Norbert schmitt michael ph rodgers an introduction to applied linguistics

An Introduction to Applied Linguistics An Introduction to Applied Linguistics provides a complete, authoritative and up-todate overview of the state of the field Divided into three sections covering: a description of language and language use; essential areas of enquiry; and the four skills and testing, the third edition of this highly successful textbook provides:       an introductory chapter which familiarises readers with key issues and recurrent themes; 17 chapters offering extended surveys of central elements of applied linguistics; two brand-new chapters on multilingualism and forensic linguistics; re-written chapters on psycholinguistics, language learners, reading and assessment; hands-on activities and further reading sections for each chapter, encouraging practical analysis and wider reading; revised and updated references for every chapter Co-edited by two leading international specialists, with its accessible style, broad coverage and practical focus, this book is ideal for students of applied linguistics, TESOL and second language pedagogy, as well as practicing teachers and researchers wishing to update their knowledge Norbert Schmitt is Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of Nottingham, UK He has taught in the areas of vocabulary studies, applied linguistics, SLA and TESOL methodology He has published extensively, is a regular presenter at applied linguistics conferences, and travels widely consulting and teaching on vocabulary issues Michael P.H Rodgers is Assistant Professor in the School of Linguistics and Language Studies at Carleton University, Ottawa, where he teaches TESOL methodology and SLA theory His research interests include vocabulary acquisition and language learning through television An Introduction to Applied Linguistics Third edition Edited by Norbert Schmitt and Michael P.H Rodgers Third edition published 2020 by Routledge Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2020 selection and editorial matter, Norbert Schmitt and Michael P.H Rodgers; individual chapters, the contributors The right of the Norbert Schmitt and Michael P.H Rodgers to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 All rights reserved No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Schmitt, Norbert, 1956- editor | Rodgers, Michael P H., editor Title: An introduction to applied linguistics / edited by Norbert Schmitt and Michael P.H Rodgers Other titles: Applied linguistics Description: Third edition | Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2019 | Previous edition published by Hodder Education, 2010 | Includes bibliographical references and index | Identifiers: LCCN 2018035634 (print) | LCCN 2018041681 (ebook) | ISBN 9780429424465 (Master) | ISBN 9781138290129 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138290136 (pbk.) | ISBN 9780429424465 (ebk.) Subjects: LCSH: Applied linguistics Classification: LCC P129 (ebook) | LCC P129 I544 2019 (print) | DDC 418–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018035634 ISBN: 978-1-138-29012-9 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-29013-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-42446-5 (ebk) Typeset in Times New Roman by Taylor & Francis Books If you want peace, work for justice Contents List of figures List of tables Preface An overview of applied linguistics ix x xi NORBERT SCHMITT AND MARIANNE CELCE-MURCIA PART Description of language and language use Grammar 17 19 DIANE LARSEN-FREEMAN AND JEANETTE DECARRICO Vocabulary 35 PAUL NATION AND PAUL MEARA Discourse analysis 55 MICHAEL MCCARTHY, CHRISTIAN MATTHIESSEN AND DIANA SLADE Pragmatics 72 HELEN SPENCER-OATEY AND VLADIMIR ŽEGARAC Corpus linguistics 91 RANDI REPPEN AND RITA SIMPSON-VLACH PART Essential areas of enquiry in applied linguistics Second language acquisition 109 111 NINA SPADA AND PATSY M LIGHTBOWN Psycholinguistics EMILY N MECH, ANDREA TAKAHESU TABORI, JUDITH F KROLL AND KEES DE BOT 128 viii Contents Sociolinguistics 146 CARMEN LLAMAS AND PETER STOCKWELL 10 Focus on the language learner: Styles, strategies and motivation 165 ANDREW D COHEN AND ALASTAIR HENRY 11 Forensic linguistics and language and the law 190 TATIANA TKACUKOVA 12 Multilingualism 205 SHELLEY K TAYLOR PART Language skills and assessment 221 13 Listening 223 TONY LYNCH AND DAVID MENDELSOHN 14 Speaking and pronunciation 240 ANNE BURNS AND BARBARA SEIDLHOFER 15 Reading 259 XIANGYING JIANG, WILLIAM GRABE AND PATRICIA L CARRELL 16 Writing 279 PAUL KEI MATSUDA AND TONY SILVA 17 Assessment 294 CAROL A CHAPELLE, BENJAMIN KREMMEL AND GEOFF BRINDLEY 18 Suggested solutions Bibliography Index 317 333 387 Figures 2.1 4.1 4.2 6.1 7.1 9.1 9.2 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 Interconnected dimensions of grammar The cline between spoken and written discourse Approaches to discourse analysis according to disciplinary origins (adapted from Eggins and Slade, 2005) MonoConc concordance display of KWIC for the target word like Airport cartoon used to elicit examples of questions from a group of young learners of L2 English Distribution of variants of /r/ in Middlesbrough English Distribution of variants of /p/ in Middlesbrough English Fundamental components of testing The conceptualization of inference in ability testing The conceptualization of inference in performance testing Degree of specificity in construct definition Dimensions defining the options for construct definition Factors involved in the relationship between a test method and performance as outlined by Douglas (1998) 23 57 59 101 124 158 159 296 297 298 298 299 301 378 Bibliography Bakhtin, M (1986) Speech Genres and Other Late Essays (McGee, V.W., trans.; Emerson, C and Holquist, M (eds.) 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Issues in Immigrant English Language Assessment Sydney: National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research, Macquarie University, pp 81–123 Index academic texts 57 Academic Word List 37, 39 accent 148–149 accent levelling 156 accommodation 155 active listening 223 Adaptive Control Hypothesis 129 adjacency pairs 60–61, 80 affective filter African–American vernacular English (AAVE) 152 agreement maxim 78 alternative’ assessment 310–311 Alzheimer’s disease 141 American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL) American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) 299 apparent time hypothesis 154 applied linguistics: compartmentalization 11; definition of 1; development of 3–9; early history of 3; overview 1–3; pedagogical grammar, focus on 20; psycholinguistic perspectives in 9–10; social and cultural elements and 8–9; during twentieth century 3–8 Archer Corpus 94 Aristotle Army method Association of Forensic Linguists, 190 Audiolingualism Austin, John 77 authentic texts 252–253 authorship identification automatic processing 115 backchannel responses 60 behaviourism 4, 113–114 Bergen Corpus of London Teenage Language (COLT) 94 Bilingual Interactive Activation plus model 134 bilingualism 128, 129; cognitive consequences of 139–142; dual language activation 132; at lexical level 132–135; at phonological level 135–136; at syntactic level 136–138; language selection 138–139 Birmingham School 59, 63–64 British National Corpus (BNC) 92–94 Brown Corpus 92, 93 bottom-up processing 227 business letters 92 call for proposals 291 Cambridge and Nottingham Corpus of Discourse in English (CANCODE) 94 casual conversation 57; informal 58 chain shift model 156 Chaos theory 10 checklist, grammar 32 chunks of language 26 classroom activities, corpus-based 104–105 classroom procedures 287 COBUILD Bank of English Corpus 24 code-model, of communication 72–73 codeswitching 137–138, 153 codification 148 cognate facilitation effect 133 cognition, impact of bilingualism on 141–142 cognitive decline 141 cognitive grammar 22 cognitive pragmatics 83 cognitive psychology 114–115 cognitive reserve 141 cognitive strategies 171 Collins COBUILD English Grammar 24 collocates 100 collocations 9, 36, 100 common denominator communication strategies 169 communication theory model 224 388 Index communicative competence, concept of 5, 20 communicative language teaching (CLT) 6, 22 communicative principle of relevance 77 competence 21 complexity theory 10 comprehensible input computer-assisted language learning (CALL) 7–8 concordance program 100 concordances of target words 104 connectionism 115–116 consciousness-raising tasks 30 construction grammar 22–23 construct theory 299 content schemata 227 contrastive analysis hypothesis (CAH) 114 controlled composition 286 controlled processing 115 converging pairs 61 conversational implicature 76 conversation analysis 59–61, 80 Conversation Management (CM) approach 198 Co-operative Principle 76, 78 core idioms 36 corpus/corpora 8, 12 91, 92; compilation 95–96; computer-based tools, use of 91, 92; design 93; issues in 94–95; general 93–94; markup and annotation 96–97; specialized 94; spoken 94, 96; tagged 97, 102; types of corpora 93–94; types of studies 102–103; word counts and basic corpus tools 97–102 corpus-based information 104 corpus linguistics 8, 68, 91 language teaching, impact on 103–105; natural language, analysis of 91; overview 91–93; quantitative and qualitative analysis 92–93; and variation in discourse 68–69 see also corpus; computer-based tools, use of Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) 92 Council of Europe project courtroom discourse 199–201 covert prestige 154 creoles 153 critical discourse analysis (CDA) 59, 65 critical linguistics 59 cross-cultural pragmatics 84 declarative knowledge 114 deictic expressions 75 deliberate vocabulary learning 41–43 descriptive grammar 19 dialect 148 dialectal variation 152 dialect levelling model 156 Dictionary of the English Language (Samuel Johnson) dictionary use 45, 87 direct method discoursal variation 152–153 discourse analysis 8, 55–56; approaches to 58–59; corpus linguistics and 68–69; critical 65; implications for pedagogy 69–70; linguistic approaches: Birmingham School 63–64; systemic functional linguistics 64–65; sociolinguistic approach 61–63; ethnography 62; variation theory 63; sociology approach: adjacency pair 60–61; conversation analysis 59–61; turn-taking 60; in speaking and writing 56–58, 65–67 discourse-based framework, for language teaching 12 discourse community 281 discourse grammar 24–25 dispreferred sequence 61 ditransitive/double object construction 22 documentation portfolios 308 Dörnyei’s Motivational Self System Model 177 drafting 282 dual language environment 129 Dynamic(al) systems theory 10 EFL writers 285 electroencephalography (EEG) 130 eliciting exchange 64 e-mail messages 95 emergentism 28 English as second language see second language (L2) acquisition English Language Teaching (ELT) 48, 215 English verb-argument constructions 22 error analysis 286 ESL writing 285 ethnography 62 Europe-wide language teaching system 5–6 evaluation portfolios 308 event-related potential (ERP) 10, 130, 134 exchanges 64 executive motivation 177 Exploring Spoken Language 103 Extensive Reading Foundation 40 eye-movement studies 10 eyetracking 134 face model of politeness 78 feedback 31 figuratives 36 Index fluency development 43; the richness approach 43; the well-beaten path approach 43 focus-on-form movement foreign language writers 285 forensic linguistics 2, 190 formal grammar 21 form-focused instruction 32 formulaic language 12, 36 formulaic sequences 26, 36 formulas 36 Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) 10 Gardner’s Socio-Educational Model 176 genderlect 154 General Service List of English Words (Michael West) 4, 37 generative grammar 21 generative (transformational) theory of grammar 21 genre, concept of 62 graded readers 40 grammar: descriptive 19, 20; development of, history of 3–4; discourse 24–25; formal versus functional approach 21–23; interconnected dimensions of 23, 29; invariant rules and informal variants 20; learning 27–30; lexicogrammar 26–27; and lexis, interdependence of 26–27; pedagogical 20; prescriptive 19; spoken and written 25–26; systemic-functional 5; teaching 30–32; three-prong approach 23; traditional 21; type versus token 23–24; universal grammar (UG) 5, 28 grammaring 30 grammar-translation method grammatical competence 21 gravity model of diffusion 156 Grice, Paul 75 guessing: learning from 44; training in 44 habit formation, verbal 27 Helsinki Corpus 92, 94 historical corpora 94 Hong Kong Corpus of Spoken English 94 hypercorrection 154 ideational function idiolect 147 immersion programs incidental learning 40 information processing model 115, 224 inhibition, role of in bilingual language production 138 Inhibitory Control Model (ICM) 138 input flooding 30 389 insecure science 72 see also pragmatics interlanguage 28, 29, 118 interlanguage pragmatics 85 International Corpus of Learner English (ICLE) 94 International English Language Testing Service (IELTS) 290 International Journal of Speech, Language and the Law 190 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 150, 151 interpersonal function Investigative forensic linguists 191–194 job interviews 57 key word in context (KWIC) 100 keyword technique 44 L1 acquisition research L2 acquisition research see second language (L2) acquisition Lancaster/Oslo–Bergen (LOB) Corpus 92 language: assessment 7; competence 5, 8; corpus-based analyses of 91 (see also corpus linguistics); integrative and holistic approach 11–12; learner 12–13; performance 8; processing 9; second 2, 5, 6; skills 13–14 see also second language (L2) acquisition language aptitude 166 language assessment 7, 294; defined 300–301; fundamental issues in 295–296; purpose 294; washback 305–307 language assessment literacy (LAL) 312 language asymmetries, in bilingual switching 139 language experience, early 140 language history questionnaires 131–132 Language in the Workplace Project (LWP) 87 language learner 165; aptitude 166; classifying strategies 172; learning styles 166–168; pedagogical implications 181–182; strategies 168–169 language learning, pre-conscious stages of 10 language-related disorders, research on 2–3 language threshold 274 LEAP-Q 131 learner, individual characteristics of 13 learner errors 31 learner strategies 13 learner’s corpus 94 learning grammar 27–30 learning journals lemma 35 letter fluency tasks 132 390 Index lexical bar 49–50 lexical density, in text 57 lexical patterns, in spoken language 67–68 lexical phrases 26, 36, 100 Lexical Quality Hypothesis 271 lexical variable 152 lexicogrammar 12, 26–27 lexicography Lextutor website (Tom Cobb) 47 linguistic analysis 286 linguistic annotation 97 linguistic grammars 20 linguistic variable 150 listening 40, 223; active 223; difficulty factors 234–235; ethnographic research 232; features of 223–224; one-way 225–226; passive 223; pedagogic tasks 231; process 226–227; repeated 40; skills 228; skills training 236–237; strategies 229–231; test performances 231–232; theory to practice 233–234; two-way 226 literals 36 The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English 100–101, 103 maxims of conversation 76 meaning-focused input, learning from 39–40 meaning-focused output, learning from 40–41 meaningful repetition 31 mental grammar 19, 20 Meta-cognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire (MALQ) 230 MICASE word list 98, 99 Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE) 94 models of listening: communication theory model 224; information processing model 224; situated action model 225; social/ contextual model 224–225 modesty maxim 78 monitor theory 6, 113 monolinguals 128, 129 motivation process 175–176; learners 179–180 Multilingual International Naming Test (MINT) 132 multilingualism 128, 205; educational responses to 214; future of 218; language hierarchies 211; retrospective view 210 narrative fragmentation 201 Native Language Magnet Theory (NLMT) 135 negative concord 152 negotiation, and vocabulary learning 40 neural network models 28 neurolinguistics 14 neuroplastic effects 130 noticing hypothesis 86 notional syllabuses 22 observer’s paradox 82, 155 one-way listening 225–226 optical character recognition (OCR) software 96 outcomes-based assessment 311–312 paragraph pattern approach 286–287 part-of-speech tagging 97 pattern extraction pedagogical grammar 20 peer-assessment peer interaction 30 Perceptual Assimilation Model (PAM) 135 person deictics 75 phrasal variations 152 picture naming tasks 132 pidgin languages 153 pie chart 23 place deictics 75 Plato Plötz, Karl plurilingualism 207 Police and Criminal Evidence Act 197 politeness maxims 78 Politeness Principle 78 portfolios 7; documentation 308; evaluation 308; showcase 308 positive face, and negative face 78 pragmalinguistic perspective, and sociopragmatic perspective 78 pragmatic competence 21 pragmatics 8, 23, 72–73; assignment of reference 74–75; context, role of 80–82; conversational patterns and structure 80; cross-cultural 84; figuring out what is communicated directly 75; figuring out what is communicated indirectly 75–77; language instruction and pragmatic proficiency 85–86; language learning and teaching, role in 84–88; materials and methods for pragmatic proficiency 86–88; performance and learner identity 88; pragmatic transfer, possibility of 84–85; research 82–84; sample dialogue 73; social factors, impact of 77–80; task of 74 preferred sequences 61 preformulated language 36 prescriptive grammar 19 priming studies 10 processability theory 116 progress grids project work Index pronunciation: prominence 248; roles/degrees of involvement 249; stress and unstress 249–250; tone units/chunking 247; turn-taking 248 psycholinguistic perspectives 9–10 psycholinguistics 5, 128–129; bilingual language selection 138–139; characterizing variation in language experience 129–131; cognitive consequences of bilingualism 139–142; dual language activation 132; at lexical level 132–135; at phonological level 135–136; at syntactic level 136–138; methods to characterize language experience 131–132; radical transformation in 128 public speech 57 reaction-timing studies 10 reading 259; definition of 260; L1 transfer effects 261–262; L2 and L1 reading center 264; L2 readers 262; morphological awareness 272–274; print/extensive 274–275; process 260; strategies 275–276 Reading method recipient design 154 reference, assignment of 74–75 relevance theory 76 relexicalization 67, 68 representative corpus 95 restructuring 115 resulting copulas 105 retrospection method 233 revision process 283 rhetorical schemata 228 rich instruction 42 rote learning 44 rule formation 27 schema 227 Searle, John 77 second language (L2) acquisition 5, 6, 28, 111, 205; behaviourism 113–114; cognitive psychology 114–115; connectionist approach 115–116; developmental sequences 118–119; instruction and 121–123; interactionist perspectives 117; L1 influence 119–121; learner language 118–121; linguistic perspectives 112–113; monitor theory 113; processability theory 116; psychological perspectives 113–116; sociocultural perspective 117; theories of 111–118; universal grammar (UG) approach 112–113 second language writing: controlled composition 286; genre-based approach 391 288–289; paragraph pattern approach 286; process approach 287–288 self-assessment process 7, 309–310 self-motivating strategies 183–184 semantics 23, 73–74 semantic verbal fluency task 132 sense relation network sheet 155 sentence-final clauses 25 sentence-initial adverbial clauses 25 service encounters 57 Short Introduction to English Grammar (Robert Lowth) showcase portfolios 308 single language environments 129 situated action model 225 skilful listeners 230 Social/contextual model 224–225 social network 155 social pragmatics 78, 80, 82 sociocultural theory sociolect 147 sociolinguistic approaches, to discourse analysis 61; ethnography 62; variation theory 63 sociolinguistics 8, 146–147; applications of 160–161; data, collection and analysis 155; data, interpretation of 155–156; definition of 146; dialect, accent and language planning 148–149; discoursal variation 152–153; grammatical variable 152; idiolect and sociolect 147; issues in 147–155; language loyalty 148; lexical variable 152; linguistic variable 150; linguistic variation 153; models and frameworks, use of 156–157; phonological variation 150–151; prestige and stigmatization 148; social factors, and language variation 153 (age) 154 (audience) 154–155 (gender and power) 154 (geographical and social mobility) 154 (identity) 155; social network relations 155; speech communities 149; standard, non-standard and codification 147–148; Teesside study 157–160 solidarity routines 61 sound segments 250–251 speaking 240; exchange 244–245; genres of 243; issues 241–242; schematic structure 243–244; topic management 246–247 SPEAKING grid 62 speech community 149 speech event 62 Speech Learning Model (SLM) 135 spiral syllabus 31 spoken and written grammar, differences between 25–26 spoken corpora 94, 96 392 Index spoken discourse: analysis of 56; informal and formal 58; and written discourse 56–58, 65–67 spoken language, lexical patterns in 67–68 spontaneous speech 56 stakeholders standardization 147–148 stimulus-response conditioning 27 structural syllabus design 22 structured observation switch-cost asymmetry 139 syllabus design, influence of models of grammar on 22 Symposium Organizing Committee 291 syntactic priming 136–137 syntax 23 systemic-functional grammar systemic functional linguistics (SFL) 59, 64–65 tagged corpus 97, 102 Tagmemics 282 target language 4, 27 teachability hypothesis 116 technical vocabulary 39 test analysis: correlation 304–305; difficulty analysis 303–304; quantitative 303 test conditions Test of Written English (TWE) 290 text linguistics 55 see also discourse analysis textual function token description 24 top-down processing 227 transcription system 96 turn-taking 60 two-way listening 226 type description 23–24 universal grammar (UG) 5, 28, 112–113 untagged corpus 97 urban dialectology 154 use-based ideas utterance 56, 75 validation 301–303 variation theory 63 verbal fluency tasks 132 vocabulary 35–36; deliberate vocabulary teaching 42–43; English 48–51; frequency studies, results of 37–39; high-frequency 37, 39; knowledge, assessment of: Productive Levels Test 46; lexical bar 49–50; pre-teaching of 42; purposes of vocabulary tests 46; size and language proficiency 50–51; technical 39; Vocabulary Dictation tests 47; Vocabulary Levels Test 46; Vocabulary Size Test 47; V_YesNo test 47 vocabulary learning 39; deliberate learning 41–43; dictionary use 45–46; fluency development activities 43; guessing from context 44; from meaningfocused input 39–40; from meaning-focused output 40–41; strategies for development of 43–46; what to learn, considerations in 37–39; from word cards 44–45; word parts, use of 45 Vocabulary Control Movement vocabulary knowledge 271 West, Michael willingness to communicate (WTC) 10 word: cards 41–42, 44–45; high-frequency 37, 43; low-frequency 37, 44 word families, counting 35–36 word list 97–100 word recognition 270 word types, counting 35 World War II writing 279; aspect of 279–280; process 279; revision 283; strategic aspect 281–283; textual aspect of 283–284 written bias 26 written legal language 194–196 zero copula 152 Zipfian profile of language 29