oke out overhead. ‘I’ve got my wife locked in up there,’ explained Wilson calmly. ‘She’s going to stay there till the day after tomorrow and then we’re going to move away.’ Micelis was astonished;nished; they had been neighbors for four years and Wilson

his neighbor was trying to persuade him a violent racket broke out overhead. ‘I’ve got my wife locked in up there,’ explained Wilson calmly. ‘She’s going to stay there till the day after tomorrow and then we’re going to move away.’ Micelis was astonished;nished; they had been neighbors for four years and Wilson had never

HANDBOOK OF

COR PORATE COMMUNICATION

AND PUBLIC RELATIONS

A comprehensive addition to existing literature, the Handbook of Corporate Communication and Public Relations provides an excellent overview of corporate communication, clearly positioning

the field’s most current debates Synthesizing both multidisciplinary and interdisciplinaryapproaches, it offers readers the in-depth analysis required to truly understand corporate com-munication, corporate strategy and corporate affairs as well as the relevant public relationsissues Written by academics based in Europe, Asia and North America, the text is well illus-trated with contemporary case studies, drawing out the most pertinent best practice outcomesand theoretically based applications

Its four parts cover national communication; international communication; image, identityand reputation management; and the future for corporate communication theory and practice.With a refreshing new approach to this subject, the authors challenge reductionist views ofcorporate communication, providing persuasive evidence for the idea that without an organ-izational communication strategy, there is no corporate strategy

The Handbook of Corporate Communication and Public Relations is an essential one-stop

refer-ence for all academics, practitioners and students seeking to understand organizationalcommunication management and strategic public relations

Sandra M Oliver is a corporate communication academic at Thames Valley University,

London, where she founded and also directs the MSc Corporate Communication Programme

A consultant research practitioner and former industrial PR, she is founding Editor-in-Chief of

Corporate Communication: An International Journal and has written extensively, including Public Relations Strategy (2001) and Corporate Communication: Principles, Techniques and Strategies

(1997)

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

First published 2004

by Routledge

11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge

29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor and Francis Group

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk ”

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted

or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic,

mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter

invented, including photocopying and recording, or in

any information storage or retrieval system, without

permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from

the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN 0-203-41495-0 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 0-203-68057-X (Adobe eReader Format)

ISBN 0–415–33419–5 (Print Edition)

7 Strategic challenges for corporate communicators in public service

J Paulo Kuteev-Moreira and Gregor J Eglin

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

PART II: CORPORATE COMMUNICATION AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

8

9

Communication audits: building world class communication systems

Dennis Tourish and Owen Hargie

The Olympic Games: a framework for international public relations

Yvonne Harahousou, Chris Kabitsis, Anna Haviara and Nicholas D Theodorakis

10 Facets of the global corporate brand

T C Melewar and Chris D McCann

11 Differing corporate communication practice in successful and unsuccessfulcompanies

Communicating with 1.3 billion people in China

Ying Fan and Wen-Ling Liu

Today’s corporate communication function

Reputation and leadership in a public broadcast company

Sandra M Oliver and Anthony Clive Allen

PART IV: THE FUTURE IS NOW

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

Strategic employee communication model

Three-phased communication strategy plan

Sample SCT structure

Scorecard of current employee communication

Munter communication theory

Assessment framework

Ideal structure for CorpCom function model

Organizational chart of a hypothetical company

0.1 Facets of the global corporate brand

4.1 The wheel of integrated marketing

4.2 Continuum of integrated corporate communication

4.3 Integrated corporate communication assessment profile

4.4 Completed integrated corporate communication assessment profile5.1 Tomita’s media gap

5.2 The changing face of Coca-Cola

8.1 Monitoring the trust factor

8.2 Information costs and choices

8.3 Likely causes of crises

8.4 A crisis impact model

8.5 Elements of a business continuity plan

8.6 The action stations framework: a co-dependency model

8.7 First Interstate: normal organization

8.8 First Interstate: emergency organization

8.9 Scotiabank’s incident response

8.10 Scotiabank’s approach to emergency management

8.11 Scenario: phases 1 and 2

8.12 Scenario: phases 3 and 4

8.13 Scenario: phase 5

9.1 Information flows in an organization

9.2 The flow of information to the outside world9.3 Cisco

6.2 Brand evaluator: Europe, 2003

6.3 Brand evaluator: United States, 2003

6.4 Strategic decision making

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

2.1 Advertising industry turnover and growth

2.2 Advertising expenditure by product category, 2001

2.3 Advertising expenditure by medium, 1997

2.4 Factors influencing the new name

2.5 Names with potentially negative connotations

2.6 Which is your most used marketing medium?

2.7 What kinds of events would you consider sponsoring or hosting?

2.8 What events have you sponsored in the past three years?

2.9 How did you build an association or link between the sponsored eventand your brand/company?

12.10 How did you integrate the event sponsorship into your marketing mix

12.13 What is your future strategy for event sponsorship?

12.14 What role does event sponsorship play in your integrated marketing mix?12.15 Comments on the future development of event marketing in China12.16 Advertisement by branded product information

3.1 Corporate communication functions

3.2 Meeting the press: some guidelines

5.1 Top 25 US web properties by parent company

5.2 Top 10 UK web properties

7.1 The best corporate reputations in the United States

7.2 Primary industry

7.3 Revenue

7.4 Corporate reputation

8.1 Operational functions of banks

8.2 Differences between routine emergencies and disasters

8.3 International terrorism incidents, 1968–79

8.4 Nine steps to managing BCP performance

8.5 Communication channels

0.1 Responses of senior-level, US PR and corporate communication professionals

to the question: ‘Do you agree the events of September 11, 2001,

changed how your company communicates?’

0.2 Responses of senior-level, US PR and corporate communication professionals

to the question: ‘Do you agree the events of September 11, 2001, have hadany impact on your organization’s public relations and communicationsfunction?’

2

20.3 Comparing mean scores between responses from October 2001 and

March 2002

20.4 Responses of senior-level, US PR and corporate communication professionals

to additional questions in March 2002

6.1 The world’s largest PR firms

6.2 Industry sector: healthcare 2001 revenues

6.3 Industry sector: technology 2001 revenues

7.1 Ethics by profession

7.2 Business ethics courses

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

Anthony Clive Allen is attached to the Corporate Communication Directorate at the Royal Air

Force in London, UK

Albert Atkinson is an active consultant researcher and involved in the affairs of the Library

Board of Trustees and Chamber of Commerce, UK

Deborah J Barrett PhD lectures at Jones Graduate School of Management, Rice University,

Texas, USA and directs the MBA communication programme

Gerald Chan is Public Affairs and Education Officer at the Institute of Public Relations, London,

UK and studying for a master’s degree in public relations

Colin Coulson-Thomas PhD is author of Transforming the Company (2002, 2nd edn), thirty

other books and reports, and is Chairman of ASK Europe plc

Krishna S Dhir PhD is Dean of the Campbell School of Business at Berry College, Georgia,

USA;

formerly of CIBA-GEIGY AG in Switzerland and Borg-Warner, USA

Richard Dolphin lectures at the Northampton Business School, UK and is author of

Fundamentals of Corporate Communication (2000).

Gregor Eglin PhD lectures in strategic management at University of East London, UK with a

particular research interest in public service communication

Ying Fan PhD lectures and researches at Lincoln School of Management, UK.

Michael Goodman PhD lectures at Fairleigh Dickinson University, USA and is founding

direc-tor of the Corporate Communication Institute at FDU

Yvonne Harahousou, Chris Kabitsis, Anna Haviara and Nicholas D Theodorakis are

academics based at the University of Thrace, Greece, involved with the Organizing Committeefor the Olympic Games 2004

Owen Hargie PhD lectures at the School of Communication, University of Ulster, Ireland and is

co-author of Skilled Interpersonal Communication: Research, Theory and Practice (2004).

Glenda Jacobs is a Research Fellow at UNITEC, Auckland, New Zealand, where she also leads

computer-mediated communication courses

Philip Kitchen PhD holds a professorial research chair and lectures at the University of Hull,

UK

Paulo Kuteev-Moreira PhD is Director of Communication for a privately managed public

hospital in Portugal and a researcher for a WHO-Europe-affiliated Observatory in HealthStudies

Jacquie L’Etang PhD lectures and researches at the University of Stirling, Scotland and is an

examiner for the Institute of Public Relations Membership Diploma examinations

Wen-Ling Liu PhD lectures at Hull University, UK on integrated marketing communication Chris McCann is Business Consultant for an energy company in Stockholm, Sweden.

Tengku Melewar PhD lectures at the University of Warwick Business School, UK.

Kevin Moloney PhD lectures at Bournemouth University, UK and is a research specialist in

government communication and pressure groups

Michael Morley is Special Counsel for Edelman Public Relations, New York, USA and author of

How to Manage Your Reputation (1998).

Sandra M Oliver PhD, General Editor, is founding Editor-in-Chief of Corporate Communication:

An International Journal; author of Public Relations Strategy (2001) and Corporate Communication: Principles, Techniques and Strategies (1997); and founding director of the international MSc in

Corporate Communication programme at Thames Valley University, London, UK

Liam Ó Móráin MSc is founder chairman of Moran Communication, Ireland with eighteen

years consultancy experience of communication and PR management

David Phillips chaired the UK PR industry Joint Internet Commission and is author of

numer-ous papers including ‘Online Public Relations’ and ‘Managing Reputation in Cyberspace’

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

David Pickton lectures and researches at De Montfort University, UK and is co-author of

Integrated Marketing Communication (2001).

Stephen A Roberts PhD lectures at Thames Valley University, London, UK and directs the MSc

Information Management Programme

Martin Sims lectures at St Mary’s College, London, UK and is a former BBC journalist who edits

Intermedia, the journal of the International Institute of Communication.

Don Swanson PhD is Chair of the Communication Department at Monmouth University, USA

and former President of the New Jersey Communication Association

Dennis Tourish PhD is Professor of Communication at Aberdeen Business School, Scotland with

over 50 publications in communication management

Richard Varey PhD is a Marketing Professor at the Waikato Management School, New Zealand,

who currently researches in managed communication for sustainable business

Reginald Watts PhD is a consultant and author of four books; formerly CEO of Burson

Marstellar and President of the Institute of Public Relations, London, UK

Donald Wright PhD is President of the International Public Relations Association and an

academic at the University of South Alabama, USA

Excellent corporate communication lies at the global market place in a combination ofheart of industry, commerce and govern- interconnected phenomena embracing interments’ abilities to build a democratic society, alia, globalization, the transformative impactbut this critical strategic role in organizational of technology on organizational life (indeedtheory and practice rarely receives the due on the very nature of organizations), success-commitment required for quality assurance in ful e-business models and the changing nature

A previous handbook published in 19971 is ‘far too recent a phenomenon for any assembled the cutting edge views and experi- sensus to have emerged yet about what con-ences of leading practitioners of the day with stitutes best practice’ but for corporatesome solid opinion pieces that have been communicators and public relations consult-helpful to a wide range of audiences and ants and practitioners worldwide, there is areaders including public relations practition- belief that there is a set of best practices anders, opinion formers, media managers, adver- that adopting them leads to superior organ-tising executives and others It was a source of izational performance and competitiveness.information and advice on a vast array of The concept of good practice has to betopics brought together to represent the inter- addressed in accordance with contingencydisciplinary and multidisciplinary nature of theory No single best practice is universallycorporate communication as a core business applicable to all organizations because of dif-discipline for senior executives in large multi- ferences in strategy, culture, managementnational companies, small-to-medium size style, technology and markets The challengeenterprises (SMEs) and not-for-profit organ- for operators is the inconsistency between the

corp-Now in what philosophers like to call the orate communication as an intangible assetpost-modern era, we see more clearly how limiting resource It is crucial to match corpor-the new information technologies have ate strategy with corporate communicationrestructured the whole industry sector Its policy and practice, but given that corporateimpact leads us to challenge what John Milton communication is as the Institute of Publiccalls ‘conventional economic thinking, Relations states the ears, eyes and voice of theredefining how business is done and impact- organization, the in-house practitioner hasing to varying degrees every worker in the a special responsibility for the overview of the

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

organization as a whole beyond that of the support, assessment of barriers, preparationchief executive officer He or she is required of action plans, project manage implementa-

to advise, counsel, monitor and measure tion and follow up evaluation All these operations in a reliable and consistent man- ities are basic and familiar to middle andner beyond the reductionist, functional project managers, management researchapproaches of corporate accounting or inte- students and PR campaign practitioners Thegrated marketing Indeed he or she also corporate communication industry whichaccepts the role of boundary spanner in includes public relations agencies and bluemonitoring not just relations between organ- chip management consultancies have reliedizations and their stakeholders but beyond to heavily on developing the skills and tech-the value-added implications of policies and niques to carry out such activities in an essen-practices within a wider democratic society

activ-In 1999, Purcell2 suggested that the concept

tially practical but research-based manner.Now, with the recognition of the growth of

of best practice and best fit is limited by ‘the the global knowledge economy ‘the impossibility of modelling all the contingent tional factors of production – land, labourvariables, the difficulty of showing their inter- and capital – pale into insignificance along-connection and the way in which changes in side knowledge’, as Philip Sadler says.6 Theone variable have impact on others’ Many corporate communicator is at the helm ofmanagement consultants have taken up this this development It is the corporate com-view and been less concerned with best prac- municator who has to be fully aware of chang-tice and best fit to address more sensitive ing environments, major trends, opportunitiesprocesses of organization change so that they or threats to the development or survival of ancan ‘avoid being trapped in the logic of rational organization The management of intellectualchoice’ So what we have tried to do with this capital has to be understood but is also hasbook is to adopt the concept of bundling to be applied through corporate communica-whereby the chapters are interrelated, comple- tion operational strategies for it to be ofment and support one another through the added value to an organization The pure andmedium of quality research rather than mere applied aspects of corporate communicationopinion Sometimes referred to as a configura- as educational and training areas of know-tional mode3 or complementarity, MacDuffie4 ledge and skill are inextricably linked Thestates that ‘implicit in the notion of a bundle is future of corporate communication will con-the idea that practices within bundles are inter- tinue to depend on its tactical skills base but itrelated and internally consistent and that more is beginning to redesign itself as a strong pro-

tradi-is better with respect to the impact on perform- fessional vocation based on sound researchance, because of the overlapping and mutually methods In spite of the different names byreinforcing effect of multiple practices’ which practitioners are labelled or defined

It is generally accepted that to overcome whether in-house or as external consultants,these barriers to the implementation of corp- ignorance is not bliss Corporate communica-orate communication strategy a number of tion has moved away from the secular publicactivities are essential Michael Armstrong5 relations approaches of the 1970s and 1980sargues that essential activities include: the and moved into new areas of political rolesconducting of a rigorous initial analysis, form- and relationships between peoples and theirulation strategy, the gaining of influential economic environments

Although this book is a generalist one it peting values framework is ‘grounded in therefore brings together the pure and the doxical thinking – it forces one to think aboutapplied to further develop the profession the competing tensions and demands thatand those in it and all who endeavour to be are placed on [corporate communication] man-

para-a ppara-art of it in the future Most vocpara-ationpara-al pro- para-agers in new wpara-ays’

grammes provided by today’s university The research presented in this book sector have learned to balance the demands ports what Quinn et al calls ‘the need to use

sup-of further and higher education, training and paradoxical thinking to create both practice albeit with some difficulty due to proaches to the management of opposites’.the demands of the university research assess- The corporate communicator is always at thement exercise in Britain and increasing gov- cutting edge of ‘informing and transformingernmental control of universities worldwide our future leaders’, even though ‘every area isThe contributors to this book believe that under siege’ because of the ‘crisis of confi-the underpinning of specialist areas will lead dence in accounting practices and corporate

ap-to a greater self-confidence in the face of pre- fiduciary principles In the twenty-first vailing cynicism and pessimism about strat- tury, leaders are being challenged like neveregic corporate communication at local and before to resolve dilemmas around organisa-global levels This book supports the multi- tional effectiveness, economic viability andfaceted roles that any corporate communica- political and military security’ These chapterstor plays, whether he or she be mentor, are based on real research They are neitherfacilitator, monitor, co-ordinator, director, descriptive nor prescriptive but challengeproducer, broker or innovator.7 These eight reductionist views of corporate communica-roles represent a competing values framework tion and provide persuasive evidence for thewhich together establish competency in any notion that no organizational communicationmanagement field especially in corporate strategy equals no corporate strategy at all incommunication, public relations and public a postmodern, mediated internet era

cen-affairs Whether the practitioner/consultant is

at expert, proficient, competent, advanced

beginner or novice stage of a career, the

Foster, T R V and Jolly, A (1997) Corporate

Communication Handbook, London: Kogan Page.

Purcell, J (1999) ‘Best practice or best fit:

chimera or cul-de-sac’, Human Resource

Manage-ment Journal, 9(3), 26–41.

Delery, J E and Doty, H D (1996) ‘Modes of

theorising in strategic human resource

manage-ment: tests of universality, contingency and

configurational performance predictions’,

Inter-national Journal of Human Resource Management,

and manufacturing performance’, Industrial Relations Review, 48(2), 199–221.

Armstrong, M (2001) A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice, 8th edn, London:

Chichester: Wiley.

5

6

7 3

6, 656–70.

MacDuffie, J P (1995) ‘Human resource bundles

4

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

In its 250th anniversary year, the Royal Society of Arts continues its mission to encourage arts,manufactures and commerce During the next six years, the RSA will focus on five key chal-lenges framed within a new Manifesto: to encourage enterprise, move towards a zero wastesociety, foster resilient communities, develop a capable population, and advance global citizen-ship These themes are going to tax the best hearts and minds in boardrooms worldwide, aswell as the communication and public relations profession itself, demanding a higher degree ofspecialist knowledge and skill than ever before

The publication of this book offers a powerful contribution to the range of projects we haveimplemented to support the Manifesto, including Visions of a Capable Society, IntellectualProperty, Shared Mental Modes, Sustainable Design and Global Citizenship Principles, tech-niques and strategies come together in this book from lead international researchers, academicsand practitioners to help us and the international business community to meet its obligationswith the help of the authors’ proven expertise and wise counsel

Sir Paul Judge

Chairman, The Royal Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacture and Commerce (RSA)

The General Editor is indebted to the following: Rachel Crookes and Francesca Poynter atRoutledge; Anna Leatham, Giuliana Taborelli, Mireille Jones, Jenny Johns, Khalda Ahmed andKay Ahluwalia for their skilled IT support throughout numerous drafts; and those friends, col-leagues and organizations who have willingly participated in putting together this scholarlycontribution to the corporate communication and PR discipline

The Editor and the publishers are grateful for permission to reproduce copyright materialand while every effort has been made to ensure that all owners of copyright material have beennotified, apologies are offered to any copyright holders whose rights may have unwittinglybeen infringed Should such an instance be identified, we would appreciate receiving relevantinformation We will undertake to rectify errors or omissions in future editions of this book

PART I CORPORATE COMMUNICATION

AT NATIONAL LEVEL

This chapter examines diversity programmes from a number of direct researchresources developed and conducted by the author From focus groups made up of diver-sity personnel, interviews with middle managers and executive management personnel,observations of interviews with corporate diversity directors, through to observationsfrom interviews with human resource managers and corporate communicators Thestudy, and the essence of this chapter, shows the emergence from the observations ofcorporate personnel of some major corporate communication issues These issuesinclude the lack of dialogue regarding diversity, the nature of diversity training andperformance evaluation, the complexity of diversity issues, the managers’ role, and themove to integration and learning as the perspective to bring about effectiveness incorporate diversity programming.

A glance around corporate America quickly and that in 2010 white males will representreveals new and diverse faces and the fact less than 40 per cent of the American work-that successful corporate entities cross many force (Arai, Wanca-Thibault, and Shockley-cultural and international boundaries in the Zalabak, 2001) Corporate diversity pro-conduct of their business Most estimates of grammes and attitudes toward workplacefuture employment indicate that 75 per cent diversity have evolved since the 1990s

of new workers will be other than white males Although this seems to be an age of increasing

enlightenment regarding cross-cultural reali- and conducted by the author Those resourcesties, there are numerous instances of concern include: six focus groups, made up of ten

In the later part of the decade of the 1990s diversity personnel in each group, conducted

it became clear that diversity is not a buzz- in a business financial services unit of anword Those corporate managers, in the investment bank; interviews conducted with1980s and early 1990s, who believed diver- twenty-six middle managers and eight execu-sity management was just another human tive management level personnel in one of theresources management fad were sadly mis- largest and most successful internationaltaken Diversity management as a concept investment banks; observations from inter-and an aspiration for management has views with corporate diversity directors who

‘become deeply rooted in the US federal have a responsibility to keep diversity firmly ongovernment and has received bipartisan sup- the agenda of corporate policy; and observa-port from both political parties’ (Ivancevich tions from interviews with human resourceand Gilbert, 2000: 75) The economic statis- managers and corporate communication man-tics and demographic profile of the potential agers who carry the responsibility for monitor-customers and the new additions to the work- ing diversity programmes

force mandate corporate awareness of the

realities of diversity Workplace 2000,

pub-lished by the Hudson Institute in 1987, was Study of diversity personnel

widely quoted in the 1990s to predict the

shifts But a powerful sense of presumption At a micro level a focus group study of for the status quo workforce still persisted in sity personnel and an interview based studythe subconscious of many middle-aged execu- of mid-level managers, from two differenttives It took the reality of market shifts, and units of a large investment banking firm, pro-

diver-an increasingly diverse set of job applicdiver-ants to vide a snapshot of the attitudes diver-and force awareness of the ‘demographic impera- tions of personnel in a white-collar industrytive’ that required corrective action in the that espouses a commitment to diversityform of diversity management programming programming The units in these studies are(Cox, 1991) Many corporations have found it a part of one of the oldest American invest-difficult to maintain a diversity friendly image ment banking institutions, and it has histori-

percep-in the wake of harsh criticism of past abuses cally been a leader that defined the nature

By 1995 The Economist reported that 75 per of that business As such, the firm conveys

cent of the fifty largest US companies had and maintains an image that has developeddiversity directors or managers Consequently over a rich history The image of being a

a macro view of diversity programming indi- leader in the investment banking industry hascates it has become an inherent part of corp- been exceptionally important to the firm It

oper-This discussion examines attitudes toward, ating in the fast-moving, highly competitiveand the focus of, contemporary corporate financial services marketplace, and realizesdiversity programmes Managers and their that it must attract, keep and develop theinfluence on diversity programming are at the very best people The CEO explains that: ‘Wenucleus of this discussion It develops from a are building for the next generation, not thenumber of direct research resources developed next transaction To do this we must be an

undisputed employer of choice.’ The firm have an opportunity to discuss these sensitiveappears to be committed to developing and issues’.

maintaining diversity at every level of the

company

There were no major complaints that could

be labelled as unique to this corporate unit.The data in this study was gathered over Some participants, who had worked in other

a period of three months with the conduct of units of the firm reported that this unit wassix one-half-day focus groups Each focus much more diversity friendly than their previ-group was composed of a group of approxim- ous group Although this was a long-standingately ten members of the banking group unit of more than six hundred members, therethat provides financial services to businesses have been no catalytic events in recentThe focus group participants were selected memory in the unit that would serve as a flashbecause they fit into a protected category, i.e point for concern over diversity The incidentshistorically minority status Consequently this reported by the participants were generallysample included the minority personnel and not egregious nor widely discussed by co-

a cross-section of female personnel and repre- workers The negative incidents seemed to besented approximately 10 per cent of the em- considered as isolated incidents and notployees in this nationwide unit of the bank representative of the attitudes and behaviourThis sample was intended to be inclusive of of the majority of unit personnel

diversity personnel in order to focus on airing Most of the persons in the focus groupsall the major issues that concerned these pro- were quite ignorant of what their companytected groups Personnel were brought to the had done or not done with diversity initia-focus group location from across the United tives They had queries for information and inStates Two focus groups were conducted in a sense the focus groups became a form ofPrinceton, New Jersey, and four groups were action research because the participants’

The executive in charge of the financial ser- new information on what was happening.vices business unit that the focus groups were Eden and Huxham (1999) point out whydrawn from made a point of coming to each action research has become ‘increasinglygroup and expressed his support for the diver- prominent’ in the study of organizations whensity management project and this fact-finding they indicate it is: ‘research which broadly,research Participants were impressed with his results from an involvement by the researchersupport This was a key element to making the with members of an organisation over afocus groups successful It is clear that visible matter which is of genuine concern to themexecutive support is an essential element for and in which there is an intent by the organ-

The participants in the diversity focus intervention’ (p 272)

groups seemed to appreciate the cathartic Developing and conducting the focusexperience of talking about a subject that they groups was a prelude to further actionhad some uncertainty about Many lacked research It should be noted that this focuseven a basic knowledge of the diversity mis- group process was a catalyst for an evolvingsion of their corporation They were both diversity initiative that included the estab-interested and generally pleased to discuss lishment of a ‘diversity council’ to suggestthis topic Several said they ‘never expected to and monitor future actions In this way the

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

participants had a sense of outcome from the

focus group project

the principles and behaviours taught inthe training

Affirmative action was a frequent, but not

particularly comfortable subject in these

groups They appreciate the goals of

affirma-tive action but it can produce a somewhat

uncomfortable paradox All of the participants

believe that the firm hired them because of

their skill and experience To these personnel

endorsing affirmative action might connote

that their hiring may have been the result of

some preference Most of these people

indi-cate that if in a pool of equally qualified

can-didates there is a minority, at this point in the

history of firm, the minority person should be

selected Focus group participants

em-phatically express the position that ‘no one

should ever be hired who cannot do the job’

Discussants often mentioned the fact that

traditional methods of recruiting may not

reach many persons who could be in a

quali-fied minority pool It was frequently noted

that investment banking is dominated and

staffed almost completely by white males

The dynamic in the groups was stimulating

because participants were eager to make

con-structive action proposals The following is a

list of major suggestions made by the focus

group participants They are included in no

particular order, but represent the major

reac-tions of the sixty participants:

5 Managers must be well and extensivelytrained in diversity management

6 The managers’ performance reviewshould include how well they managediversity This task of reinforcement andmaintenance of effective diversitymanagement falls upon the managers andthe respective styles that they model foreveryone else in the group

7 The firm needs to do a better job ofperformance reviews Managers need to

do a better job of letting you know what

to do to get promoted Help us with what

we need to learn and accomplish so that

we perform more effectively

8 In the interest of trying to promotediverse people, don’t just promote peoplebecause of their diversity status, forgettingtheir qualifications Don’t put someonesomewhere just to have a minority in thatposition

9 Career planning is important to everyone.Career counselling and advising is import-ant and it should be done This couldsolve some of the problem we have with

a high turnover rate The people we tend

to lose will be minorities who have lent opportunities elsewhere What aretheir opportunities here? They need toknow

Maintain commitment to diversity and

work to increase heterogeneity

mentoring It is essential to have moretraining and mentoring for those whowant to move up to management

To assume that the whole group has a 11 This unit must deal more effectively withproblem is not fair Don’t try to fix what is

not broken Get in with the workforce and

fix the real problems that are there

the problem of attrition If we lowered theattrition rate there would be fewer per-sonnel problems

4 Provide meaningful diversity training This 12 As a matter of course do exit interviewsshould be a part of the orientation process and listen to them Learn from the reasonsfor new employees Continually reinforce people leave

13 Improve recruiting – go beyond putting Study of mid-level managers

advertisements in the paper Be more

visi-ble at career fairs Go to a wider range of The second study that provides a view of the

14 Take time while hiring Don’t do it too white-collar industry of investment banking isquickly ‘Emergency hires’ can’t be done based upon a focused set of ninety-minutecarefully Go slow and get somebody interviews with twenty-five mid-level man-really good for the job Go past the agers in the mutual funds division of the firm.typical criteria for hiring Only using refer- The sessions focused both on informationrals won’t accomplish the diversity goals gathering and coaching the managers ThisInstead of looking at educational back- again was a form of action research becauseground, look at their talent Look cre- the interview provided an opportunity toatively at the past history of candidates’ conduct a constructive dialogue on somework Even though I am at a lower level of the issues of concern to the interviewees.let me do some hiring or at least be more The focus of the interviews was on both theinvolved in the hiring process process of evaluation and the impact of deal-

15 Maintain, embrace and apply more of the ing with a diverse workforce Topics includedquality of work–life policies that the firm discovery of diversity sensitivity, coachingbrags about Don’t offer policies, if man- people through difficult performance eval-agers don’t intend to use them Walk the uation sessions, working for candour, honesty,

16 Establish a diversity council and define sessions, maintaining a climate that is what it will do It’s not going to work to defensive, and the general problems thejust talk about diversity This group should supervisors faced in dealing with those who

non-be very active

17 Get individual groups of particular

minor-reported to them

ity categories together for sessions like reported by the managers were as follows:this Blacks, Asians, women, etc See if

they have more ideas to share when they

are only with persons with the same

cate-gory If you want to get to the truth, do

this to get a definite sense of the peer

groups

1

individual chapters, the contributors

6

Working to define clear and measurable issue for managers To mid-level managers

How to continue to motivate someone challenged to ‘overlook differences’ and treatwho is evaluated as an exceptional per- everyone the same

former Helping them to see how they can

they had worked with diversity management

In this sample group the managers also had in more than two corporations or governmentconcerns about their personal performance entities The others were moved to this posi-for which they sought discussion and advice: tion in their corporation because of their

understanding and sensitivity to the issues In1

2

3

Finding ways to get better feedback from all cases they were African–American female

fea-Giving my boss feedback about how tures Although never directly queried, therehe/she provides feedback to me seemed to be an implicit question: ‘Does itWorking on personal impression manage- require a person who is of minority status toment and knowing how to ‘build your be in this position?’ All would probably assertskills and your personal franchise’

Communication/leadership aspects of how they could relate from personal

How to reinforce and maintain the com- personnel in their organization were facing

it as an advantage because they talked about4

5

munication things I am doing that are

effective with my team

on to explain that legal issues and court orders ment of the new decade ‘everyone must be aneed to be addressed; however the real impe- producer’ It is the multiple outcomes of atus for his unit is the economic reality the person’s labour that become the prime focuscorporation must face: ‘There is an entire seg- of evaluation Rarely is a performance issuement of the population who are potential ever discussed in terms of its root cause, whichclients that we are not reaching Suddenly could be cultural; rather, it is treated as amanagement has realized that to ensure the measurement issue It is the ‘bottom line’ thatfuture of the corporation we need to get inter- counts As one diversity official said: ‘Theyested in diverse customers and employ people have effectively removed the humanity fromwho look like the new customers.’ Others the equation of performance evaluation andnoted that the pool of qualified employees decisions on rifts.’

was becoming increasingly diverse and that Women still substantially feel there is athat demographic pattern will continue to glass ceiling In one large corporation theincrease They agreed that diversity manage- diversity director reports that: ‘When we did ament is an inescapable issue in the twenty- study of the most successful people we noted

The diversity directors who were inter- of forty do not have children On the otherviewed in this study often tend to speak in hand it is interesting to note that the mostmetaphors to describe the true nature of the successful men over forty do have children.’challenges they see their organizations facing Female executive interviewees repeatedlytoday in the American workplace They indicate that they have to adapt to the corp-believe that persons not from the dominant orate leadership style in order to be success-culture, usually referred to as diversity person- ful They need to ‘be as hard-nosed as anel, ‘experience a longer runway to success’ comparable man’ Lower-level women in theThis connotes the reality for most of these per- organizations resent this tendency and pointsons: that they must adapt to the dominant out that ‘the most macho executives are theculture that is thoroughly ingrained in the women who have had to be ruthless’ to get tocorporate culture Often learning ‘the way we the top ‘She is tougher in her expectations of

do business around here’ is a necessary com- me then she is of any of the men under her.’ponent for success Paradoxically the diverse Typically when a female executive is con-background, along with a divergent perspec- fronted with this impression the response istive, that encouraged the hiring of a minority incredulity: ‘Of course I’ve been tough andcategory member, may be a disadvantage to enforced high standards It is the only way tothat new member in functioning with the make a mark as a leader in this corporate cul-existing set of dominant culture co-workers ture I don’t see a distinction between maleOdious overt expressions of bias are rare and female leaders in that regard.’ Howeverand are the easiest situations to handle the same female executives will admit inbecause most organizations currently practise private coaching sessions that over the years

a zero-tolerance policy for such issues Most they learned to modify their interactionindividual problems that employees have in patterns to fit those of the males in the board-the workplace are not considered as issues room In the environment of pressured deci-related to diversity They are considered to be sion making, female executives will admit thatperformance issues In the pressured environ- their interaction patterns must fit ‘playing the

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

game’ according to the men’s rules, while

being vigilant ‘not to be seen as shrill or overly minority position themselves, are aware that

The directors, who have been in the

Are diversity units as proactive as they need This provocative observation implies that in

to be? The diversity directors would respond some cases diverse executives are isolated towith a resounding ‘no way’ Do they know

how to approach the entrenched issues?

Some might say they are making progress

One feature that is required of persons in a

diversity management position is that they

must have patience They recognize they are

working for cultural change and it is going to

occur over a significant period of time They

relate the fable of the tortoise and the hare

Small improvements will lead to eventual

cultural change within the corporation They

believe in diversity training, but are guarded

regarding its quality and impact As one said:

‘safe havens’ where they are impacted less bythe shifting winds of corporate change A case

in point is the diversity executive who feels he

is safe from rifts because he is a high-profileminority within the diversity managementprogramme

Some diversity managers believe that

‘informal networks work in adverse ways forthe minority population’ The familiar exam-ple is: ‘If I don’t play or talk golf, I’m at a realdisadvantage.’ There is a strong sense that thequality and nature of organizational mem-bers’ relationships is a hidden element thatbears a great deal of weight during perform-ance evaluation and decisions on rifts andpromotions The questions can be as basic as:does the minority person have enough under-standing of the majority person’s value setand interests to carry on a satisfying conversa-tion; does the majority person have enoughsensitivity to recognize that not everyoneshares his/her value set and interests?

‘I haven’t met a soul in the firm who liked the

diversity training we have.’ They doubt that

the short segment of time devoted to diversity

training enables the opportunity to make a

lasting impact They would rather do very

limited training than poor training that only

creates and reinforces stereotypes They

recognize that the most important component

of the diversity training process is the

mid-level managers’ support and reinforcement of

it ‘The persons who need real hard core

coaching on diversity management are the

middle managers who either don’t recognize

the need, or because of business pressures,

won’t take the time for it They think sending

new employees to a day-long diversity

orien-tation will solve the problem.’ However as the

focus groups testified, and reported

previ-ously, the managers are on the precipice

Diversity directors realize that because theyare expected to be cultural change agents theyshould be accountable for objectives that arelong term and very difficult to measure.However corporate leadership prefers consist-ent quantification of results Diversity man-agers dislike quotas just as much as theideological critic of affirmative action Theyrecognize that the quality of work life andregarding diversity fairness perceptions and satisfaction with peer relationships may behave the greatest need to be informed, sensi- measured by retention rates, but its impact ontized, and coached None of the diversity productivity and quality decision making isdirectors feel that their diversity programmes very difficult to measure Diversity directorsare approaching adequate cultural change suffer from the corporate headquarters habitprogramming with mid-level managers of measuring results over a brief time span yet

they toil to make systemic changes that will of organizing and focusing some of the take years As a result, several of these direc- ticipants’ consideration of diversity In brieftors indicate that, for the health of their they are the following:

par-career, they have to think of this as a short- A starting point is to employ one of theterm one-to-three-year position: ‘Getting back most widely applied value dimensions that

to an operational role where I can demon- explains cultural distinctions: individualism– strate my ability to get results will be crucial to collectivism (Fiske, 1991; Gudykunst and Ting-

The goal of all of the diversity directors Schwartz and Bilsky, 1990; Triandis, 1995) Inwas, as one indicated: ‘weave diversity into the instance of many managers, this valuethe everyday operation of the firm’ They dimension is highly applicable It enables ahad no illusions about the difficulty of this general view of how and why the subordi-task They knew they had to come up with nates the leader supervises may hold a differ-tactical methods of accomplishing their mis- ent worldview and mindset from that of thesion of inclusiveness This is a term that is dominant culture manager Ting-Toomey’sembraced more forcefully than previous terms (1999) discussion of the distinction betweensuch as tolerance and diversity, which can individualism and collectivism encapsulatescarry negative connotations The new reality the sort of concepts that can be applied:

is that since the workplace will be more

inclusive of a wider variety of employees and

customers an ‘inclusive growth strategy’ is

appropriate

Basically, individualism refers to the broad

value tendencies of a culture in ing the importance of individual identityover group identity, individual rights overgroup rights, and individual needs overgroup needs Individualism promotes self-efficiency, individual responsibilities, and

emphasis-personal autonomy In contrast, collectivism

refers to the broad value tendencies of aculture in emphasising the importance

of the ‘we’ identity oriented needs overindividual wants and desires Collectivismpromotes relational interdependence, in-group harmony, and in-group collaborativespirit

Dimensions of difference

It is important to note at this point in the

dis-cussion that the persons in the studies rarely

placed any theoretic frame on the diversity

issues they discuss In interviews they can

quickly embrace the interviewer’s conceptual

frames to explain what they perceive and

have experienced, but there is an obvious

dearth of their own application of such frames

Previous work by the author has focused on

employing programme objectives labelled Applying three basic concepts, as awarenessdimensions of difference’ (Swanson, 2001) objectives, produces a framework for produc-

‘

In the main, these can be construed as com- tive discussion The concepts are worldview, munication variables These provide a base- mindset and intercultural communication com- line for the action research discussed here The petence Those concepts can be faulted for

dimensions provide a general way to bring being expansive, yet they are valuablenew concepts into interviews with the goal because they broadly encompass elements

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

that assist the leader in perceiving why and attitude formed by experience, education,how significant differences exist prejudice, etc.’ (p 862) Fisher (1988) select-The first objective is to examine and under- ed this term to headline his approach to

stand that a person’s worldview is a strong improving cross-cultural relations because:

determinant of their communication patterns ‘Diagnosing mindsets as they relate toWorldview is a broad concept that generalises immediate problems is a more manageablehow a cultural group orients to the world objective’ (p 2) People are predisposed to(Aldefer and Smith, 1982) ‘Worldview refers perceive an issue that is at hand in a particular

to the philosophical ideas of being’ (Jandt, way because of a pattern of attitudes that1995: 214) Typically those orienting factors has developed from their experience andmay be most of the following: How human development of social reality That powerfulnature is viewed as either good or evil Are attitude set may emanate from personalhumans considered to be in control of their history that is influenced by culture For exam-destiny, or do the forces of nature determine ple assuming that a person values anddestiny? How do humans differ from animals employs highly rational decision making overand what role does spiritual belief play in life? personal relationships and loyalty, may not beManagers are not surprised by the Sapir– an appropriate assumption Many managersWhorf hypothesis that indicates the world- are unaware of the mindsets of their sub-view of a particular speech community is ordinates nor of their own personal mindsetreflected in the linguistic patterns they em- as it relates to other cultures

ploy They have repeatedly been told that The third objective is to consider skills of

learning another language is vitally important intercultural communication competence This

But the sense that different language groups multifaceted concept conveys a pragmatichave different cultural patterns is only a start- sense that an individual’s personal com-ing point for an initial awareness As Jay munication characteristics will be assessed by(1968) argues: ‘Bilingualism is not in itself the those they interact with in diverse settings.answer to cultural understanding among Interpersonal communication scholars (Lustigpeople An indispensable asset, it must be for- and Koester, 1999; Wiseman and Koester,tified by the strongest possible sensitivity 1993; Spitzburg and Cupach, 1984) agreeeducation With knowledge of the language and focus on the concept that competent per-must exist a similar knowledge of the social, sons must practise effective interaction skills,religious and economic attitudes of a people’ but they must also interact appropriately with(pp 85–6) The context of an individual’s life the people and the cultural environment,

is provided by a rich array of cultural factors while striving to attain the goals of the that shape the individual perception of the munication The injection of the concept ofworld ‘Context is a powerful organizer of competence into the awareness of the learner

ele-The second objective is to examine the ments of appropriate adaptation can be

managers’ mindset Although the term ‘mind- learned along with effective behaviours.

The skill of appropriate interpersonal andset’ does not seem to be very precise from a

social science perspective, it does have a intercultural sensitivity and adaptation is whatcommon sense understanding typified by all managers should be expected to do OneWebster’s (1988) definition: ‘a fixed mental of the key elements that some managers

reported was ‘knowing when to talk and group need to focus on the skills of listeningwhen to listen’ In his discussion of construct- carefully and ‘listening together’, rather thaning life through language, Shotter recognizes individually If members can ‘suspend cer-this reality: ‘In some contexts – in offices, tainty’ and begin to externalize thought, evenbusinesses, bureaucracies, educational estab- to the point of saying the unusual or unpopu-lishments, etc – knowing the order of talk lar, they have helped to open the dialogue.required is a part of one’s social competence Second, in order to mobilise members’ ‘pre-

as an adult’ (1993: 4) Kikoski and Kikoski dictive intuition’ the action patterns within the(1999) designate the ‘order of talk’ as a group must be considered Can they balanceshared common necessity for colleagues in a advocacy and inquiry? Can the group ‘mapworkplace to have ‘social competence’ the systems’ of their interaction, i.e., developDiscussion with this research sample of a coherent representation of the overallmanagers, perhaps typical of any discussion of system of issues that are faced? Third, theintercultural communication competence, ‘architecture of the invisible’ needs to beseems to be enhanced with greater clarity by examined This requires some boundary set-the awareness that worldview and mindset ting for the group’s interaction and a sense ofare powerful synonymous determinants of the field or process environment of the dis-communication behaviour Thus these two course When the nature of the dialogue fieldconcepts coupled with the aspiration of inter- is understood, then convening dialogue iscultural communication competence are based on the nature of the process environ-valuable organizing concepts for training ment and sensitivity to the ecology of theThey also function as a useful organizing tool group Other members of the group implicitly

we think’, so there is a consistent concern withhow each individual talks The ultimate resultwill be ‘ignorance management’ Those thingsthat are not known, that participants are

Discussion

Most managers lack familiarity with termin- unaware of in specific terms, or deliberately

ology that enables in-depth dialogue regarding withheld from the group, can become diversity Managers interviewed in this study ant input into the synergy of the group It is

import-indicated that corporate organization mem- when the third phase of dialogue occurs, thatbers rarely approach a quality of discussion of includes getting beyond not knowing what isdiversity issues that can be labelled as dia- not known about each others’ perspectives,logue Theorists and practitioners working to that the type of interaction and understandinghelp groups accomplish dialogue indicate that occur that can lead to building an inclusive

it is quite difficult to achieve (Issacs, 1999; culture ‘Dialogue is about evoking insight,Bohm, 1992; Senge, 1991) To illustrate that which is a way of reordering our knowledge –difficulty it is necessary to examine how the particularly the taken for granted assumptionsprocess of dialogue may be defined and oper- that people bring to the table’ (Issacs, 1999:ationalized The capacity for conducting dia- 45) Diversity directors in particular believelogue includes three levels of interaction that important progress can be made when(Isaacs, 1999) First, in order to ‘build capac- members of their organizations are able toity for new behaviour’ members of a work have dialogue on diversity issues Values and

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

interaction patterns are slow to evolve as take blame for the past makes the ultimateD’Amica and D’Amica (1997) suggest in their goal – greater unity – impossible’ (Rasmussen,futurist anticipation of work attitudes in the 1996: 5) Typical training approaches, such astwenty-first century: ‘Breaking through the those applied in most organizations consid-inertia of entrenched patterns in both individ- ered in this study, are very brief A half-day orual behaviour and organisational systems has full-day training session raises some aware-shown itself to be much more difficult and ness and provides some rationale for change,long-term than expected’ (p 6) but rarely begins to work with the broader

Diversity training has evolved through some issues of diverse worldviews from diverse

rough waters In 1988 diversity was not one cultures and the resultant mindsets that

of the top forty training topics reported by guide key elements of workplace behaviour.companies in a Society for Human Resource Thomas and Ely (1996) encapsulate this sortManagement study (Rynes and Rosen, 1994) of awareness:

By 1998 a study by the same organization

reported that 75 per cent of the Fortune 500

firms and 36 per cent of companies of all sizes

had some sort of diversity programme in

process (Allen and Montgomery, 2001) In the

1990s diversity became a hot topic and Loden

(1996) reported:

Numerous and varied initiatives to increasediversity in corporate America have beenunder way for more than two decades.Rarely however, have those efforts spurredleaps in organizational effectiveness.Instead, many attempts to increase diver-sity in the workplace have backfired, some-times even heightening tensions amongemployees and hindering a company’sperformance It is our belief that there is adistinct way to unleash the powerful bene-fits of a diverse workforce Although thesebenefits include increased profitability,they go beyond financial measures toencompass learning, creativity, flexibility,organizational and individual growth, andthe ability of a company to adjust rapidlyand successfully to market changes Thedesired transformation however, requires afundamental change in the attitudes andbehaviors of an organization’s leadership

(pp 79–80)

Today, the myriad training programmes,

planning councils, diversity audits,

consult-ants, and organisation initiatives that

pur-port to be changing corporate cultures

often seem to be focused more on

generat-ing activity than results While awareness

and understanding have become a staple

of every organisation’s diversity strategy,

many programmes to increase awareness

appear to be generating more heat but not

more light

(p viii)

The heat often comes in the form of a white

male backlash by those who react to training

programmes as ineffective For example one

respondent in this study indicated that: ‘White Performance evaluation is a focus point for

men are blamed for all the problems I resent diversity management programmes Mostwhite male bashing We built and maintain performance appraisal systems strive to makethis company.’ This is a major obstacle that legally defensible appraisals and this meansdiversity programmes must overcome ‘In that issues objectively covered by law be-effect, positioning diversity so one group must come the focus (Smither, 1998) However, the

perception of the process by those who are include the recommendation that appraisals

behav-Uncertainty regarding the impact of diver- iour rather than individual traits, relate to sity policy on evaluation of personnel takes cific features not holistic assessments, andvarious forms Minority personnel consistently should be something over which the subjectare alert to any cues that they are not being of the evaluation has control (Barrett andevaluated fairly in a manner consistent with Kernan, 1987; Beck-Dudley and McEnvoy,the evaluation of personnel from the domi- 1991; Bernardine, Kane, Ross, Spina andnant culture The majority culture personnel Johnson, 1995; Martin and Bartol, 1991;sometimes feel that they are being evaluated Veglahn, 1993) The literature also includesmore harshly or ‘held to a higher standard’ the ubiquitous communication expectationthan those protected by affirmative action that the appraisal should be stated in descrip-programmes This is particularly true of white tive/objective terms as opposed to subjec-male middle-level managers This focuses tive/evaluative terms and that the appraisal

Supervisors, who conduct periodic reviews, being rated Theoretically uncertainty are uncomfortable with the review process tion focuses on self-awareness and knowledgewhen it applies to someone from another cul- of others (Berger and Bradac, 1982) Whenture It is particularly true of white male super- the members are from divergent cultures thevisors who say they must strive to be relationship strategies to reduce uncertainty

reduc-‘politically correct’ in all of their statements may be quite different (Gudykunst, 1988).Some indicate that in the effort to ‘bend over Diversity is more complex than the oftenbackwards to be fair, I am probably sugar unspoken, but underlying, assumption aboutcoating what I say’ ‘I know I have to docu- diversity that it breeds conflict which canment any problems; my expert reaction to an impede work performance and reduce pro-employee’s sub-par performance is not ductivity This common perception is atenough in this environment I am sometimes odds with group theory, and the concept ofuncertain of precisely how to proceed.’ democratic decision making, that promotesDiversity personnel and mid-level man- the clash of expressed ideas as an effectiveagers desire greater certainty regarding method to work for answers to problems Thehow others are monitoring them Most of underlying worldview and mindset of manythe literature on performance appraisal workers from collectivist cultures, is alien torecognizes the essential element of reducing the concept of expressed clash being valued inuncertainty in the process However, that task relationships The cultural values of anrecognition is in the context of legality and individual may well override the influence ofobservable behaviour and does not generally their education and organizational environ-include the impact of various cultures on ment For example if a team member places amindsets, perceptions, and its consequent high value on harmony, even if she possessesbehaviour Specific issues of cultural differ- informational and worldview diversity, sheences are usually neglected The US legal may not readily contribute to the grouprequirements drive the process so that recom- debate

mendations for legally sound appraisals Diversity is more complex than the easilygenerally set appraisal criteria They tend to observable distinctions of race, gender, age

© 2004 Sandra Oliver for editorial matter and selection;

individual chapters, the contributors

and physical ability As the concept of diver- the third perspective has been further definedsity evolves to fit the contemporary workplace as the ‘integration-and-learning’ perspectivewhere organizations have flattened struc- that enables dialogue on diversity issues totures and moved to new team and work- occur (Ely and Thomas, 2001).

group forms designed to increase synchronous From the manager’s vantage point, is thecommunication, more complex categories of goal of the diversity programme to enforcediversity are the focus of research For exam- law and expectations and support incrementalple Jehn, Northcraft and Neale (1999) did a improvements? Or is the goal to develop andfield study of ninety-two workgroups applying maintain a systemic programme that has athree types of workplace diversity (social dramatic impact on the corporate culture? It iscategory diversity, value diversity and in- evident from the reactions of interviewees informational diversity) They found it appropri- this study that these are neither dichotomousate to question the typical hypothesis, taught nor mutually exclusive goals Whatever the

as a basic concept on group dynamics, that mission of the diversity unit is, high-levelheterogeneity in groups leads to better group executives must be involved and championperformance, while homogeneity leads to the programme ‘Top management supportbetter group process However, the reality is for diversity is certainly critical Managementmore complex Their field study discovered needs to begin the process of unfreezing thethat social category diversity could be medi- current culture by changing the system withinated by task type and task interdependence which it operates’ (Allen and Montgomery,and that value diversity could be the most fre- 2001: 154)

quent impediment to group performance

Consequently, being alert to the impact of

diverse value sets, reflected by worldview and Implications

mindset, is a key challenge to those who wish

to mobilize all of the human assets in a given This review of corporate members’

Contemporary theorists have described application must be context dependent.strategic stages of the development of divers- ‘Organizational leaders also need to examineity programmes Allen and Montgomery their internal and external environments to(2001) define the stages simply as: ‘unfreez- adopt an approach to implementation thating’ the forces resisting change; ‘moving’ to matches their particular context or with a con-cultural change; ‘refreezing’, or institutionaliz- text they believe will emerge’ (Dass anding the change; and the ‘competitive advan- Parker, 1999: 78) There is no single best set oftage’ that results In 1996 Thomas and Ely concepts or way of dealing with diversitydefined three paradigms to explain the evolu- management Each organization inheres itstion of a diversity programme Initially, the own unique demographic features

‘discrimination and fairness paradigm’ must In any effort to understand the attitude

be satisfied Second, the ‘access and legiti- toward diversity programmes that exists inmacy paradigm’ must be put in place, and the contemporary corporate environment itreinforced Third, the programme must strive seems that the appropriate focus is uponfor ‘the emerging paradigm’ that connects executives and their influence on the sort ofdiversity to work perspectives Subsequently diversity programming selected to fit their

organization Effective approaches to diversity because of the reality of the varied management are strategic and focused on graphics of organization members, stake-

The key to the evolution of a diversity corporate diversity directors are not satisfiedprogramme to an ‘integration and learning’ with the progress made by their own diversityperspective, which produces cultural change, programme Diversity personnel feel that

is the ability to effectively talk through the managers must develop greater sensitivity todimensions of difference in the organization how their diversity personnel are evaluated

An organization that develops the ability to and led Many organization members arediscuss diversity in a manner that approaches ignorant of both the nature of the programmedialogue, will also accomplish better diversity in their corporation and the dimensions of

From the perspective of the corporate com- behaviour Consequently, there is a challengemunication professional the existence of a to find ways of developing a mature under-valued and effective diversity programme standing of diversity within the corporate

is a significant element to be communicated setting Concepts such as individualism–

to corporate stakeholders In order to reduce collectivism, worldview, and mindset can beuncertainty for organizational stakeholders, employed to provide a basic conceptualiza-the programme rationale must be clearly tion of difference in the attempt to improveexplained and reinforced A cohesive plan and intercultural communication competence inprogramme is essential to anticipate and the organization The promotion of trueanswer the objections that arise from internal dialogue regarding diversity differences, thebacklash, stockholder alarm, and internal existence of substantive diversity training,resistance to the allocation of resources to and application of diversity concepts in thediversity programming In both the planning conduct of performance evaluation are essen-and the operationalization of the diversity tial elements of an effective diversity pro-programme a sense of high aspirations and gramme Corporations have made progress in

work-ing to eliminate discrimination and promotefairness The second role of ensuring ‘accessand legitimacy’ is also largely in place Butthere is a need to move to integration and

Summary

Diversity programmes have become an learning perspectives that will enable expected element in the modern corporation ingful dialogue on diversity issues to occur

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individual chapters, the contributors

CHAPTER 2

A best-practice approach to designing a

change communication programme

Deborah J Barrett

In today’s business climate it is arguable that however paradoxically it may sound theonly true constant is ‘change’ The focus of this chapter is change communication, anessential companion to any effective change management programme At the heart ofany successful change communication programme is effective employee communication,for without effective employee communication any change programme will fail

This chapter illustrates an approach to change communication by using a best-practicemodel for employee communication called the Strategic Employee CommunicationModel

The importance of change

is too unpredictable and chaotic to control is no separating action and rhetoric’ (1992)

or manage However, good managers must Thus, without effective employee attempt to manage it Change management cation and a rigid approach to communication

communi-is the executive skill or art of leading or during major change, a change programmesupervising the people involved in the trans- has little chance to succeed

formation of or in an organization People Although much research exists on changeare the heart of change management, and management, few of the articles or bookscommunication is at the heart of people give adequate attention to the change com-

munication that accompanies any good most of the other steps For instance, howchange management programme; however, at could a manager create a ‘sense of urgency’least communication does appear as one com- without communicating messages that inspireponent necessary for a change programme to the necessity to act? How can managers cre-

For instance, in Kotter’s often cited (1995) (through words) to follow them? How canapproach to successful organizational trans- managers institutionalize new approaches,formations (‘Leading change: why transforma- without instructing people in expectedtion efforts fail’), communication is listed as actions? And, of course, we could go on, but

com-munication is interwoven in all aspects of achange programme Obviously, without effec-tive employee communication, change isimpossible and change management fails

In ‘Leading change: why transformationefforts fail’, Kotter lists ‘under-communica-

establishing a sense of urgency;

forming a powerful guiding coalition;

creating a vision;

communicating the vision;

empowering others to act on the vision;

planning for and creating short-term wins; tion’ as one of the major reasons changeconsolidating improvements and produc- efforts do not succeed As he says, ‘Trans-ing still more change;

institutionalizing the new approaches

formation is impossible unless hundreds orthousands of people are willing to help, often

to the point of making short-term sacrifices.8

Another frequently cited approach to change Employees will not make sacrifices, even ifmanagement is the ten commandments of they are unhappy with the status quo, unlessexecuting change found in Kanter, Stein and they believe that useful change is possible

Jick’s The Challenge of Organisational Change Without credible communication, and a lot of

never captured’ (Kotter, 1995) Therefore,1

2

analyse the organization and its need for companies need to apply the same analytical

communica-create a shared vision and common direc- tion and the design of their change tion;

communi-separate from the past;

cation plan that they give to the financial andoperational components of any change pro-gramme

implications and effects Many managers see

employee communication as a ‘black box’

Communication is either everything in the

organization (vision, strategy, business

plan-5 align employees behind the company’sstrategic and overall performance im-provement goals

ning, management meetings, information The strategic employee communication modelflow, knowledge management, etc.) or it is and change communication approach arenothing more than publications intended to designed to help management accomplishkeep the communication staff busy and the these goals

employees informed of the company news

Many managers see communication as simply

process, or the way to get information to The strategic employee

sages delivered by the process To be effective, practices

employee communication must be both

process and content, which positions com- The strategic employee communication modelmunication on more of a strategic level within (Figure 2.1) helps clarify the strategic role

suc-Effective employee communication must cess of any company as well as during major

be fully integrated into all aspects of a com- change and can help overcome the pany’s business It is integral to the strategy thing’ and the ‘publication-limited’ percep-

‘every-as well ‘every-as essential to communication of that tions of communication The model andstrategy Effective employee communication its components emerged from research intoinforms and educates employees at all levels several Fortune 500 companies to find out

in the company’s strategy, and it also moti- what really works when it comes to employeevates and positions employees to support communication.1 While no company exempli-the strategy and the performance goals fies each best practice exactly, the better com-During change, communication becomes panies demonstrate many of the best-practiceeven more linked to the strategic success definitions In a change programme, theFor effective employee communication dur- model and the best-practice definitions caning major change, the change communica- serve as benchmarks against which to meas-tion must at a minimum accomplish the ure a company’s employee communication

of effective change communications

The model captures all of the major

com-1 ensure clear and consistent messages to

educate employees in the company ponents of employee communication, linkingvision, strategic goals, and what the them to each other and to the company’schange means to them;

motivate employee support for the com- ically to break employee communication

encourage higher performance and dis- at the same time, it shows how intertwined

em-limit misunderstandings and rumours that ployee communication is positioned

strategic-strategy and operations Thus, it works 2

analyt-3

4

may damage productivity; and finally, ally as it must be to facilitate change The