scores between 4 and 5.5 as average, and scores below 4 as low (Sorde Marti & Mertens, 2014) This approach assumes that responses toward the upper end of the scale reflect greater agreement or more positive attitudes In comparison, responses toward the lower end indicate lesser agreement or more negative attitudes It is important to note that the interpretation of mean scores can vary across disciplines and specific research contexts.

Table 4.2 Mean scores and data criteria codes Statements (in English and Vietnamese) Mean Std deviation

I felt it unfair when someone mistreated me because of my gender (either male/ female/ or

AGD2 I felt abnormal when someone gave me sexual materials 4.69 0.967 Average

AGD3 I felt frustrated when someone made sexually offensive comments 4.45 1.007 Average

AGD4 I felt upset when someone insulted an individual

(including me) about gender 4.7 0.938 Average

AGD5 I felt obsessed when someone tells stories related to sexuality (even if it's a joke) 4.53 1.041 Average AGD6

I felt terrible when someone made unwelcome attempts to attract me to a discussion of sexual matters 4.61 0.976 Average

I felt stressed when someone made rude comments about an individual (including me) using sexually suggestive language 4.57 1.013 Average AGD8 I felt disgusted when someone made sexual gestures toward an individual (including me) 5.87 0.578 High BUS1 I felt uncomfortable when forced to discuss sexual issues 5.72 0.599 High

BUS2 I felt uncomfortable when someone tried to attract an individual (including me) to pay attention to them through sexual advances 5.77 0.619 High BUS3 I felt uncomfortable when someone tried to initiate sex with an individual (including me) 5.81 0.513 High BUS4

I felt uncomfortable when I was invited to go on a personal outing (including eating, drinking alcohol, or going to a hotel ) with a colleague I didn't like.

BUS5 I felt uncomfortable when someone tried to touch an individual (including me) 5.97 0.554 High BUS6 I felt scared when someone flirted, rubbed, or openly touched an individual (including me) 5.98 0.558 High BUS7 I felt uncomfortable when someone stared at an individual (including me) 5.92 0.522 High

CSC1 I felt unhappy being bribed with material things when offered sex 5.1 0.691 Average

CSC2 I felt scared of being threatened when I refused to have sex 5.08 0.699 Average

CSC3 I felt it unfair when someone mistreated me for refusing to have sex 4.92 0.683 Average

CSC4 I felt terrible when someone exchanged sexual activity for faster promotions 4.94 0.783 Average CSC5 I felt uncomfortable being isolated after refusing to have sex with a certain individual 4.89 0.782 Average JBO1 I felt emotionally drained from my work after being sexually harassed 5.76 0.431 High

JBO2 After being sexually harassed, I felt physically tired 5.7 0.459 High

JBO3 I felt fatigued when I got started my job after being sexually harassed 5.74 0.437 High

JBO4 I felt tired of working with harasser(s) 5.74 0.437 High JBO5 I felt burned out from my work after being sexually harassed 5.68 0.468 High

JBO6 After being sexually harassed, I felt like I no longer had the motivation to strive at work 5.76 0.428 High JBO7 After being sexually harassed, I felt stuck in life 5.72 0.449 High JBO8 I felt I was an anonymous object after being sexually harassed 5.76 0.431 High

JBO9 I became more callous toward people after being sexually harassed 5.7 0.459 High

JBO10 I felt disgusted about my workplace after being sexually harassed 5.74 0.437 High

JBO11 I ignored other people after being sexually harassed 5.74 0.437 High

JBO12 After being sexually harassed, I can understand my feelings 5.68 0.468 High

JBO13 After being sexually harassed, I can deal with the perpetrator 5.76 0.428 High

JBO14 I could remain positive after being sexually harassed 5.72 0.449 High

JBO15 After being sexually harassed, I can still use positive emotions to handle work 5.71 0.456 High JBO16 After being sexually harassed, I was still able to maintain the company's comfortable atmosphere 5.7 0.461 High GTI1 I quit my job immediately after being sexually harassed 5.64 0.481 High

GTI2 I spent some time researching other job opportunities 5.64 0.482 High

GTI3 I considered a lot about whether to stay or find another job 5.69 0.462 High

Discussion of research results

4.3.1 Gender harassment and its impacts on job burnout and labour turnover

The hypothesis H1a and H2a represent the impact of gender harassment on labour turnover and job burnout The results showed that H1a with β = 0.061 and p > 0.05, which means gender harassment did not negatively influence the labour turnover decision It sounds irrelevant to other developed countries in previous research by Amber et al (2020), Harnois and Bastos (2018), and Hennekam and Bennett (2017), but it reflects a truth in

Vietnam Gender harassment, while a pervasive issue in many workplaces globally, does not negatively influence labour turnover decisions in Vietnam for several reasons.

Firstly, Vietnam's cultural context, particularly its Confucian heritage, emphasizes the importance of harmony, endurance, and maintaining face (Pham, 2005) This cultural backdrop may discourage victims of gender harassment from leaving their jobs, as such an act could be perceived as a failure to maintain harmony or as an admission of victimhood Consequently, employees tend to remain silent about harassment and endure their circumstances rather than seek a new job.

Secondly, the legal and institutional framework in Vietnam does not sufficiently address workplace harassment, including gender-based harassment (Nguyen, 2017; Węziak- Białowolska et al., 2020) While the Vietnamese Labour Code prohibits sexual harassment, it lacks clear definitions and enforcement mechanisms, leading to low reporting rates and negligible consequences for perpetrators In this context, victims may feel that leaving their jobs would not necessarily protect them from similar experiences in future workplaces They may also fear reporting harassment and seeking new employment, which could lead to reputational damage or retaliation (Bergenfeld et al., 2021; Do & van den Broek, 2020; Nguyen, 2015).

Thirdly, according to Nguyen and Shao (2019), gender norms and economic factors in Vietnam may also contribute to the low impact of gender harassment on labour turnover. Traditional gender roles often place men in positions of authority and women in subordinate roles, a dynamic that can contribute to harassment Additionally, women, particularly those in low-wage jobs, may feel economically compelled to stay in their jobs despite experiencing gender harassment The gender wage gap and the lack of equal job opportunities in Vietnam can limit the options for women to switch jobs (Han, 2023;

For hypothesis H2a, it showed β = 0.013, p > 0.05, which meant that gender harassment had a slight impact on job burnout In the context of the hotel industry in

Vietnam, several factors may contribute to limiting the influence of gender harassment on job burnout.

Initially, the cultural and social dynamics in Vietnam may play a role in shaping the impact of gender harassment on employees Vietnamese society is characterized by collectivist values and an emphasis on maintaining harmony (Tuan & Anh, 2023) These cultural norms may foster a supportive work environment where individuals are more resilient to the negative effects of gender harassment, thereby reducing its potential to lead to job burnout.

Next, Khoo and Lantos (2020) stated that the organisational culture within Vietnamese hotels may act as a mitigating factor against the influence of gender harassment on job burnout The familial and team-oriented nature of organisational dynamics in the Vietnamese hospitality industry can provide employees with a strong support network, which may help them cope with instances of gender harassment and prevent its escalation into negative job burnout.

Lastly, the legal and regulatory framework in Vietnam protects against gender discrimination and harassment in the workplace The Labour Code of Vietnam prohibits gender-based discrimination and includes provisions for addressing harassment in employment (World Bank Group, 2019) The existence of these legal safeguards, along with the increasing awareness and enforcement of labour laws, may create an environment where instances of gender harassment are less likely to result in negative job burnout among employees in the hotel industry These factors collectively suggest that gender harassment may have a limited influence on job burnout in the hotel industry in the Vietnamese context (Van, 2022).

As such, it can be inferred that the results of H1a and H2a reflected the reality of gender harassment in job burnout and labour turnover With the higher perception toward gender equality in Vietnam, gender harassment seems not to have any negative impact on negative outcomes.

4.3.2 Unwanted sexual attention and its impacts on job burnout and labour turnover

Unwanted sexual attention in the workplace is a grave concern that can inflict serious emotional and psychological harm on victims Hypotheses H1b and H2b representing the influence of unwanted sexual attention on labour turnover and job burnout, respectively, also showed a low impact H1b, the hypotheses presenting how unwanted sexual attention influenced labour turnover, was not accepted There are three main reasons used to explain this phenomenon such as the normalization of unwanted sexual attention, lack of effective reporting mechanisms, and socioeconomic pressures that can prevent victims in the hotel industry from leaving their jobs in Vietnam.

First, the hierarchical and gendered nature of the hospitality industry can create an environment where such behaviours are normalized The hotel industry often involves close physical proximity, late-night shifts, and one-on-one interactions, which can increase vulnerability to unwanted sexual attention (Baum, 2019; Baum et al., 2017). Despite experiencing discomfort, employees may become desensitized over time and view these incidents as part of the job.

Second, a lack of effective reporting mechanisms and fear of retaliation can prevent victims from leaving their jobs Sexual harassment is often under-reported in Vietnam due to a lack of clear legal definitions, insufficient enforcement of laws, and inadequate support for victims (Nguyen & Shao, 2019) Additionally, victims may fear that their complaints will not be taken seriously, or they may face negative consequences, such as job loss or further harassment Thus, they might endure the situation rather than risk retaliation or the uncertainty of seeking new employment (Tung et al., 2021).

Third, socio-economic factors can contribute to the decision to stay in a job despite unwanted sexual attention The fear of economic instability and unemployment can negatively deter job turnover, especially in a developing country like Vietnam Many employees in the hotel industry are from lower socio-economic backgrounds and may have limited job options (Le et al., 2023; Tram & Ngoc Huy, 2021) The need for a stable income may outweigh the distress caused by unwanted sexual attention, leading to a decision to remain in the job.

The result was the same when proving the impact of unwanted sexual attention towards job burnout by H2b It did not seem to be negative with the results collected in Vietnam This problem may have become normalized in the hotel industry; therefore, people tolerated it easily and would not have any issues Three main reasons could explain the unclear influence of unwanted sexual attention on job burnout.

First and foremost, individual resilience and coping mechanisms can play a negative role in how one responds to adverse events, including unwanted sexual attention Various factors can influence resilience, including personal characteristics, life experiences, and cultural backgrounds Some individuals may have developed effective coping strategies that help them manage stress and prevent burnout (Gunby et al., 2020).

Furthermore, in some work environments like the hospitality industry, if unwanted sexual attention occurs frequently, it may become normalized This normalization can lead to victims underplaying the impact of the harassment on their mental health While this doesn't mean the behaviour is acceptable or does not have harmful effects, it might be one reason why some individuals do not report feeling burnout (Hadjisolomou et al., 2023).

Summary of Chapter 4

Chapter 4 presented the results of testing the empirical research model on the impact of factors in the sexual experience questionnaire (SEQ), including gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion, on the factors of job burnout and labour turnover, along with testing the moderating effect of the “psychological empowerment” variable The results showed that the scales were reliable The proposed theoretical model was consistent with market data The first empirical study on the impact of factors in the sexual experience questionnaire (SEQ), including gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion, on the factors of job burnout and labour turnover has 7 hypotheses, including 4 direct hypotheses and 3 mediating hypotheses The final results concluded that 2 hypotheses were accepted and 5 were rejected The second empirical study on moderating the Psychological empowerment variable on the remaining relationships had 7 hypotheses The final results illustrated that 2 out of 7 hypotheses were accepted, and the remaining 5 were rejected.

Chapter 4 also discussed the results, explaining why hypotheses were rejected based on different perspectives, such as cultural, social, cognitive, and financial situations.

LIMITATIONS, AND DIRECTIONS FUTURE RESEARCH

Introduction to Chapter 5

The thesis surveyed 270 individuals to test the theoretical model and research hypotheses In this conclusion, the study will conclude the entire research and provide the theoretical, managerial and practical implications, limitations and future research directions.

Conclusion of the research

The research has delved into the intricate dynamics of sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover within the context of the hotel industry in Vietnam, with a specific focus on the moderating influence of psychological empowerment This study has made significant contributions to academic scholarship and practical implications for the hospitality sector through an extensive review of existing literature, empirical investigation, and the application of sophisticated statistical analyses The findings of this research have shed light on the pervasive nature of sexual coercion in the hotel industry, its detrimental impact on employee well-being, and the consequent high levels of job burnout and labour turnover Moreover, exploring psychological empowerment as a moderator has revealed its profound influence on the relationships between sexual coercion, job burnout, and labour turnover, thereby emphasizing the importance of cultural dimensions in shaping employee experiences within organisations.

Sexual harassment, including gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion, is a pervasive problem worldwide, including in Vietnam Victims often do not leave their organisation or hotel immediately due to a multitude of social, financial, cultural, and opportunity-related reasons affecting these decisions From a social perspective, the victims may fear retaliation, ostracism, or damaging their reputation, which can deter them from leaving immediately This fear can be exacerbated in a tight- knit community or workplace where everyone knows each other, and word can spread quickly The stigma associated with being a sexual harassment victim can be a significant barrier Victims may feel shame or fear judgment from others, which can prevent them from leaving the organisation or hotel.

Financially, many victims may be economically dependent on their jobs or the people perpetrating the harassment In Vietnam, where income inequality persists and many people still live in poverty, leaving one's job could have severe financial repercussions This financial dependence can make it problematic for victims to leave immediately, even when they are experiencing harassment or coercion They might feel trapped because they cannot afford to lose their income.

Culturally, traditional gender norms and expectations can also influence a victim's decision to stay In Vietnam, Confucian values, including the importance of maintaining harmony and saving face, are deeply rooted As a result, victims might feel obligated to stay quiet about the harassment they are experiencing to avoid causing trouble or bringing dishonour to themselves or their families This cultural pressure can make it difficult for victims to leave an organisation or hotel immediately after experiencing harassment or coercion From an opportunities perspective, victims may worry about the potential negative impact on their careers if they choose to leave The fear of losing job opportunities, being blocklisted or facing difficulties in finding new employment can prevent victims from leaving immediately.

The hotel industry, despite its demanding nature and potential issues, such as sexual harassment, often attracts and retains workers due to a variety of factors. Compensation is one of these aspects, as good pay can make the hardships of the job more tolerable Competitive pay, including tips and bonuses, can strongly incentivise people to remain in their positions even when faced with challenging work conditions (Kim & Jogaratnam, 2010) Besides, according to Kryscynski et al (2021) and Michael and Fotiadis (2022), in many high-end hotels and resorts, employees may also benefit from other financial incentives, such as discounted meals, accommodation or free access to facilities, which can significantly enhance their overall compensation package.

Working conditions are another factor that might discourage employees from leaving the hospitality industry While this industry is known for its long hours and high- pressure environment, some people thrive in these conditions and find them stimulating and rewarding (Wang et al., 2020a) The dynamic nature of hotel work, with its variety of tasks and frequent interaction with different people, can appeal to those who prefer non- routine work (Yang, 2010).

Furthermore, the sense of stability and security that comes with a job in the hotel industry can also be a significant factor Despite the industry's cyclical nature, the demand for hotels and the jobs they provide remains relatively stable, particularly in popular tourist destinations (Baum, 2019) Chang and Busser (2020) stated that career advancement opportunities within the hospitality sector can appeal to many employees The industry's hierarchical structure often provides clear promotion pathways, offering workers the possibility of career progression and improved job security.

Besides the positive side of retaining employees and reducing labour turnover, the hospitality industry also shows evidence of attracting employees negatively The hotel industry is a specialized sector that often requires specific skills and expertise that are not easily transferable to other industries It can make it difficult for hospitality workers to find alternative employment According to Prentice et al (2020), one of the main reasons for this is the unique customer service skills that hospitality workers need to master. While these skills are highly valued in the hotel industry, they are not always equally applicable or valued in other sectors For example, managing guest expectations and resolving issues with a high degree of empathy and diplomacy are key skills in the hotel industry Still, they may be less relevant in industries with less direct customer contact.

Furthermore, the operational structures and systems used in the hospitality industry are often unique to the sector and do not have direct parallels in other industries (Bajrami et al., 2021) The complex systems used for booking, reservation management, and customer relationship management in hotels are generally specific to the industry. Employees who have spent considerable time mastering these systems may find adapting to the operational systems used in other sectors challenging Employees in the hotel industry are trained to adhere to these high standards, which can be a significant adjustment when moving to industries with less prescriptive guidelines and expectations The high- pressure and fast-paced environment in hotels, which demands adaptability and quick decision-making skills, may not be mirrored in other sectors, making it difficult for hotel industry employees to find identical roles elsewhere.

Implications and recommendations

The former theoretical implication of this research is associated with the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory COR posits that individuals strive to obtain, retain, protect, and foster things they centrally value and that stress occurs when these resources are threatened, lost, or not gained following investment (Hobfoll, 1989) In the context of sexual harassment at work, job burnout, and labour turnover, this theory suggests that sexual harassment can lead to a significant loss of workplace resources - both physical (job security) and psychological (self-esteem, job satisfaction) (Halbesleben et al., 2014) This depletion of resources can, in turn, precipitate job burnout and prompt employees to leave their jobs The moderation effect of psychological empowerment can also be theorised under COR: employees in higher positions may have more resources to cope with harassment and its effects, potentially reducing their likelihood of burnout and turnover However, recent research by Lee and Brotheridge (2006) and O'Leary-Kelly et al (2009) has suggested that power dynamics inherent in job positions can also facilitate harassment, complicating this moderation effect.

Sexual harassment at work can deplete an individual's resources, including physical, psychological, and social resources (Halbesleben et al., 2014) This resource loss can lead to heightened levels of job burnout and ultimately increase the likelihood of labour turnover Employees who experience sexual harassment may face increased stress, decreased job satisfaction, and impaired psychological well-being, all of which contribute to burnout (Cortina et al., 2013) The moderating effect of psychological empowerment can also be explained within the COR framework Higher-ranking employees may have access to more resources, such as decision-making authority or social support, which can buffer the negative effects of harassment and reduce burnout and turnover (Lambert &

Hogan, 2018) Employees in lower-ranking positions, in contrast, may have fewer resources to cope with harassment, exacerbating the negative consequences.

The second theoretical implication centres on the differential impact of resource loss and gain on burnout and turnover According to COR theory, individuals strive to acquire and protect personal values (as a resource), and the loss of resources has a more significant impact than the gain (Hobfoll, 1989) In the context of sexual harassment, the depletion of resources resulting from the harassment experience may have a stronger impact on burnout and turnover than resource gain Research has shown that resource loss due to harassment is associated with increased burnout and higher intentions to quit, while resource gain (e.g., organisational support) may not fully mitigate these negative effects (Cortina et al., 2013; Halbesleben et al., 2014).

The third theoretical implication pertains to the role of organisational factors in the conservation and depletion of resources COR theory suggests that organisational support and resources can act as protective factors against the negative consequences of resource loss (Hobfoll & Shirom, 2001) In the context of sexual harassment, supportive organisational climates, policies, and procedures can buffer against the resource depletion resulting from harassment experiences, thereby reducing burnout and turnover (Cortina & Berdahl, 2008).

Psychological empowerment can play a crucial role in facilitating or hindering the availability of organisational support Employees with higher empowerment may be more confident in advocating for supportive practices and fostering a positive work environment that discourages harassment (Lambert & Hogan, 2018).

The later implication is drawn from Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), which explains behaviour in a triadic, dynamic, and reciprocal model where personal factors, environmental influences, and behaviour continually interact (Bandura, 1999) By applying SCT to the investigation of sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover, it can be theorised that exposure to sexual harassment (an environmental influence) can alter an individual's cognitive and emotional states (personal factors), leading to job burnout and possibly resulting in the behaviour of leaving the job The role of psychological empowerment within this theory is multifaceted On the one hand, individuals in higher- ranking positions may feel more empowered to change their environment or possess stronger self-efficacy beliefs that buffer against the negative impact of harassment On the other hand, hierarchical power differences may also foster an environment conducive to harassment, especially if the culture tolerates such behaviours (Willness et al., 2007).

According to SCT by Bandura (1999), individuals' cognitive processes, such as self- efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations, play a crucial role in shaping their behaviours and responses to environmental stimuli In the context of sexual harassment, employees who experience harassment may develop negative cognitive and emotional states, such as reduced self-efficacy, increased anxiety, and decreased job satisfaction (Cortina & Berdahl, 2008) These negative states can contribute to job burnout and increase the likelihood of turnover Psychological empowerment can moderate these relationships by influencing individuals' perceptions of their capabilities and the effectiveness of available coping strategies.

The next implication of SCT is the role of observational learning in the context of sexual harassment, burnout, and turnover SCT posits that individuals observe and learn from others' behaviours and the consequences of those behaviours (Bandura, 2001) In the workplace, employees may observe how their colleagues, supervisors, or organisational leaders respond to harassment, burnout, and turnover These observations can shape their own beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours For example, if employees observe that reporting incidents of harassment leads to positive outcomes, such as support and resolution, they may be more likely to engage in such behaviours themselves Therefore, if they witness negative outcomes, such as victim-blaming or inaction, they may be discouraged from taking action and may experience higher levels of burnout and turnover.

The last theoretical implication of SCT is the influence of environmental factors, such as organisational policies and practices, on the dynamics of sexual harassment, burnout, and turnover SCT emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between individuals and their environment, suggesting that individuals' behaviours and outcomes are shaped by the social and organisational context they are embedded in (Bandura, 2001) In the case of sexual harassment, the organisational climate, policies, and procedures play a critical role in shaping employees' cognitions, behaviours, and responses to harassment experiences. Supportive and inclusive organisational environments that condemn harassment and provide resources for victims can reduce the negative impact of harassment on burnout and turnover (Cortina et al., 2018) Psychological empowerment can moderate this relationship by influencing the extent to which individuals have access to organisational resources and can influence the organisational climate Higher-ranking employees may have more opportunities to advocate for supportive practices and foster a positive work environment, thus reducing the prevalence of harassment and its consequences.

Lastly, Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory provides a framework for understanding how cultural values can influence the dynamics of sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover For instance, cultural tolerance might be more vulnerable to sexual harassment due to the acceptance of unequal power distribution, which may lead to higher rates of job burnout and turnover (Chen & Spector, 1992; Hofstede, 2001,

2011) Cultural Dimensions Theory suggests that cultures differ in their values and beliefs, which can shape individuals' behaviours and attitudes (Hofstede, 2011) In the context of sexual harassment, psychological empowerment can play a significant role. For instance, high psychological empowerment may have greater rejection of unequal power distribution, contributing to a lower prevalence of harassment These cultural values can influence the experiences and perceptions of harassment, the likelihood of burnout, and the decision to leave the job The moderation effect of psychological empowerment within this framework suggests that cultural values may shape the power dynamics and tolerance of harassment among different individuals.

The next theoretical implication is related to the influence of cultural factors on the perception and evaluation of sexual harassment, burnout, and turnover Cultural Dimensions Theory suggests that cultures differ in their communication styles, norms, and interpretations of behaviours (Hofstede, 2011) These cultural differences can influence how individuals perceive and label behaviours as sexual harassment, which, in turn, can shape the experience of burnout and the decision to leave the job For example, in cultures with more conservative norms and strict gender roles, individuals may be more likely to attribute blame to the victim rather than the harasser, leading to increased feelings of burnout and decreased reporting rates (Fock et al., 2013) Psychological empowerment can moderate cultural factors by influencing the organisation's power dynamics and communication patterns.

The first major managerial implication is about creating a safe and inclusive working environment Research indicates a direct correlation between sexual harassment at work and increased job burnout, eventually leading to higher labour turnover (Nielsen

& Einarsen, 2018) This effect can be intensified in certain job positions due to the power dynamics and hierarchical structures that characterize them Managers should establish a zero-tolerance policy for harassment of any kind, including sexual harassment It encompasses not only clear guidelines and procedures for reporting harassment but also includes preventative measures such as regular training and awareness programs. Managers should also consider establishing support mechanisms for victims, such as counselling services and confidential reporting channels Furthermore, creating a culture of respect and equality can help reduce the power imbalances that often contribute to harassment situations.

The second implication revolves around the management of job burnout Research has linked sexual harassment to increased stress and job burnout, which, in turn,contributes to higher labour turnover rates (An, 2019; Ayodele et al., 2020; Basnyat &Clarence Lao, 2020a; Duan, Ni, Shi, Zhang, Ye, Mu, Li, Liu, Fan, & Wang, 2019) It significantly affects productivity, morale, and the organisation's overall health Managers must proactively address burnout by promoting work-life balance, providing adequate resources and support, and recognizing and rewarding employees' efforts In positions with high stress or workload, it is crucial to implement strategies to manage and reduce job burnout, such as job rotation, flexible working hours, and mental health support.Regularly assessing employees' stress levels and job satisfaction can help managers identify and address burnout early.

Limitations and directions for future research

Limitations in this research present challenges that warrant consideration for future research One limitation lies in the complexity of measuring and defining the moderating effects of psychological empowerment within diverse cultural contexts.Future research should aim to develop culturally sensitive measures of psychological empowerment and explore its interplay with sexual harassment, job burnout, and labour turnover across different cultural settings It could involve employing mixed-method approaches to capture the multifaceted nature of power dynamics within organisations and their implications for employee experiences.

Another limitation pertains to the potential underreporting of workplace issues, particularly sexual harassment, due to fear of retaliation or cultural norms that discourage disclosure This limitation can hinder the accuracy of data and the comprehensive understanding of the prevalence and impact of these issues Future research should explore innovative methodologies to mitigate underreporting, such as anonymous surveys, qualitative interviews, or external data sources to triangulate findings.

Additionally, longitudinal studies that track the evolution of workplace issues over time and the associated changes in power dynamics could provide valuable insights into the long-term impact of psychological empowerment on organisational outcomes.Furthermore, the generalizability of findings may be limited by the specific cultural,organisational, and industry contexts in which the research is conducted Different regions, industries, and organisations may exhibit distinct power structures and cultural norms, which could influence the observed relationships between psychological empowerment and workplace issues Future research should seek to replicate studies across diverse contexts and explore the boundary conditions of the moderating effects of psychological empowerment Comparative studies across countries or industries could shed light on how cultural and organisational factors interact with psychological empowerment to influence workplace dynamics, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomena under investigation.

NGHỊ ĐỊNH QUY ĐỊNH XỬ PHẠT VI PHẠM HÀNH CHÍNH TRONG LĨNH VỰC

AN NINH, TRẬT TỰ, AN TOÀN XÃ HỘI; PHÒNG, CHỐNG TỆ NẠN XÃ HỘI; PHÒNG CHÁY, CHỮA CHÁY; CỨU NẠN, CỨU HỘ; PHÒNG, CHỐNG BẠO LỰC GIA ĐÌNH, (2021).

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