1 Tài liệu hướng dẫn học tập ******* NGÔN NGỮ HỌC ĐỐI CHIẾU (Lưu hành nội bộ Internal use only) LINGUISTIC CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS Edited, supplemented, corrected contents and vocabulary explained by M A[.]
Tài liệu hướng dẫn học tập ******* NGÔN NGỮ HỌC ĐỐI CHIẾU (Lưu hành nội - Internal use only) LINGUISTIC CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS Edited, supplemented, corrected contents and vocabulary explained by M.A Trần Mạnh Trung in 2023 ******************** (Biên tập, bổ sung, sửa lỗi nội dung giải từ vựng Th.S Trần Mạnh Trung năm 2023) PART 01 : BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE (Phần 01 : KIẾN THỨC NỀN) Page | A COMMON CONCEPTS (CÁC KHÁI NIỆM CHUNG) Contrastive Analysis (C.A): Definition and the Aims of the Discipline (Phân tích đối chiếu : Định nghĩa mục tiêu môn học) a Definition: C.A is the comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, for example the sound system or the grammatical system C.A was developed and practised in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of Structural Linguistics to language teaching b Aims: C.A is based on the following assumptions: a the main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language b these difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis c teaching materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of interference Contrastive Analysis was more successful in Phonology than in other areas of language, and declined in the 1970s as interference was replaced by other explanations of learning difficulties In recent years Contrastive Analysis has been applied to other areas of language, for example the discourse systems This is called Contrastive Discourse Analysis Vocabulary: Contrastive Analysis: Phân tích đối chiếu assumption: giả thiết, giả định interference: can thiệp Phonology: Âm vị học incline: làm cho suy giảm Discourse: Diễn ngôn the first language (L1): ngôn ngữ thứ / tiếng mẹ đẻ Typology (Phân loại học) Typology is the classification of languages into types For example, languages may be classified according to whether or not they are tone languages or according to their most typical syntactic structures, e.g whether they are SVO languages (Subject – Verb- Object languages) like English or SOV languages (Subject – Object – Verb - languages) like Japanese Page | Vocabulary: classification: phân loại tone language: ngôn ngữ điệu (a language in which variations in pitch distinguish different words.) Notes: A tone language, or tonal language, is a language in which words can differ in tones (like pitches in music) in addition to consonants and vowels Many languages, including Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, Lao, Hmong, are tonal.[1] Other languages, including Indo-European languages such as English and Hindi, are not considered tone languages They can use Intonation (linguistics) in different ways Behaviorism (Chủ nghĩa Hành vi) A theory of psychology which states that human and animal behavior can and should be studied only in terms of physical processes, without reference to mind It led to theories of learning which explained how an external event (a stimulus) caused a change in the behavior of an individual (a response), based on a history of reinforcement Behaviorism was used by psychologists like Skinner, Osgood, and Staats to explain first language learning, but these explanations were rejected by adherents of generative grammar and many others Vocabulary: theory: lý thuyết external event stimulus: kích thích response: phản xạ reinforcement: củng cố reject: từ chối adherent: người tuân thủ generative grammar: ngữ pháp tạo sinh Bilingualism (Đa ngôn ngữ) Bilingualism is the use of at least two languages either by an individual or by a group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or nation The use of two languages by an individual is known as individual bilingualism, and the knowledge of two languages by members of a whole community or the presence of two languages within a society is called societal bilingualism When two communicative functions in different social domains it is known as diglossia Vocabulary: inhabitant: cư dân societal: thuộc xã hội domain: lãnh địa, lãnh thổ Page | 4 diglossia: pha trộn ngôn ngữ (a situation in which two languages (or two varieties of the same language) are used under different conditions within a community, often by the same speakers ) Variable (Biến thể) A linguistic item has various forms (variants) The different forms of the variable may be related to differences in style or to differences in the socio – economic background, education, age, or sex of the speakers There are variables in the phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon of a language Examples in English include: 1, the ‘ng’ variable as in ‘coming’, ‘working’, in careful formal speech it often occurs as /iŋ/, e.g /kʌmiŋ/ coming, /wə:kiŋ/ working, but in informal or regional speech it often occurs as /kʌmn/ com’n, /wə:kn/ work’n 2, the marker on verb forms for 3rd-person singular present tense (as in He works here), which is a variable because in some non-standard and some new varieties of English a variant without the ending (as in He work here) may occur Linguistic rules which try to account for these variables in language are referred to as variable rules Vocabulary: socio – economic background: bối cảnh kinh tế-xã hội formal speech: lời nói trang trọng informal: khơng trang trọng regional: theo vùng, miền non-standard: không theo chuẩn mực rule: quy tắc, nguyên tắc account for: giải thích cho Usage (Cách sử dụng) A distinction made by Widdowson between the function of a linguistic item as an element in a linguistic system (usage) and its function as part of a system of communication (use) For example, the progressive aspect may be studied as an item of grammar or usage (i e to consider how it compares with other aspects and tenses in English and the constructions in which it occurs) and in terms of its use (i.e how it is used in discourse for performing such communicative acts as descriptions, plans, commentaries etc.) The meaning a linguistic item has as an example of usage is called its signification, and the meaning it has as an example of use is called its value Vocabulary: usage: (trong hệ thống ngôn ngữ) cách dùng thông thường, tập quán, thói quen use: cách dùng (trong giao tiếp) progressive: tiến triển Page | aspect: thể thức, trạng commentary: thích, bình luận Generative Grammar (Ngữ pháp tạo sinh) Generative Grammar is a type of grammar that attempts to define and describe by a set of rules or principles all the grammatical sentences of a language and no ungrammatical ones This type of grammar is said to generate, or produce, grammatical sentences In other words, Generative Grammar is a type of grammar which describes a language in terms of a set of logical rules formulated so as to be capable of generating the infinite number of possible sentences of that language and providing them with the correct structural description Vocabulary: generate: phát sinh, phát define: định nghĩa, định rõ principle: nguyên tắc infinite: không xác định formulated (adj.) theo công thức Transformational-Generative Grammar (Ngữ pháp cải biến tạo sinh) Transformational-Generative Grammar is an early version of the Generative Theory that emphasized the relationships among sentences that can be seen as transforms or transformations of each other, for example the relationships among simple active declarative sentences (e.g He went to the store), negative sentences (He didn’t go to the store), and questions (Did he go to the store?) Such relationships can be accounted for by transformational rules The Standard Theory component that produces or generates basic syntactic structures called deep structures; a transformational component that changes or transforms those basic structures into sentences called surface structures; a phonological component, which gives sentences a phonetic representation so that they can be pronounced; and a semantic component, which deals with the meaning of sentences Vocabulary: transform: biến đổi, biến hóa account for: giải thích cho representation: diễn tả, đại diện Page | Case Grammar (Ngữ pháp cấu trúc) Case Grammar is an approach to grammar developed in the 1970s which stresses the semantic relationships in a sentence Parts of case grammar have been incorporated into more recent versions of Generative Grammar (Case grammar cách tiếp cận phân tích ngơn ngữ Ở đó, động từ coi thành phần chủ đạo câu, động từ liên kết với dạng thức khác danh từ.) Vocabulary: incorporate: kết hợp approach: cách tiếp cận 10 Pedagogy (Sư phạm) In general terms, pedagogy refers to theories teaching, curriculum and instruction as well as the ways in which formal teaching and learning in institutional settings such as schools are planned and delivered In educational theory, pedagogy is usually divided into curriculum, instruction, evaluation of language Since language is the essential medium of pedagogy, the role of language in pedagogy is a focus of theorizing and research by linguists applied linguists, educators, and pedagogues Vocabulary: curriculum: chương trình giảng dạy instruction: dẫn, dạy dỗ institutional setting: bối cảnh theo thể chế deliver: phân phối plan: lập kế hoạch pedagogue: sư phạm 11 Course Design a) Selection (Lựa chọn) Having considered some traditional pedagogical application of CA we shall be concerned with two pedagogical principles of Selection (What to teach) and Grading (when teach) of target-language items A CA specifies those features of L2 which are different forms the corresponding features of the LI, and, by implication, those which are identical Our assumption is that the L1: L2 identities will not have to be learned by the L2 learners, since he knows them already by virtue of his knowledge The learner must be allowed, indeed encouraged, to transfer this 'suitable’ L1 knowledge to L2 usage This means that those L2 structures that match L1 structures must constitute part of the materials, since materials not only teach what is new and unknown, Page | but provide confirmation of interlingual identities Certainly the learner needs to be given opportunities to discover for himself that transfer from L1 in cases of isomorphism will result in acceptable L2 utterances b) Grading (Phân trình độ) The classical CA statement pertinent to grading is: “The student who comes in contact with a foreign language will find some features of its quite easy and other extremely difficult Those elements that are similar to his native language will be simple for him and those elements that are different will be difficult” (Lado 1957) Since it is a universal principle of educalion that learning should proceed from simple to difficult, it seems to follow that isomorphic L2 elements should be taught first There are a number of objections that can immediately be raised, however The first one is concerned with the integrity of linguistic systems: if we postpone just one term of a system in the syllabus, the student's grasp of the terms he has learnt must be not only partial, but distorted A second objection to grading by contrastivity is that as a criterion it may clash with other equally important criteria: for example, since the English articles are contrastively difficult for Slavic L1 learners, they should be delayed; but they have such hi frequency and utility that they must be taught early A third objection to following the precept of ‘easiest first’ is a psychological one: extended early experienced of positive transfer (+T) sets up expectations of continuing +T So the learner will inevitably be disappointed when he comes to learn contrasting L2 structures Vocabulary: specify: xác định grading: phân trình độ by virtue of : nhờ có constitute: cấu thành isomorphism: đẳng tích pertinent: thích hợp integrity: toàn vẹn partial: phần distort: bóp méo 10 clash: đụng độ, xung đột 11 precept: quy tắc 12 American and British English (Tiếng Anh Mỹ Anh Anh) The differences between British and American English can be seen in: spelling, pronunciation, grammar, use of some words and phrases a Differences in British/ American spelling * -our / -or Example: colour/ color * -ce / -se Example: licence / license * -ction / xion Page | Example: inflection / inflexion * -ise / ize Example: realise / realize * -yse / -yze Example: analyse / analyze * -lled / - led (ed- and -ing) Example: travelled / traveled * -re / -er Example: centre / center * -logue / -log Example: catalogue / catalog b Differences in British/ American pronunciation Differences in pronunciation between American English (A.E) and British English (B.E) can be divided into: - Differences in accent: A.E is rhotic while B.E is non-rhotic; that is, the letter ‘r’ is only pronounced in B.E when it is immediately followed by a vowel sound (unless it is silent) Where A.E has /r/ before a consonant, B.E has nothing - Differences in stress: Examples: - B.E (1st stress) / A.E (2nd stress): caffeine, cannot - B.E (2nd stress) / A.E (1st stress): defense, ice cream - B.E (2nd stress) / A.E (3rd stress): advertisement c Differences in British/ American grammar - In names of American rivers, the word ‘river’ usually comes after the name (for example, Colorado River), whereas for British rivers it comes before (as in River Thames) - The use of the Present Perfect and the Simple Past: the differences involving the use of the Present Perfect and the Simple Past include ‘already’, ‘just’ and ‘yet’ *British English: - I have just had lunch - I have already seen that film - Have you finished your homework yet? * American English: - I just had lunch / I have just had lunch - I already saw that film./ I have already seen that film - Did you finish your homework yet? / Have you finished your homework yet? d Differences in British/ American vocabulary Let’s see the following pairs of B.E and A.E as examples: (A.E) truck / lorry (B.E) (A.E) on the weekend / at the weekend (B.E) (A.E) on a team / in a team (B.E) Page | (A.E) football / soccer (B.E) (A.E) dreamed / dreamt (B.E) Vocabulary: rhotic: phát âm rõ ‘r’ spelling: tả 13 Standard English (Tiếng Anh chuẩn mực) Standard English (S.E) is the prestigious variety of English that is understood all over the world where any knowledge of any variety of English exists S.E relates to vocabulary and grammar and independent of pronunciation S.E is a term generally applied to a form of the English language that is thought to be normative for educated native speakers It encompasses grammar, vocabulary, spelling, and to some degree pronunciation or possibly accents S.E is not widely produced in speech, it is only used in writing, only a minority of people within a country actually use it when they talk Standard words in English are divided into neutral words, colloquial words, bookish words * Neutral words take the majority of the English vocabulary They are used in all styles and all spheres of human life, neither formal nor informal) * Colloquial words are used in spoken language rather than in written language They are informal , casual lively, friendly, humorous and a great number of them are short or shortened words such as ‘kid’, ‘dad’, … * Bookish words are words chiefly used in formal speech, writing, poetry, … Vocabulary: normative: có tính quy phạm, quy chuẩn encompass: bao gồm minority; thiểu số prestigious: uy tín neutral word: từ trung tính 6.colloquial word: từ thơng tục bookish word: từ sách casual lively: sống động giản dị formal: trang trọng 10 informal” không trang trọng 14 Non - Standard English (Tiếng Anh không chuẩn mực) The term ‘non-standard’ was introduced by linguists and lexicographers to describe usage and language varieties that had been labeled with terms such as vulgar and illiterate * There are some examples of non – standard words: - ain’t (am not/ is not/ has not/ have not) - amn’t (am not) Page | 10 104 made (The eye is like a lamp for the body), the metaphor makes an implicit comparison (The eye is lamp of the body) (Robert H Stein 15) Huff (2004) asserts that “the only difference between simile and metaphor is that metaphor does not use the words “like” or “as” to make the comparison” (p.98) In other words, two distinctly different things in a simile are connected by “like” or “as” while a metaphor “is an implied but in many ways even more direct than comparison because the reader is expected to identify the comparison without the word “like” or “as”” (Osborne, 1997, p.124) However, “because similes merely join two disparate ideas or images, they are generally less fertile than metaphors, which can evoke additional and fresh shades of meaning” (Ehrenhaft, 2008, p.145) Theoretical background of Vietnamese idioms of comparison In Vietnamese, there are kinds of idioms of comparison: one employs the word “như”, “tựa”, “tày”, “bằng”, “tựa như” or “cũng như” and one doesn’t Based on similarities of characteristics of things, phenomena, actions, the Vietnamese create a large number of idioms which use A to name or to modify B Eg: Mặt trái xoan: oval-shaped face Star: a famous and talented person (usually in art, sport, culture) (Nguyễn, 2010) 104 105 The other kind of idioms of comparison includes the word “bằng”, “tày”, “tựa”, “sánh”, “như” or “cũng như” which divides an idiom into parts Both of parts can be a noun, verb, phrase or clause The second part whose function is predicating and complementing the first part is counted from comparative word Eg: In the idiom “tội tày đình”, “tày đình” is the complement of the noun “tội” In the idiom “chạy bay”, “như bay” is the complement of the verb chạy (Nguyễn, 2010) 105 106 A contrastive analysis of comparison idioms in English and Vietnamese Quantity comparison There are about 700 idioms of comparison in English, for example, “as warm as sunbeam”, “to follow like a shadow”, “to work like a Trojan”,… There are a similarity in the number of idioms of comparison in English and Vietnamese Some examples of Vietnamese idioms of comparison are “lạnh tiền”, “xanh tàu lá”… Similarities of idioms of comparison in English and Vietnamese Although the culture of two nations is different, ways of thinking and looking at the world of English and Vietnamese is somehow similar Hence, both Vietnamese and English express ideas and concepts in the same way In fact, a large number of Vietnamese idioms of comparison are similar with English idioms of comparison in terms of both concept and image to express English idioms Vietnamese idioms As black as coal Đen than As black as crow Đen quạ As black as ink Tối đen mực As sweet as sugar Ngọt đường As black as soot Đen bồ hóng 106 107 Ngắn giấc As brief as a dream mộng Sáng ban ngày As bright as day Sáng As brilliant as stars Hay thay đổi thời tiết As changeable as the weather Lạnh băng As cold as ice Vui sáo As cheerful as a lark As cunning as a fox Xảo quyệt cáo As dark as midnight Tối nửa đêm As dumb as a an oyster Câm hến As fair as a rose Xinh hoa As fast as a hare Nhanh thỏ As fat as a pig Mập heo As fierce as a tiger Dữ cọp Vững đá As firm as rock Nhanh gió As fleet as the wind Tươi hoa As fresh a rose 107 108 Vui sáo As gay as a lark As gruff as a bear Hỗn gấu As good (valuable) as gold Quý vàng As green as a leaf Xanh tàu As heavy as an elephant Nặng voi As hard as a stone Cứng đá Nặng chì As heavy as lead As hot as fire Nóng lửa As keen as a razor Sắc dao cạo As light as down Nhẹ tựa lông hồng As light as a feather Nhẹ tưa lông hồng As mum as an oyster Câm hến As pretty as a picture Đẹp tranh As quick as lightning Nhanh ánh sáng As quick as a flash Nhanh chớp Đỏ máu As red as blood Đỏ gấc As red as a beetroot 108 109 Sắc dao cạo As sharp as a razor Ngu bò As silly as a calf As sour as vinegar Chua giấm As stink as a polecat Hôi chồn As swift as lightning Nhanh chớp As smooth as velvet Mịn nhung As slow as a snail Chậm sên As swift as an arrow Nhanh tên bắn Cứng đá As steady as rock Nhát thỏ đế As timid as a rabbit/ hare As thick as ants Đông kiến As transparent as glass Trong suốt thủy tinh As yellow as saffron Vàng nghệ As wet as a drowned mouse Ướt chuột lột Trắng tuyết As white as snow As white as a sheet Như tờ giấy trắng Like father like son Cha 109 110 To fight like cat and dog Như chó với mèo To stick like a leech Bám dai đỉa Dính keo To stick like glue To cry like a baby Khóc đứa trẻ To follow like a shadow Theo hình với bóng Bơi cá To swim like fish Differences of idioms of comparison in English and Vietnamese The same content but different images to express Images of idiomatic comparisons in twp nations are different result from differences in culture Vietnam has the cultural tradition of the wet rice production Therefore, animals have a strong attachment to Vietnamese daily life That’s why Vietnamese idioms of comparison consist of images related to buffaloes which are an animal familiar with rice production agriculture Buffaloes pull ploughs, work very hard everyday to help farmers in their farming As a result, wanting to mention strength, people often refer to buffaloes In fact, to talk about someone very strong, the Vietnamese have the idiom “khỏe trâu” while the English have the idiom “as strong as a horse” That’s because English people prefer horses to buffaloes Horses can not only pull ploughs but also transport and entertain They are really energetic and strong enough to help people in life 110 111 In spite of that, it doesn’t mean that English people don’t consider buffaloes strong animals or Vietnamese people don’t regard horses as strong animals That results just from the difference in culture Also, dragons are a kind of animal which is very close in fertile imagination of Vietnamese people Because of that, the image as a dragon appear in the Vietnamese idiom of comparison “ăn rồng cuốn” to talk about eating large quantities of food while the image of a horse is used in the idiom “to eat like a horse” Lamp, butter are so familiar with English life while sweet potatoes, pig are familiar with Vietnamese life, as a result there are differences in images to express their ideas of gentleness and fatness: English idioms Vietnamese idioms As gentle as a lamp Hiền củ khoai As fat as butter Béo lợn Besides, the differences in the ways of thinking and observing the world make differences in the images of idiomatic comparisons Take some following examples to illustrate that: English idioms Vietnamese idioms As easy as ABC Dễ trở bàn tay As easy as pie Dễ trở bàn tay 111 112 As easy as anything Dễ trở bàn tay As smooth as butter Mượt nhung As pale as a ghost Xanh tàu As lazy as a lizard Lười hủi As soft as wax Mềm bún As merry as a cricket Vui tết As cheerful as the birds Vui tết As glad as a fly Vui tết As happy as a child Vui tết As happy as a clam Vui tết As dark as midnight Tối đêm ba mươi As black as midnight Tối đêm 30 As dark as midnight Tối hũ nút As close as herrings Chặt nêm As soundly as a log (Ngủ) say chết As cold as marble Lạnh tiền As dry as a biscuit Khô ngói As red as lipstick Đỏ gấc 112 113 As thin as finger Gầy xương khô As weak as a kitten Yếu sên As weak as a baby Yếu sên As black as a stack of black cats Đen cột nhà cháy As black as the ace of spades Đen cú súng As round as a barrel Trịn bóng As old as the hills Xưa trái đất As hot as mustard Cay ớt Like hot cake Đắt tôm tươi As silent as the dead Im lặng tờ As silent as the grave Im lặng tờ What is more, the differences in human make differences between English and Vietnamese idioms For example, in Vietnam, there is the idiom “ghen Hoạn Thư” to refer to a person who is dreadfully jealous However, in English, the idiom “as jealous as Othello” is used to talk about a one’s jealousy Another example is “sướng tiên” and “as happy as a king” Indeed, Vietnamese people consider a fairy the happiest one while English people consider a king the happiest one The same components but the dissimilar content 113 114 Every so often, some images of comparison can appear in both Vietnamese and English idioms but the meaning of the two whole idioms are quite different That’s because the meaning of components differs in culture Indeed, using the idiom “rõ ban ngày”, the Vietnamese want to indicate a event which has nothing fishy Meanwhile English people use the idiom “as bright as day” to describe a light room Besides, when the weather is fine and sunny with good natural light, English people say: “It’s as bright as day” Besides, wanting to compliment someone on his or her beauty of eyes, Vietnamese people say: “Mắt cô sắc dao cạo” Still, English people use the idiom “as sharp as a razor” to refer to one’s brainpower What is more, whilst Vietnamese people apply the idiom “chắc đinh đóng cột” to something steady, “as hard as nails” in English idiom means a person who is quite strict Also, when Vietnamese people say: “Nó tốt vàng”, they mean it’s worth buying the object because of its good quality In contrast, “as good as gold” cannot be used to compliment an object In other words, English people never say: “It’s as good as gold” but “The person is as good as gold” The person can be an assiduous and submissive child or a well-behaved adult Pedagogical Implications for Teaching English Idioms of comparison 114 115 Learning English idioms is one of steps so as to help learners master English English idioms of comparison are frequently used in daily life Therefore, teachers should help their students learn idioms most effectively Firstly, it’s advisable for teachers to raise students’ awareness of similarities and differences between Vietnamese and English idioms of comparison When teachers teach their students a certain English idiom of comparison, they should let them guess the Vietnamese idiom which is equivalent to that idiom, making a comparison and explain why they are similar or different It’s really useful for them to have a long-term memory about that idiom of comparison Secondly, idioms of comparison as well as other idioms are taught and practiced in classroom but students rarely apply them to their daily speech That’s why teachers should encourage students to use idioms of comparison in their daily life as frequently as possible Learners will memorize idioms better if idioms of comparison are put into communicative contexts Don’t make them learn by heart Thirdly, teachers should draw students’ attention to idioms of comparison which are most useful and most frequent As there are so many idioms of comparison in English culture, about 700, students aren’t liable to memorize and apply all of them in their daily life Students should be taught to know what idioms of comparison they should learn Conclusion 115 116 There are both similarities and differences between English and Vietnamese idioms of comparison The same or different image can bear resemblance in the meaning of English and Vietnamese idioms of comparison In addition, there are some idioms of comparison which have the same components but the meaning are quite different Great as have the researcher made an attempt to the research, there are some restrictions on the research out of the limited time and other unexpected factors The researcher hopes that the research will a useful material for learners and teachers to learn or teach most effectively 116 117 References Crystal, D (1985) A dictionary of linguistics & phonetics Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ehrenhaft, G (Ed.) 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