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ALL ABOUT NATURAL ENEMIES

#Biocontrol

Hypoaspis miles

HYPOASPIS MILES

Target Pests Fungus gnats (Bradysia spp.),

Western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis)

The complete life cycle takes about 14 days at 25oC, 70-80%RH

• Optimum temperature: 200C (18 days)

• The sex ratio is equal, 1:1 females to males

• Eggs hatch in 2-3 days into young nymphs

• Each Hypoaspis consumes 1-5 prey per day It can also survive as a

scavenger, feeding on algae and plant debris

Life Cycle

• Apply Hypoaspis shortly within the first few weeks of planting and before Fungus gnats levels reach

more than 20 adults/trap/week

• To control high numbers of FG, use of Hypoaspis can be integrated with insect parasitic nematodes (e.g.,

Steinernema spp.) and Bacillus thurinigiensis israelensis (BTI), both of which control the larval stage of FG.

For Best Results

• The sex ratio is equal, 1:1 female to male.

• Eggs hatch in 3-4 days into young larval stages

• Each A coriaria consumes 10-20 thrips prey per day or 150 pest FG

eggs per day

AMBLYSEIUS CUCUMERIS

Target Pests Western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis)

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci); Cyclamen, and Broad Mites.

A complete life cycle takes about 9 days at 25°C, >70%RH

• Optimum temperature: 200C (10-12 days)

• The sex ratio is 60-70% females

• Females lay 1-3 eggs per day for an average of 35 eggs

• They hatch in about 3 days

• Adults live for up to 30 days

• Eat an average of 6 1st thrips larvae per day

Life Cycle

Use Cucumeris along with other thrips predators such as Orius spp on flowering plants and Hypoaspis

to control thrips pupae in the growth media

For Best Results

PleaseNote: Where Persimilis is being used for control of spider mite, avoid heavy applications of

Cucumeris Cucumeris feed on spider mite eggs, which may limit the food supply for immature Persimilis and reduce their effectiveness

AMBLYSEIUS SWIRSKII

Target Pests Young larvae of various thrips species

Eggs and larvae of whitefles

The life cycle takes about 7 days at 250C, >70% RH

• Optimum temperature: 250C

• The sex ratio is 60-70% females

• Egg: 2-3 eggs per day, hatch in 1.7 days

• Life span: 25.8 days

• Eat an average of 4 1st thrips larvae per day and overpowered

easily than 2nd larvae

Life Cycle

For Best Results

• Release when plant starts flowering A swirskii doesn’t feed on adult stages of its prey, therefore

preventative releases are recommended early in the crop cycle before pest shows up

• Complement its action with parasitic wasps for older larval stages of whitefly and with pirate bugs for older thrips larvae and adults

AMBLYSEIUS MONTDORENSIS

Young larvae of various thrips species Greenhouse Whitefly and Silverleaf Whitefly

Target Pests

At optimum temperature 25oC; >70%RH Montdorensis takes about

6-7 days to complete their lifecycle An adult predator consumes an

average of 14 thrips larvae per day, feeding on both first and

second instar prey

Life Cycle

• Weed management and screening (in protected crops) should be used

to reduce the number of adult thrips and whitefly entering the crop

For Best Results

• Complementary thrips biocontrol agents include Orius predatory bugs

(which feed on all stages of thrips) and Hypoaspis soil-dwelling predatory mites (which kill thrips pupae

at ground level) Complementary whitefly biocontrol agents include the parasitoid wasps Eretmocerus

hayati (Silverleaf whitefly) and Encarsia formosa (Greenhouse whitefly)

ORIUS SPP.

Target Pests Western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis)

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci)

A complete life cycle takes about 14-21 days at 25°C

• Optimum temperature: 210C (21 days)

• The sex ratio is 50-60% females

• Females lay 2 eggs per day, with an average of 30 eggs in their

lifetime Eggs hatched in 4-5 days

• Eat an average of 20 nymphs or 6-7 adults thrips per day.

• Adults live for 21-28 days

Life Cycle

Until thrips populations are established, use the predatory mite Cucumeris (Amblyseius cucumeris) on

cucumber To prevent Orius from diapausing supplemental lighting must be provided to increase the day length to 14 hours or longer

For Best Results

PleaseNote: Orius will diapause in the fall, when day lengths are less than 12.5 - 14 hours.

• There are 4 times more females in the population than males

• Females lay 2-3 eggs per day for an average of 60 eggs over their

35-day lifetime The eggs hatched in 2-3 days

• Newly hatched predators do not eat, but later stages and adults

feed on all stages of the prey Each predator consumes between

5-30 prey (eggs or mites) per day

Life Cycle

• Persimilis needs relative humidities greater than 70% to survive, particularly in the egg stage In low humidity conditions, raise the humidity by lightly misting plants or wetting walkways

• Where temperatures and humidity above 20-27°C; <60% RH can be maintained, the predator

Neoseiulus californicus can also be used with Persimilis.

For Best Results

NEOSEIULUS CALIFORNICUS

Two-Spotted Spider mite (Tetranychus urticae); Tree Red Spider Mite (Panonychus ulmi); Citrus Red Mite (Panonychus citri); other spider mite species.

Fruit-Target Pests

Californicus works best when used preventatively, or when spider mites are first noticed on the crop The best results are seen when Californicus is allowed to build up before the spider mite populations are

able to establish themselves

For Best Results

Life Cycle

The life cycle takes about 6 days at 25°C, 40-80% RH

• Optimum temperature: 300C (4 days)

• The adult predatory mite lives about 20 days She lays eggs for 14

days (with an average of 3 eggs a day)

• The eggs hatch after 1-2 days

• Californicus is able to consume 5 adults spider mites daily

PleaseNote: Neoseiulus californicus develops faster when consuming the two-spotted spider mite.

• The sex ratio is females than males (50-60% females).

• Each female lays about 100-200 eggs in aphids Parasitized turn into

golden brown mummies after 7-12 days Four to six days later the new

wasps will emerge The 2nd and 3rd instars aphids are preferred (all stages

can be parasitized)

Life Cycle

In situation, aphid populations grow too fast to be controlled by the parasite alone therefore it is advisable

to introduce additional aphid predators such as Geocoris spp and Ladybeetles.

For Best Results

PleaseNote:

• The size of the adult parasite and the number of eggs it can lay, depends on the size of the aphid

• Aphidius does not attack many common aphid species, such as potato aphids (Macrosiphum euphorbiae)

so if mummies are not present check aphid identification

TRICHOGRAMMA SPP.

Target Pests Several species of moths.

Because Trichogramma are weak flyers, they must be well distributed throughout the crop Use Bacillus

thuringiensis, Eocanthecona furcellata, and Geocoris spp to control Caterpillars until Trichogramma is

well established

For Best Results

A complete life cycle takes about 8-9 days at 250C, >60% RH

• Optimum temperature: 210C (14 days)

• Sex ratio in the population is about equal (50% females)

• Mated females lay 60-70 eggs in over a period of 1-2 weeks

• Larvae take 10 days within the moth egg, which turns brown or black

• Adults begin to emerge within 2-3 days Males emerge slightly earlier

and await female 20-27 emergence for mating

• Total life span maybe 7-75 days depending upon temperature,

relative humidity and species of moth parasitized

Life Cycle

EOCANTHECONA FURCELLATA

Many Lepidopterous pests

Target Pests

For Best Results

Combine with Trichogramma sp and BTK powder for the best pest control effect.

Life Cycle

A complete life cycle takes about 18.7 days at 29°C, >65% RH The life

cycle of female imago (37.4 days) and male (35.2 days)

• 1st nymphal instar takes 4.08 days

• 2nd instar takes 3.42 days

• 3rd instar takes 2.97 days

• 4th instar takes 3.06 days

• 5th instar takes 5.25 days

• The fecundity rate of E furcellata is 134.8 eggs/female, while percentage of egg

hatching is 82.9% with egg incubation period lasting for 10.1 days

• Attractive fertilizing NH4+ > NO3- > Ca (NO3)2.

• At 35-370C ability oviposition declines by 10% Above 370C make an adults die

• The population of N tenuis is too large, i.e when more than 1.5 inds/tomato plant

• There is no or less prey

• In sensitive crops and varieties such as cherry tomatoes and small-truss tomato types

On tomato, development takes about 21.8 days at 25°C (65±5% RH;

16L:8D; Ultra-Violet LED λ=385 nm) Optimum temperature: 250C

• At 17°C, a female lays about 100-150 eggs on tomato, 250-300 eggs

on cucumber and 450-600 eggs on eggplant

• Nesidiocoris nymphs are 1-4mm long and cannot fly

• Adults are able to prey on over 30 T absoluta eggs per day

• Eggs that are laid singly on leaves or stems hatch in one week

• The sex ratio is equal, 1:1 females to males

• They have five nymphal instars, each of which lasts from 4-6 days

• Both nymphs and adults are predaceous

• Adults live approximately one month and a female can lay up to 300 eggs

• Feed on a wide variety of prey smaller than themselves (eggs and small larvae

of most Lepidopteran pests, on the eggs and nymphs of plant bugs, and on all life stages of whiteflies, mites and aphids)

PleaseNote:

Chinch bugs, a pest of turfgrass, resemble big-eyed bugs and managers sometimes mistakenly spray when the biological control agent is found

Table 1.1 Common Pests in Vietnam (and personal observations).

Flies and Midges

Thrips

(Thysanoptera)

Western flower thrips Frankliniella occidentalis Pergande

Onion thrips Thrips tabaci Lindeman

Poinsettia thrips Echinothrips americanus Morgan

Palm thrips Parthenothrips dracaenae Heeger

Tobacco thrips Thrips parispinus Karny

Rose thrips Thrips fuscipennis Haliday

European flower thrips Frankliniella intonsa Trybom

Spider mite

Tarsonemid mite

(Trombidiformes)

Two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus urticae Koch

Bulb scale mite Steneotarsonemus laticeps Halbert

Broad mite Polyphagotarsonemus latus Banks

PEST GROUP & ORDER COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME

Aphids

(Hemiptera)

Green peach aphid Myzus persicae Sulzer

Cotton aphid Aphis gosyppii Glover

Foxglove aphid Aulacorthum solani Kaltenbach

Potato aphid Macrosiphum euphorbiae Thomas

Caterpillars

(Lepidoptera)

South American tomato pinworm Tuta absoluta MeyrickCotton leafworm Spodoptera litura

Tomato looper Plusia chalcites

Whiteflies

(Hemiptera)

Tobacco whitefly Bemisia tabaci Gennadius

Greenhouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood

Mealybugs

(Hemiptera)

Citrus mealybug Planacoccus citri Risso

Long-tailed mealybug Pseudococcus longispinus Targioni-Tozzetti Obscure mealybug Pseudococcus viburni Signoret

Table 1.2 Common Pests in Vietnam (and personal observations).

ANIMAL AND PLANT PROTECTION METHODS 1

BIOLOGICAL

CHEMICAL NON-SELF- SUSTAINING

Vedalia Beetle (Cottony-cushion scale) Klamath Beetle

(Klamath Weed)

Rust (Chondrilla juncea)

Antagonistic microorganisms (Plant pathogens)

Some baculoviruses (Rhinoceros beetle) Some fungi

Some protozoa (Others)

AUTOCIDAL Screwworm Fruits Flies (Others)

HOST PLANT RESISTANCE2

Wheat3

(Hessian Fly) Grape

(Phylloxera)

(Others)

AUGMENTATION

OF NATURAL ENEMIES5

Trichogramma

(Cornborer) Encarsia (Whitefly) Virus (granulosis, NP) Nematodes (Others)

SYNTHESIZED (INDUSTRIAL)

Clorinated carbons

Hydro-Organophosphates Carbamates

Pyrethroids (Others)

SYNTHESIZED BY LIVING ORGANISMS Semiochemicals Pyrethrums Rotenone

Toxins (B thuringiensis)

(Others)

NATURAL

SYSTHESIZED (INDUSTRIAL) Sulfur

(Others)

Copper Sulfate (Others)

1 List not inclusive – IPM is not included because it draws from all methods.

2 Placed by some experts under Cultural Control.

3 Some varieties have retained resistance for decades, while others lose resistance sooner.

4 Some forms are self-sustaining.

5 Partially self-sustaining

Exploitative Competition and

Induced Plant Responses

Apparent Competition or

Apparent

Intraguild

Hyperparasitism or

Fig 2 A food web of pest species and their most commonly used

natural enemies in sweet pepper crops

*Integrated Pest Management and Pest Control – Current and Future Tactics (Book)

Type Feeding Habit Example Commercially Available Species

Type I

Specialized mite predators

(a) Specialized predators of Tetranychus (Tetranychidae) (b) Specialized predators of web-nest producing mites (Tetranychidae)

(c) Specialized predators of tydeoids (Tydeoidea)

(a) Phytoseiulus persimilisa, Phytoseiulus macropilis

(b) Typhlodromus (Anthoseius) bumbusae (c) Typhlodromina eharai, Proprioseiopsis sp.

Type II Selective predators of Tetranychid mites Neoseiulus californicusa, Neoseiulus fallacis,

Neoseiulus longispinosus,

Type

III

Generalist predators

(a) Generalists living on pubescent leaves

(b) Generalists living on glabrous leaves

(c) Generalists living in confined spaces of

dicotyledonous plants

(d) Generalists living in confined spaces of

monocotyledonous plants

(e) Generalists from soil/litter habits

(a) Kampimodromus aberrans, Galendromus

occidentalis, Typhlodromus pyri, Phytoseius finitimus

(b) Amblyseius swirskiia , Amblydromalus limonicus,

Transeius montdorensisa , Amblyseius cucumerisa

(c) Amblyseius herbicolus, Iphiseius degenerans, (d) Neoseiulus baraki, Neoseiulus paspalivorus (e) Neoseiulus barkeri

Type

IV Specialized pollen feeders/generalist predators Euseius sp (E gallicusa, E stipulatus, E scutalis)

Figure 2 Schematic

overview of potential pathways of pests, viruses and

hyperparasitoids (orange), natural enemies and

pollinators (green), and the role of plant diversity in and

around greenhouses

in these pathways

Biodiversity in and around Greenhouses: Benefits and Potential Risks for Pest

Management Insects https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12100933

REFERENCES

Barber A, Campbell CAM, Crane H, Lilley R, Tregidga E 2003 Biocontrol of two-spotted spider mite Tetranychus

urticae on dwarf hops by the phytoseiid mites Phytoseiulus persimilis and Neoseiulus californicus Biocontrol

Science and Technology 13: 275-284

Bhatt, Nimish & Patel, Mayank (2018) Tomato bug, Nesidiocoris tenuis (Reuter): A zoophytophagous insect

Capinera, J.L., 1999 Fall Armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E Smith) (Insecta: Lepidoptera:Noctuidae)

University of Florida IFAS extension publication EENY-098

Castagnoli M, Liguori M 1991 Laboratory observations on duration of copulation and egg production of three

Phytoseiid species fed on pollen In: The Acari Chapman and Hall, New York, NY 231-239.

Castagnoli M, Simoni S 2003 Neoseiulus californicus (McGregor) (Acari: Phytoseiidae): survey of biological and

behavioral traits of a versatile predator Redia 86: 153-164

REFERENCES

Castagnoli M, Simoni S 2003 Neoseiulus californicus (McGregor) (Acari: Phytoseiidae): survey of biological and

behavioral traits of a versatile predator Redia 86: 153-164

Chamber RJ, Long S, Sand NL 1993 Effectiveness of Orius laevigatus (Hem: Anthocoridae) for control of Frankliniella

occidentalis on cucumber and pepper in the UK Biocontrol Science Technology 3: 295-307.

Croft BA, Monetti LN, Pratt PD 1998 Comparative life histories and predation types: are Neoseiulus californicus and N

fallacies (Acari: Phytoseiidae) similar type II selective predators of spider mites Environmental Entomology 27:

531-538

Enkegaard, A., & Brødsgaard, H F (2000) Lasioseius fimetorum: a soil-dwelling predator of glasshouse

pests? BioControl, 45, 285-293

Everson P 1980 The relative activity and functional response of Phytoseiulus persimilis (Acarina: Phytoseiidae) and

Tetranychus urticae (Acarina: Tetranychidae): the effect of temperature Can Entomol 112: 17–24.

Green Methods (2016) Orius for thrips control California, United States (18 April 2016)

Monetti L.N and Croft B.A 1997 Neoseiulus californicus (McGregor) and Neoseiulus fallacis (Garman): larval response

to prey and humidity, nymphal feeding drive and nymphal predation on phytoseiid eggs Exp Appl Acarol 21: 225–234