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ENERGY STORAGE IN THE EMERGING ERA OF SMART GRIDS Edited by Rosario Carbone Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids Edited by Rosario Carbone Published by InTech Janeza Trdine 9, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia Copyright © 2011 InTech All chapters are Open Access articles distributed under the Creative Commons Non Commercial Share Alike Attribution 3.0 license, which permits to copy, distribute, transmit, and adapt the work in any medium, so long as the original work is properly cited. After this work has been published by InTech, authors have the right to republish it, in whole or part, in any publication of which they are the author, and to make other personal use of the work. Any republication, referencing or personal use of the work must explicitly identify the original source. Statements and opinions expressed in the chapters are these of the individual contributors and not necessarily those of the editors or publisher. No responsibility is accepted for the accuracy of information contained in the published articles. The publisher assumes no responsibility for any damage or injury to persons or property arising out of the use of any materials, instructions, methods or ideas contained in the book. Publishing Process Manager Sandra Bakic Technical Editor Teodora Smiljanic Cover Designer Jan Hyrat Image Copyright design56, 2010. Used under license from Shutterstock.com First published September, 2011 Printed in Croatia A free online edition of this book is available at www.intechopen.com Additional hard copies can be obtained from orders@intechweb.org Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids, Edited by Rosario Carbone p. cm. ISBN 978-953-307-269-2 free online editions of InTech Books and Journals can be found at www.intechopen.com Contents Preface IX Part 1 Energy Storage Systems 1 Chapter 1 Electrochemical Energy Storage 3 Pier Luigi Antonucci and Vincenzo Antonucci Chapter 2 Supercapacitor-Based Electrical Energy Storage System 21 Masatoshi Uno Chapter 3 Rotor Design for High-Speed Flywheel Energy Storage Systems 41 Malte Krack, Marc Secanell and Pierre Mertiny Chapter 4 An Application of Genetic Fuzzy Systems to the Operation Planning of Hydrothermal Systems 69 Ricardo de A. L. Rabêlo, Fábbio A. S. Borges, Ricardo A. S. Fernandes, Adriano A. F. M. Carneiro and Rosana T. V. Braga Chapter 5 Lightning Energy: A Lab Scale System 89 Mohd Farriz Basar, Musa Yusop Lada and Norhaslinda Hasim Chapter 6 Fabrication and Characterization of MicroPCMs 111 Jun-Feng Su Chapter 7 Energy Storage and Transduction in Mitochondria 139 Bahareh Golfar, Mohsen Nosrati and Seyed Abbas Shojaosadati Part 2 Technologies for Improving Energy Storage Systems 159 Chapter 8 Bidirectional DC - DC Converters for Energy Storage Systems 161 Hamid R. Karshenas, Hamid Daneshpajooh, Alireza Safaee, Praveen Jain and Alireza Bakhshai VI Contents Chapter 9 Bi-Directional DC - DC Converters for Battery Buffers with Supercapacitor 179 Jan Leuchter Chapter 10 Bio-Inspired Synthesis of Electrode Materials for Lithium Rechargeable Batteries 207 Kisuk Kang and Sung-Wook Kim Chapter 11 Thioether Bond Containing Polymers as Novel Cathode Active Materials for Rechargeable Lithium Batteries 237 Zhang J.Y., Zhan H., Tang J., Zhan L.Z., Song Z.P., Zhou Y.H. and Zhan C.M. Chapter 12 Nanostructured MnO 2 for Electrochemical Capacitor 251 Mao-wen Xu and Shu-Juan Bao Chapter 13 High Temperature PEM Fuel Cells Based on Nafion ® /SiO 2 Composite Membrane 279 XiaoJin Li, ChangChun Ke, ShuGuo Qu, Jin Li, ZhiGang Shao and BaoLian Yi Part 3 Practical Applications of Energy Storage 299 Chapter 14 Energy Storage for Balancing a Local Distribution Network Area 301 I. Grau Unda, P. Papadopoulos, S. Skarvelis-Kazakos, L. M. Cipcigan and N. Jenkins Chapter 15 Sizing and Management of Energy Atorage for a 100% Renewable Supply in Large Electric Systems 321 Oscar Alonso, Santiago Galbete and Miriam Sotés Chapter 16 Complementary Control of Intermittently Operating Renewable Sources with Short- and Long-Term Storage Plants 349 E. F. Fuchs and W. L. Fuchs Chapter 17 Practical Application of Electrical Energy Storage System in Industry 379 Drabek, Streit and Blahnik Chapter 18 Predictive Optimal Matrix Converter Control for a Dynamic Voltage Restorer with Flywheel Energy Storage 401 Paulo Gambôa, J. Fernando Silva, S. Ferreira Pinto and Elmano Margato Contents VII Chapter 19 Unified Power Flow Controllers Without Energy Storage: Designing Power Controllers for the Matrix Converter Solution 425 Joaquim Monteiro, J. Fernando Silva, Sónia Pinto and João Palma Chapter 20 The Benefits of Device Level Short Term Energy Storage in Ocean Wave Energy Converters 439 D. O’Sullivan, D. Murray, J. Hayes, M. G. Egan and A. W. Lewis Chapter 21 A New On-Board Energy Storage System for the Rolling Stock 463 Masao Yano Preface Traditional electrical power systems were essentially based on centralized and fuel consuming power generation plants, where end-users were supplied via unidirectional transmission and distribution grids. The increasing demand for electrical energy and, at the same time, the need for reducing CO2 emissions are now changing these strongholds, and power systems are more and more integrated by “distributed generation” (DG), that is to say small and medium size generator plants managed by end-users (now called “prosumers”, to underline that they are both consumers and producers) and essentially based on renewables. In order not to compromise reliability and quality of the supply, modern power systems now have to become “smarter”, for properly managing power, received both from centralized and distributed sources; of course, this could be accomplished by means of sophisticated control and communication technologies but, in our opinion, energy-storage systems can also have a central role. In fact, electricity generated from renewables by distributed plants, unlike to that generated by fuel consuming centralized plants, is highly “intermittent” and this worsens the problem of optimally matching electricity availability with electricity demand of end-users. Without solving this problem, reliability, quality and stability of modern power system are seriously compromised. Reliable, high-efficient and cost-effective energy storage systems - undoubtedly – can play a crucial role for a large-scale integration on power systems of DG and for enabling the starting and the consolidation of the new era of so called smart-grids. A non exhaustive list of benefits of the energy storage properly located on modern power systems with DG could be as follows: it can increase voltage control, frequency control and stability of power systems, it can reduce outages, it can allow the reduction of spinning reserves to meet peak power demands, it can reduce congestion on the transmission and distributions grids, it can release the stored energy when energy is most needed and expensive, it can improve power quality or service reliability for customers with high value processes or critical operations and so on. X Preface At this moment, a large number of energy storage technologies and systems are available and effectively viable; nevertheless, existing storage technologies can be complimented with innovative researches in order to find new, more reliable and cost- effective solutions. The main goal of the book is to give a date overview on: (i) basic and well proven energy storage systems, (ii) recent advances on technologies for improving the effectiveness of energy storage devices, (iii) practical applications of energy storage, in the emerging era of smart grids. The book is organized into three sections. In the first section (chapters from 1 to 7), the basic and well proven technologies for making up an energy storage system are reviewed. In Chapter 1, electrochemical energy storage technologies are reviewed, also showing how batteries, electrochemical flow cell systems, hydrogen based systems and capacitors can be effectively used on modern distribution grids for integrating renewable energy sources (RES), in order to improve their availability, reliability and power quality. In Chapter 2, specific reference is made to supercapacitors. It is shown that they can be used as an effective alternative to traditional secondary batteries, especially in applications where batteries have to be cycled with shallow depth of discharges, in order to achieve long cycle lives. High-efficiency power electronic converters suitable for overcoming some specific problems related to practical utilization of supercapacitors (voltage imbalance in series connections and terminal voltage variations during charging/discharging process) are also introduced and discussed. In Chapter 3, the state of art of high-speed flywheels is overviewed. Particular attention is dedicated to the problem of the optimization of the rotor design process and well proven approaches for solving it are introduced and discussed, with specific reference to a hybrid composite flywheel rotor. In Chapter 4, the operation planning of hydrothermal systems is analysed, with the main aim to optimize the reservoirs of the hydroelectric systems so that thermoelectric generation can be profitably replaced, whenever possible, by hydroelectric generation. The specification of reservoir operation rules by means of Genetic Fuzzy Systems is investigated and the Mamdani fuzzy inference systems is efficiently used to estimate the operating volume of each hydroelectric plant based on the value of the energy stored in the hydroelectric system. In Chapter 5, a lab scale system is experimented to demonstrate the real possibility to capture the energy from lightning return strokes, as that can also be considered a clean energy sources. The capacitor is used as energy storage device while a high-frequency switching is used to isolate it (and its stored energy), once it has been supplied by means of a lab-generated lightning impulse voltage. [...]... discussed in depth Finally, in Chapter 7, the energy storage process that characterises living organisms is introduced Energy transduction in animal living cells takes place on the mitochondrion and the energy is stored in the body in the form of high -energy molecules such as Adesonine Three-Phosphate (ATP), maintaining the body at a constant temperature of about 37°C; the investigation of this process... requirements of the energy storage system is introduced and utilized referring to a case-study and, then, it is shown as the combined use of a backup generator with an energy storage system can be profitably used for supporting the islanding operation mode of a distribution network area In Chapter 15, having in mind a future scenario where a power system could be made with 100% of renewable resources, the crucial... diffusion of RES, production from clean carbon technologies and others sources technical evolution of the transmission grid for the connection of these sources to the loads programs to meet power /energy demands and management of the loads The diffusion of storage technologies in the public grid include several benefits: the optimization of the grid for the fulfilment of base-load the way to facilitate the. .. for the three following goals: Power quality: stored energy to be delivered for seconds in order to guarantee the continuity of stabilized electricity supply Bridging power: energy furnished for minutes to guarantee the continuity of the service during the transition from an energy source to another one Energy management, for the time-lag between the production and the utilization of the produced energy. .. Energy Storage , Energy Storage Council White Paper, May 2002 Strbac G & Black M., DTI, “Review of Electrical Energy Storage Technologies and Systems of their Potential for the UK”, London 2004 20 Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids Stuntz L., Electricity Advisory Committee Report,”Bottling Electricity: Storage as a Strategic Tool for Managing Variability and Capacity Concerns in the. .. issues are addressed in detail In Section 2, the potential of SCs as alternative main energy storage sources is discussed on the basis of comparisons with specific energy and cycle life performance of a lithium-ion battery In Section 3, cell/module voltage equalizers that are 22 Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids operable with a single switch or even without switches are introduced and compared... are used in power backup systems The pressing demand of better storage technologies have produced incentives to the R&D sector and financing through venture capital In this regard, R&D is addressed to a baseelectrochemistry level in order to single-out the combinations of chemicals having the maximum potential in energy storage systems 2 Batteries Batteries are devices that convert the chemical energy. .. as a blocking electrode from the electrochemical point of view This difference with the batteries means that there is not any limitation by the kinetics of the electrochemical reaction Furthermore, this accumulation mechanism on the surface allows the fast absorption and the supply of energy, therefore better power performance The absence of faradaic reactions avoids also the swelling of the active... particles, including micropores (< 2 nm), mesopores (2-50 nm) and macropores (> 50 nm) The average pore 16 Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids dimension increases as the activation time or the temperature are increased The doublelayer capacity of active carbons reaches 100-120 F g-1 with organic electrolytes and 150-300 F g-1 in aqueous electrolytes but at a lower cell voltage, because the voltage... Meanwhile, there is still a large gap between LIBs and SCs (including LICs) in terms of specific energy, and therefore, SCs are usually considered unsuitable as main energy storage sources However, SCs are considered to be potential alternative main energy storage sources considering their net specific energy, which is defined as Net Specific Energy = Specific Energy × Depth of Discharge, (1) as well as their . ENERGY STORAGE IN THE EMERGING ERA OF SMART GRIDS Edited by Rosario Carbone Energy Storage in the Emerging Era of Smart Grids Edited by Rosario. improving the effectiveness of energy storage devices, (iii) practical applications of energy storage, in the emerging era of smart grids. The book is organized into three sections. In the. integration on power systems of DG and for enabling the starting and the consolidation of the new era of so called smart- grids. A non exhaustive list of benefits of the energy storage properly located