Rationale of the study
English has become essential for communication and various aspects of life, making its mastery crucial One effective method for learning English is through literature, which allows for the exploration of stylistic devices that enhance the intrigue and interest of literary works Among these devices, irony plays a significant role, yet many learners find it challenging to study effectively.
Irony is a captivating linguistic phenomenon prevalent in both spoken and written forms It represents a disparity between what is articulated and the underlying meaning, expectations versus reality, or the knowledge of readers compared to the beliefs of characters As a rhetorical device in literature, irony is commonly used to create effects that are scoffing, satirical, humorous, and entertaining Additionally, real life is replete with ironic expressions and scenarios, making the exploration of irony in literary works relevant and relatable to everyday experiences.
Edgar Allan Poe, a prominent American writer renowned for his mastery of horror and irony, skillfully utilizes language to craft impactful short stories Despite his literary significance, irony in Poe's work has received limited attention in literary criticism This article, titled “A Study on Irony in Short Stories by Edgar Allan Poe,” aims to enhance learners' understanding of irony, enabling them to identify and interpret various types of irony in Poe's short stories and literature as a whole.
Aims of the study
(1) finding out common types of irony in Edgar Allan Poe‟s short stories;
(2) investigating the creation of irony in Edgar Allan Poe‟s short stories;
(3) suggesting the implications for teaching and learning irony in literature works.
Scope of the study
Edgar Allan Poe's short stories encompass horror, detective fiction, and science fiction, with a particular focus on his ironic horror tales This paper aims to analyze the irony present in three of Poe's notable horror stories: "The Cask of Amontillado" and "The Tell-Tale Heart." Due to time constraints, the discussion will be limited to these selected works, highlighting the significance of irony in Poe's storytelling.
"The Tell-Tale Heart" and "The Black Cat," two of Edgar Allan Poe's masterpieces written between 1843 and 1846, exemplify the essential elements of gothic literature, including themes of madness, terror, and death within a haunting atmosphere These stories have been widely translated into Vietnamese since 2011 and are utilized in the curriculum of American and English literature courses at various Vietnamese universities.
Significance of the study
Irony serves as a compelling rhetorical device in literature, making its systematic study both theoretically and practically significant This research aims to enhance understanding of the various types of irony and their application in Edgar Allan Poe's short stories It also assists Vietnamese learners of English in interpreting irony within literary contexts Furthermore, the study can enrich the teaching of American and English literature at Vietnamese universities, ultimately contributing to a fresh perspective on Poe's works and fostering greater diversity in research within this literary domain.
Research methodology
Research questions
In order to cover all above aims, the study is to shed light on the following research questions:
(1) What common types of irony are found in Edgar Allan Poe‟s short stories ?
(2) How is irony created in Edgar Allan Poe‟s short stories?
Research methods
This study employs both quantitative and qualitative methods to analyze ironic expressions in three of Edgar Allan Poe's short stories The findings are derived from a thorough examination of the common types of irony, utilizing descriptive and analytic techniques to highlight the creation of irony within Poe's work.
Data collection and analysis
This article explores ironic expressions found in three renowned short stories by Edgar Allan Poe: "The Cask of Amontillado," "The Tell-Tale Heart," and "The Black Cat." By analyzing these texts, we uncover the layers of irony that enhance their narratives and contribute to Poe's mastery of suspense and psychological depth These stories, available online, serve as prime examples of how irony can shape character motivations and plot twists, making them timeless works in the realm of literature.
The analysis of the data will encompass both quantitative and qualitative methods Quantitatively, it will focus on the frequencies of verbal, situational, and dramatic ironies as outlined by Muecke (1969:40-42), along with the occurrences of irony-creating techniques in Edgar Allan Poe's short stories Qualitatively, the study will describe, analyze, and elucidate the various types of irony and the methods employed to create irony within Poe's narratives.
Design of the study
In order to make this thesis conventional and well organized, the minor thesis includes three main parts as follows:
Part A: Introduction – This part will cover some points including the rationale, the aims, the scope, the significance, research methodology, and the organization of the study
Part B: Development consists of four chapters, starting with Chapter I: Theoretical Background and Literature Review, which outlines the foundational concepts of irony studies This chapter covers a brief history of irony, various definitions, types, essential elements, and grades of irony, along with methods for detecting and interpreting it Additionally, it includes a review of relevant studies that contribute to the understanding of irony.
Chapter II: Research methodology outlines the methods and procedures utilized in the study It includes a detailed description of the samples, as well as the processes for data collection, description, and analysis.
Chapter III of the article examines the prevalent forms of irony in Edgar Allan Poe's short stories, offering a detailed quantitative analysis of the occurrences of verbal, situational, and dramatic irony Additionally, it provides a qualitative exploration of the various types of irony present in Poe's narratives.
Chapter IV explores the creation of irony in Edgar Allan Poe's short stories, detailing the techniques used and their frequency across three of his most renowned works It also clarifies the effects of irony, highlighting its significance in enhancing the themes and emotional impact of the narratives.
In the conclusion, we summarize the key findings and provide final insights, highlighting the implications and limitations of the study while suggesting areas for future research Additionally, the article includes references and appendices to support the presented information.
BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE
A brief history of irony studies
Irony is a significant linguistic device that has garnered considerable interest from linguists and scholars throughout history Research on irony spans a wide array of disciplines, including literature studies, linguistics, and pragmatics, highlighting its multifaceted nature Notable contributions to the study of irony include works by Muecke (1970), Booth (1974), Wilson & Sperber (1981, 1986, 1998), and Grice (1975, 1989), among others This extensive scholarly exploration underscores the complexity and relevance of irony in language and communication.
Muecke (1970:14) reasonably states that giving a precise antiquity of the term irony is not an easy task since the word had been used long before it was named
The term "irony" originates from the Greek word "eironeia," which is linked to Greek comedy It refers to Eiron, a character who used understatement and feigned ignorance to outsmart the alazon, a boastful and self-deceiving figure.
(Abrams, 1999: 134-135) Not until the early eighteen century did the word irony come into general use Since its appearance, this term has developed gradually and expanded its meanings
Traditional theories, according to Jorgensen et al (1984:112), assume ―that an ironist uses a figurative meaning opposite to the literal meaning of the utterance‖
In semantic theory, irony is recognized as a rhetorical device alongside metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, and litotes, representing a form of non-literal language (Saeed, 2009, as cited by Jửnsson, 2010: 4) Rhetoricians classify irony as a master trope, where it conveys a meaning opposite to the literal statement For instance, when someone remarks, “What lovely weather” during a rainstorm, they are employing irony to express the figurative meaning of “What terrible weather.”
Grice's approach (1975) classifies irony as a conversational implicature that breaches the cooperative principle and the maxim of quality According to the classic pragmatic theories of Grice and Searle, listeners initially interpret the literal meanings of speakers' statements, recognize their contextual inappropriateness, and subsequently derive the intended nonliteral meaning based on the cooperative principle and speech act rules Additionally, a speaker's tone of voice serves as a crucial indicator for listeners in deciphering ironic meanings.
Modern theories, as noted by Attardo et al (2009:407), define irony as an echoic mention where speakers repeat a prior statement or belief, which is understood to convey ironic meaning in context This echoing or paraphrasing of earlier statements enables readers to more easily process and interpret the ironic implications of utterances.
Clark and Gerrig (1984) propose that pretense is essential to understanding irony They suggest that when a speaker makes an ironic statement, they are essentially adopting an attitude that does not reflect their true beliefs This act of pretense allows the speaker to mock both the opinion and the individual to whom it is ascribed.
Definitions of irony
In "The Compass of Irony," Muecke (1969) defines irony as the art of conveying meaning without explicitly stating it, creating depth and resonance akin to great art He describes irony as a method of expression—whether in speech, writing, or other forms—where the intended meaning starkly contrasts with the superficial or pretended meaning This technique involves using words to express an opposite meaning or presenting an idea that contradicts its appearance.
Irony, as defined by Thompson (1948), refers to the incongruity between expression and meaning, appearance and reality, or expectation and event It highlights the contrast between the surface meaning of statements and their deeper implications, as well as the difference between what is anticipated in a situation and what actually transpires This study adopts the traditional definitions of irony put forth by Muecke (1969) and Thompson (1948) to explore these dynamics further.
Classification of irony
Muecke (1969) identifies four fundamental types of irony: verbal, situational, romantic, and dramatic However, since Muecke does not elaborate on these categories, the definitions provided by Abrams (1999) and Ellestrom (2002) are utilized to clarify their meanings.
Verbal irony occurs when there is a stark contrast between what is said and what is actually meant, leading to a discrepancy between the literal words and the intended message Abrams (1999) describes it as a statement where the speaker's implied meaning sharply contrasts with the apparent meaning expressed The term was introduced by Thirlwall (1833), who noted that it allows speakers to convey their thoughts more powerfully by highlighting the difference between their intended message and the literal interpretation of their words (Ellestrom, 2002).
Verbal irony is prevalent across various literary genres, including novels, short stories, plays, and poems A notable example is found in Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet," where Juliet expresses her determination to marry Romeo instead of Paris, whom she does not love Ironically, she tells her mother, “I will not marry yet; and, when I do, I swear it will be Romeo, whom you know I hate, rather than Paris.” This statement highlights the contrast between her true feelings and her words, showcasing the essence of verbal irony in literature.
Verbal irony is a deliberate form of expression where speakers make statements that contradict their true feelings or actions For effective communication of verbal irony, two key conditions must be fulfilled: the speaker must intentionally convey an ironic remark, and both the speaker and listener must share relevant background knowledge For instance, if they are together in the rain and understand the desire for pleasant weather, the statement "What lovely weather!" can be recognized as ironic However, if the speaker lacks an opposite intention or if the listener is unaware of the context, the irony may not be understood.
―verbal irony depends on knowledge of fictional speaker‘s ironic intention, which is shared both the speaker and the reader‖ (Abrams & Harpham, 2009: 166)
Kreuz & Roberts (1993: 99) consider sarcasm as a subtype of verbal irony, where
Sarcasm is a form of aggressive irony aimed at insulting or hurting an individual or group, while irony often conveys the opposite meaning without the intent to harm For instance, saying "You are really brilliant!" to someone who has acted thoughtlessly demonstrates sarcasm, whereas stating "They tell me you’re a slow runner" to a marathon winner illustrates irony.
Situational irony, also known as irony of events, occurs when the outcome of a situation is starkly different from what was anticipated, highlighting contradictions or sharp contrasts (Ellestrom, 2002:51) It is characterized by a discrepancy between expected and actual results within a specific context Unlike verbal irony, which involves a conflict between an expression and a situation, situational irony is unintentional and arises from the irony inherent in the situation itself (Colston, 1997:44).
Situational irony in literature and drama arises when characters or events converge in unexpected ways, highlighting a contrast between anticipated and actual outcomes Unlike verbal irony, which involves a character's awareness of the discrepancy, situational irony occurs when the character is oblivious to the difference between their perceptions and reality This form of irony often culminates in a plot twist or surprise ending, where the character believes that everything has been resolved, only for complications to arise Because situational irony is rooted in the unfolding events and circumstances of a narrative, it tends to be more nuanced and impactful than other types of irony.
The most extreme example of situational irony in ―The Ransom of Red Chief‖ by
In O Henry's story, the typical kidnapping scenario is turned on its head, where the kidnapped child poses a greater threat than his abductors Instead of the kidnappers seeking ransom, the child's parents demand payment from them to take him back, highlighting the child's disruptive nature They even request that the kidnappers return him at night, as the neighbors prefer the peace that comes with his absence Ultimately, the roles are reversed, leading the criminals to flee from the unexpected situation.
Dramatic irony occurs when the reader possesses knowledge of events or circumstances that the characters do not, leading to a deeper understanding of the narrative According to Abrams (1999:136-137), this literary device creates a scenario where the audience is aware of the present or future situations that characters remain oblivious to As a result, characters may act inappropriately or expect outcomes contrary to what the audience knows is destined to happen, often leading to unintended consequences or misunderstandings.
Dramatic irony plays a crucial role in creating tension within dramatic works, as it highlights the conflict between the audience's knowledge and the protagonist's ignorance (Kalbermatten, 2006: 5) A quintessential example is found in William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet," where Juliet takes a sleeping potion to avoid marrying Paris The dramatic irony culminates in the final scene when Romeo, believing Juliet to be dead, takes his own life Upon awakening and discovering Romeo's death, Juliet follows suit This tragic ending, foreseen by the audience, underscores the devastating consequences of the characters' misunderstandings.
Dramatic irony and situational irony fall under the umbrella of structural irony, where the author incorporates a structural element that maintains a dual meaning and evaluation throughout the narrative (Abrams & Harpham, 2009).
Structural irony is rooted in the narrative structure of a work, relying on the relationship between an unreliable character and the readers to uncover the author's true intentions In contrast, dramatic irony, which is often compared to verbal irony, is embedded within the structure of a piece, while verbal irony focuses on the meanings conveyed through specific words and sentences Additionally, dramatic irony can be likened to situational irony, as both involve a discrepancy between expectation and reality.
Romantic irony, a concept introduced by Friedrich Schlegel and other German writers in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, refers to a style of dramatic or narrative writing where the author initially creates the illusion of reality, only to later expose their role as the arbitrary creator and manipulator of characters and events This self-aware narrative technique has become a prevalent feature in modern complex fiction (Abrams, 1999:136-137).
This article explores three primary types of irony relevant to literary works: verbal, situational, and dramatic irony, as identified by Muecke (1969) While there are four basic types of irony, including romantic irony, this discussion focuses on the three that are most applicable to various literary contexts.
Essential elements of irony
Muecke (1969) highlights the pragmatic nature of irony through three essential elements Firstly, irony operates on two levels: a lower level reflecting the victim's perception and an upper level representing the ironist's viewpoint This concept is supported by scholars like Sperber and Wilson (1981) and Clark and Gerrig (1984), who emphasize that every ironic statement involves a speaker intending to convey irony and a target or victim affected by it Secondly, there exists an inherent opposition between these two levels, which can manifest as contradiction, incongruity, or incompatibility—where what is stated may conflict with what is truly meant Lastly, irony incorporates an element of innocence, as the victim may be blissfully unaware of the upper level's existence, or the ironist may feign ignorance of it.
When a speaker refers to a woman as "a really good friend" despite knowing she has harmed them, it conveys irony The listener, aware of the situation, understands that the speaker is actually expressing disappointment, implying that she is not a good friend This use of irony highlights the speaker's true feelings while presenting them in a seemingly positive light.
Grades of irony
Muecke (1969:52-61) resolves the problem of classification by grading irony into three classes according to the degree of subtlety: overt irony, covert irony or private irony
Overt irony involves active participation from both the speaker and the hearer, with the speaker intentionally crafting the ironic message while the hearer quickly grasps its true meaning This form of irony is commonly linked to sarcasm and can be emphasized through gestures like a curled lip or raised eyebrow However, overt irony is frequently overused, leading to a dilution of its impact and meaning.
Covert irony, unlike overt irony, is designed to be detected rather than immediately recognized, making it more challenging to identify While overt irony is quickly understood, covert irony demands a heightened sensitivity to the text, as the covert ironist intentionally avoids any obvious tonal or stylistic cues that might reveal their ironic intent.
Covert irony can often go unnoticed, leading to a loss of its intended impact on the audience To ensure that readers accurately interpret the irony, the author must include clear cues that signal its presence.
Private irony is a subtle form of irony that is not intended to be shared with the victim or others, as it exists solely for the amusement of the ironist According to Muecke (1969:59), this type of irony is designed to remain undetected, making the ironist's true intent inscrutable It can only be recognized in written works where one character is identified as a private ironist, while others remain oblivious to the irony being employed In spoken discourse, private irony cannot be acknowledged, as it inherently excludes recognition by others.
Detecting and interpreting irony
Booth (1974, 1978), as cited by Yoder (2008:35-40), outlines essential clues for recognizing and reconstructing irony in texts He identifies five distinct types of clues that authors can use to assist readers in accurately identifying ironic statements.
Clue 1 The author may give explicit signs in title, epigraphs,etc to indicate the use of irony These kind of clues are straightforward and helpful when supplied
Clue 2 The author asserts known errors The indicators of irony occur when a known error is proclaimed such as conventional wisdom is flaunted or historical facts misreported or an absurd premise asserted The mere presence of these errors is not sufficient to detect irony, but they are strong indicators
Clue 3 The author contradicts himself or herself within his/her writings A conflict suggests that the author may be speaking ironically through one of the characters in the dialogues Clue 4 The author‟s own style or words is inconsistent or incongruous relative to the meaning or the author‟s usual practice A sudden change in style is one way that a written work can apply to mimic the tonal clues that an ironic speaker has at her disposal
Clue 5 There is a conflict between the text as it is given and the author‟s known or expected beliefs In this circumstance, the reader is so familar with the author‟s way of thinking that the reader is able to discern the true beliefs of the author even if the true belief is never directly stated In cases where the irony is particularly subtle and covert, it is perhaps necessary for more than one clue to be present in order to confidently interpret the author‟s intent At the very least, the more telling clues are needed
In his exploration of irony, Muecke (1969) identifies four modes—impersonal, self-disparaging, ingenuous, and dramatized—each reliant on the ironist's presentation method Cited by Lemieux (1991), Muecke outlines twenty essential techniques within the realm of impersonal irony, which are vital for recognizing irony in literary works This study aims to apply these techniques to create irony in Edgar Allan Poe's three short stories The techniques include praising to blame, blaming to praise, feigned agreement, insincere advice, rhetorical questions, pretended doubt, innuendo, irony through analogy, ambiguity, false omissions, mock attacks, phony defenses, misrepresentation, internal contradictions, fallacious reasoning, understatement, overstatement, displaced irony, and stylistically signaled irony.
Ramos (2000), as referenced by Shively et al (2008:104), emphasizes that stylistically signaled irony is conveyed through specific linguistic cues, including syntactic structures and vocabulary choices.
Previous studies
Due to the limited time, the writer has only focused on some researches implemented in Vietnam in the recent years
In the study of irony within short stories, Hoàng Anh Tuấn's 2010 graduation paper, "A Study on Irony in Some O Henry's Short Stories," provides foundational insights into various types of irony The research highlights the significance of irony as a literary device, offering a comprehensive analysis of its application in O Henry's narratives.
This article explores the expression of irony in O Henry's short stories and compares it with that in Nguyễn Công Hoan's works, highlighting both similarities and differences By examining these contrasting styles, learners can gain a deeper understanding of irony in short stories across two languages However, the article notes that the definition of irony presented is vague, and the analysis lacks depth.
Recent research on Edgar Allan Poe includes two notable Ph.D dissertations in Vietnamese: "Sự Tiếp Nhận Edgar Allan Poe ở Việt Nam" by Hoàng Kim Oanh (2011) and "Nghệ Thuật Xây Dựng Cốt Truyện của Edgar Allan Poe" by Ngô Bích Thu (2014) Oanh's dissertation is a meticulous and scientific study that systematically explores Poe's reception in Vietnam, covering research, criticism, translation, and teaching from the early twentieth century to 2011 It includes valuable tables, charts, and statistical data on the translation and study of Poe's works, serving as a significant reference for future research This work not only enhances knowledge about Edgar Allan Poe but also encourages readers to delve into various aspects of his literary contributions.
Ngô Bích Thu's 2014 Ph.D dissertation provides a comprehensive overview of research in both Vietnamese and English, highlighting the significance of a new approach to literary analysis The study effectively examines Edgar Allan Poe's mastery in constructing plots within the genres of horror, detective stories, and science fiction Additionally, it addresses key issues related to these genres while elucidating Poe's profound influence on writers and artists globally, including those in Vietnam The thesis ultimately affirms Poe's substantial contribution to the modernization of literature in the United States and worldwide.
Despite existing research on irony in literature and studies focused on Edgar Allan Poe in Vietnam, none have specifically examined irony as an artistic device in his works This study aims to address this gap and enhance the understanding of Poe's short stories.
This chapter establishes the theoretical framework for the study, offering an overview of various concepts of irony, particularly highlighting Muecke's (1969) theory of irony Additionally, it concludes with a discussion of significant studies relevant to the current research, facilitating a mutual understanding of the advancements made in this field.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Edgar Allan Poe and his works
2.1.1 Biography of Edgar Allan Poe
Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849), born in Boston and orphaned at a young age, was taken in by the Allan family in Richmond, Virginia, but eventually fell out with them due to his irresponsible behavior Despite his tumultuous life and unstable temperament, Poe emerged as a literary genius of the nineteenth century, recognized as a key figure in the American Romantic Movement and a pioneer of Symbolism He is best known for his contributions to the short story genre, establishing himself as the father of horror tales and the inventor of detective fiction, while also laying the groundwork for science fiction and psychoanalytic narratives Poe's influence extends beyond American literature, impacting fields such as cosmology and cryptography, and he is regarded as the first American writer to enter Vietnamese literature in the early twentieth century Two centuries later, Edgar Allan Poe remains a treasured figure not only in American literature but also as a "precious thing" for humanity, including Vietnamese culture.
2.1.2 Edgar Allan Poe's horror story writing style
Edgar Allan Poe, often regarded as the grandfather of horror in American literature, stands out among Gothic authors for his unique storytelling style He believes that short stories should be concise enough to be read in one sitting, a criterion that enhances their impact Central to many of his works is the theme of death, which evokes mystery and horror, while he intricately weaves emotions such as hatred, anger, despair, insanity, and the pain of loss throughout his narratives Additionally, Poe employs various stylistic elements that contribute to his distinctive writing techniques.
Edgar Allan Poe often employs an unnamed narrator in his short stories, creating a sense of realism that allows readers to experience the moments of fear alongside the storyteller This choice may symbolize anyone who has acted impulsively or perversely and subsequently faced the consequences of their actions.
Edgar Allan Poe's writing is distinguished by his effective use of symbolism, which plays a crucial role in creating psychological and symbolic horror in his short stories Symbolism serves as a literary device where objects, characters, or colors embody deeper meanings, often representing abstract concepts tied to the themes of his work By repeatedly emphasizing these symbols, Poe enhances the emotional and thematic impact of his narratives.
Edgar Allan Poe is renowned for his unique writing style, characterized by self-building sentences that frequently employ excessive dashes, italicized words, and repetitive phrases He is particularly famous for his surprise endings and emphasizes the importance of keeping the dénouement in mind, often revealing the climactic conclusion in the final paragraph Poe's stories consistently embody a sense of irony, showcasing his brilliance as one of the most innovative authors in the Gothic and horror genres.
2.1.3 Three short stories by Edgar Allan Poe 2.1.3.1 The Cask of Amontillado (1846)
―The Cask of Amontillado‖ is a famous horror story by Poe first published in 1846
Set in an unnamed Italian city during the vibrant carnival season of the 18th century, this tale unfolds the chilling story of Montresor's deadly revenge against his friend Fortunato, who has insulted him Edgar Allan Poe masterfully employs irony to explore themes of vengeance and murder In this gripping narrative, spanning 7 pages and 2,379 words, readers witness Montresor's meticulously crafted plan to lure the wine connoisseur Fortunato into a trap under the pretense of tasting a rare Amontillado, ultimately leading to his horrifying fate of being buried alive.
2.1.3.2 The Tell- Tale Heart (1843) ―The Tell-Tale Heart‘‘ was first published in 1843 in the Boston Pioneer and revised into its current form for an 1845 edition of The Broadway Journal It is one of the most famous and macabre short stories in all Poe‟s literature works, and it helps to define its author as one of the founder of the horror genres The story is about a mentally unstable man in detail describing how he plans and carries out the murder of an old man with an ―evil eye‖ whom he shares a house with and then confessing to his murder Only with 4 pages and 2229 words, the story explores the psychological aspects of its narrator and the fine lines between sanity and insanity, and innocence and guilt
"The Black Cat," first published on August 19, 1843, in The Saturday Evening Post, is a compelling psychological exploration of domestic violence and guilt, following Edgar Allan Poe's earlier work, "The Tell-Tale Heart." Unlike its predecessor, this story does not focus on premeditated murder but delves into the disturbed psyche of the narrator, who inflicts cruelty on a black cat and ultimately murders his wife when she intervenes to protect the animal The chilling narrative culminates with him concealing her corpse behind a wall in the cellar With its concise 7-page length, "The Black Cat" is highly recommended for readers seeking a gripping tale of horror and psychological depth.
2.1.3.4 The similarities and differences among the three short stories
Edgar Allan Poe's renowned works, including "The Cask of Amontillado," "The Tell-Tale Heart," and "The Black Cat," feature unreliable first-person narrators who exhibit mental instability Each story presents seemingly motiveless murders; Montresor kills Fortunato over an insult, the narrator of "The Tell-Tale Heart" is driven to murder by his aversion to the old man's eye, and the narrator in "The Black Cat" kills his wife in a fit of rage when she defends the cat Alcohol plays a significant role in these narratives, highlighting how heavy drinking can exacerbate one's darker impulses, as seen with Fortunato's pride leading to his demise and the narrator's alcoholism fueling his violent tendencies A central theme across these tales is the inescapability of guilt; although the narrators initially conceal their crimes, their guilty consciences ultimately lead to their downfall.
In "The Black Cat," the narrator seeks to unburden his soul before death, while in "The Tell-Tale Heart," the narrator desperately attempts to prove his sanity The "Tell-Tale Heart" narrator meticulously plans his murder, waiting for the perfect moment, in stark contrast to the "Black Cat" narrator, who commits his act of violence impulsively in a fit of rage.
The narrators were found out in different ways too; in ―The Tell-Tale Heart‖ the narrator confessed openly when he was afraid of being found out However, in
In "The Black Cat," the police uncover the truth not through a confession but by discovering the body themselves Unlike the other tales, Montresor may have escaped justice, but he cannot evade the prison of his own conscience Despite narrating the story with clarity, it is evident that the details of Fortunato's murder haunt him even after 50 years The fear of being buried alive lingers, symbolized by the jingling of bells that follows him endlessly Ultimately, Montresor's internal torment proves to be more punishing than any physical prison, demonstrating the inescapable nature of cause and effect in their actions.
Research questions
This study aims to identify common types of irony and examine their use in Edgar Allan Poe's short stories, enhancing students' understanding of irony concepts By exploring these elements, the research facilitates the identification and interpretation of irony in Poe's works and literature as a whole The study specifically addresses key research questions to achieve its objectives.
(1) What common types of irony are found in Edgar Allan Poe‟s short stories ?
(2) How is irony created in Edgar Allan Poe‟s short stories?
Research methods
Quantitative research, as defined by Aliaga and Gunderson (2002), involves the collection and analysis of numerical data using statistical methods to explain phenomena In contrast, qualitative research focuses on understanding social or human problems from various perspectives, emphasizing words, language, and experiences, as noted by Berg (2001) While quantitative research relies on measurements and statistics, qualitative research seeks to capture the richness of human experiences.
Quantitative research, while strong in its neutrality and generalizability, faces challenges in measuring theoretical constructs and establishing causality in social sciences (Roman et al., 2013) Conversely, qualitative research excels in generating insights into new issues and phenomena that lack thorough investigation (Seipel & Rieker, 2003).
This study employs both quantitative and qualitative methods for data analysis, prioritizing qualitative approaches The conclusions and insights are derived from thorough data analysis, utilizing descriptive and analytic methods to explore the various types of irony and its creation in Edgar Allan Poe's short stories.
Data collection
The Cask of Amontillado, The Tell-Tale Heart, and The Black Cat are three iconic horror tales by Edgar Allan Poe, written between 1843 and 1846, and are celebrated for their masterful use of irony Due to the difficulty in accessing Poe's original short stories, this research primarily utilizes reliable online resources such as PoeStories.com These selected works exemplify the essential elements of gothic literature, including themes of haunted houses, darkness, terror, madness, and death Furthermore, they enjoy global popularity, including in Vietnam, where they have been translated for a wider audience.
As of 2011, Vietnamese audiences showed a strong preference for Edgar Allan Poe's short stories, which were also utilized in teaching American Literature at the University of Social Sciences and Humanities, as well as The University of Da Nang (Hoàng Kim Oanh, 2011: 182-186).
The procedures of collecting the data
The writer explored Edgar Allan Poe's three short stories to gain a general understanding of their themes and narratives However, the complexity of Poe's vocabulary poses challenges for readers To better comprehend the meanings and contexts of the words used in these stories, the researcher consulted various English references, including insightful essays and related writings available on official websites.
The research focuses on qualitative data derived from textual elements—statements, words, phrases, and sentences—from three of Edgar Allan Poe's short stories The quotes are organized sequentially from top to bottom as sourced from http://www.poestories.com/ Detailed information regarding the types of irony and its development within these stories can be found in Appendices 2 and 3.
31 samples of ironical expressions were found in Poe‟s three short stories.These samples have been collected and classified according to the following table:
No Works Sample analyzed Total
Data analysis
The model as well as the instrument of analyzing data collected in Poe‟s three short stories was adopted from Muecke as introduced in his invaluable book of “The
In "Compass of Irony" (1969), irony is categorized into four types: verbal, situational, dramatic, and romantic However, an analysis of Edgar Allan Poe's short stories reveals three primary types of irony: verbal, situational, and dramatic A total of 31 examples of ironic expressions were identified across three of Poe's stories, including one instance that combines verbal and dramatic irony, resulting in 32 occurrences of irony overall.
Irony can be generated through various techniques, with Muecke (1969) identifying twenty methods, though the data primarily classifies them into ten main techniques Among 31 samples of ironical expressions, three exhibit a combination of two techniques, resulting in a total of 34 occurrences of irony-creating methods Additionally, Ngô Bích Thu (2014) introduces five subtypes of symbols, with one out of three stylistically signaled ironies being utilized.
This study employs both quantitative and qualitative methods for data analysis, with a primary focus on qualitative analysis Initially, the frequency of verbal, situational, and dramatic ironies, as outlined by Muecke (1969), is quantitatively assessed in Edgar Allan Poe's short stories Subsequently, a qualitative examination is conducted, exploring the three types of irony and the techniques used to create irony in Poe's works.
Research procedures
* Step 1: Determine the research topic The fact that no previous researches have been done about irony in Poe‟s short stories inspires the author to make this study
* Step 2: Based on the main aims of the study and the thorough literature review, the study come to determine the research questions
* Step 3: Present the theoretical background and literature review for the study
* Step 4: Collect ironical expressions in the three selected short stories
* Step 5: Analyze the data by using quantitative and descriptive qualitative methods
* Step 6: Present some conclusions, some implications for teachers and learners, limitations and suggestions for further studies
Reliability and validity
This study relies on dependable English materials, ensuring reliability through accurate quotations and clear references to authors, publishers, publication dates, and page numbers The data analyzed is representative and examined with high accuracy, affirming its validity This chapter provides an overview of the methodology, structured around research questions, methods, data collection, analysis, and procedures, ultimately addressing both validity and reliability.
COMMON TYPES OF IRONY IN EDGAR ALLAN POE’S SHORT STORIES
This chapter explores the prevalent forms of irony in Edgar Allan Poe's short stories, utilizing Muecke's framework (1969:40-42) The analysis focuses on three renowned horror tales by Poe, identifying four primary types of irony: verbal, situational, romantic, and dramatic However, the findings indicate that Poe predominantly employs verbal, situational, and dramatic ironies in his narratives.
3.1 Frequency of use of common types of irony in Poe’s short stories
Table 3.1 illustrates the instances of verbal, situational, and dramatic irony found in 31 ironic expressions across three of Poe's short stories, including one expression that uniquely combines both verbal and dramatic irony.
The Tell- Tale Heart The Black Cat
Table 3.1: Occurrence and Percentage of types of irony in Poe’s short stories
In the analysis of irony within Poe's three short stories, it is revealed that out of thirty-two occurrences, fifteen exemplify purely situational irony, accounting for 47% of the total Dramatic irony follows closely, representing approximately 31% of the occurrences, while verbal irony is the least frequent, making up around 22%.
The Cask of Amontillado features a significant prevalence of irony, accounting for 50% of the total instances across three stories In contrast, both The Tell-Tale Heart and The Black Cat exhibit an equal distribution of irony, each representing 25% of the occurrences.
3.2.1 Verbal irony in The Cask of Amontillado
In the story, the first instance of irony occurs when Montresor encounters Fortunato and exclaims, "My dear Fortunato, you are luckily met." This statement is deeply ironic, as there is nothing fortunate about their meeting; Montresor's words mask his true intentions While he pretends that Fortunato is lucky to see him, he is, in fact, relishing the opportunity to execute his revenge This verbal irony highlights the contrast between Montresor's outward expression and his true feelings, enhancing the tension in the narrative.
"Let’s return; your health is too valuable to risk You are wealthy, respected, and cherished—much like I once was Your absence would be deeply felt, while my well-being is of little consequence I cannot bear the thought of you falling ill, especially with Luchesi involved."
―Enough,‖ he said; ―the cough‘s a mere nothing; it will not kill me I shall not die of a cough.‖
Montresor feigns concern for Fortunato's health, ironically urging him to turn back due to the dampness of the catacombs that could aggravate his cough The phrase "True—true," serves to intensify the irony in his words However, the reality is that Fortunato's demise will not stem from his cough, but rather from being entombed alive.
(3) ―I drink,‖ he said, ―to the buried that repose around us.‖
―And I to your long life.‖ (86-87, p 3)
In response to Fortunato's toast to the deceased in the catacombs, Montresor ironically toasts to Fortunato's long life, concealing his true intention of celebrating Fortunato's impending death Unbeknownst to Fortunato, he is destined to join the ranks of the buried shortly Poe's masterful use of irony heightens the chilling atmosphere of the scene.
(4) ―You do not comprehend?‖ he said
―Then you are not of the brotherhood.‖
―You are not of the masons.‖ (113, p 4)
―Yes, yes," I said; ―yes, yes.‖
―It is this,‖ I answered, producing from beneath the folds of my roquelaire a trowel
In a striking example of verbal and dramatic irony, Fortunato inquires whether Montresor is a member of the "masons," referring to the secretive Freemasons However, Montresor cleverly reinterprets this to signify a skilled stonecutter, a role he ultimately embodies when he entombs Fortunato alive The trowel Montresor reveals serves as a chilling symbol of his true intentions, highlighting the dramatic irony present in their exchange as the audience perceives the sinister meaning behind Montresor's words.
In Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado," Montresor cleverly employs verbal irony through the term "mason." While Fortunato interprets "mason" in its traditional sense, Montresor embodies this role by using a trowel to entomb Fortunato behind a brick wall, highlighting the dual meaning of the word This play on language underscores Montresor's sinister intentions as he transforms the act of masonry into a means of revenge.
(5) Verbal irony in the story is exemplified by the statement of Montresor: In pace
In Montresor's tale, recounted with meticulous clarity fifty years later, it becomes evident that the memory of his crime has haunted him throughout the years The fear of being buried alive, a nightmare for many, lingers as a constant reminder, symbolized by the jingling of bells that follows him His troubled conscience suggests that he has been unable to find peace since committing the act.
3.2.2 Verbal irony in The Tell- Tale Heart
(6) I loved the old man (7-8, p.1) ―I was never kinder to the old man than during the whole week before I killed him.‖ (15-16, p.1)
In this scene, the narrator expresses a deep love for the old man while simultaneously harboring a profound hatred for his "evil" eye, which he believes to be a source of malevolence This obsession drives him to contemplate murder as a means to rid himself of his fear Despite his claims of love and kindness, the narrator's actions reveal a stark contradiction, creating an ironic tension between his self-praise and his sinister intentions.
You may perceive me as mad, but true madness lacks awareness Witness my careful and calculated actions; my wisdom in the approach is undeniable Would a madman display such foresight and cunning? If you still doubt my sanity, my detailed account of the meticulous precautions I took to hide the body will surely change your mind.
In the narrative, the protagonist repeatedly claims his sanity, yet this insistence, coupled with his meticulous planning of the old man's murder, ultimately reveals his madness to the readers He rationalizes the act of killing as a normal response to discomfort and irritation, highlighting his distorted perception of reality The use of verbal irony amplifies his insanity, as he paradoxically asserts his mental clarity through his own irrational actions.
3.3.1 Situational irony in The Cask of Amontillado
Situational irony occurs when an event contradicts the expectations of the characters or readers Fortunato himself in the story contains irony when considering Montresor's plans for him
The title "The Cask of Amontillado" cleverly embodies situational irony, as it juxtaposes the concepts of wine and death The term "cask," referring to a wine barrel, shares a root with "casket," which denotes a coffin for the deceased This duality suggests that the cask symbolizes Fortunato's eventual fate, transforming the expectation of enjoying fine wine into a grim representation of his demise.
(9) Second situational irony is Fortunato's name The Italian name Fortunato means
THE CREATION OF IRONY IN EDGAR ALLAN POE’S
This chapter will explore the techniques for creating irony in Poe‟s short stories
Irony can be crafted using various techniques, with Muecke (1969) identifying twenty methods However, the analysis reveals that these can be effectively categorized into ten primary techniques of irony Additionally, Ngô Bích Thu (2014) outlines five subtypes of symbols, while one of the three stylistically signaled ironies is utilized Furthermore, three out of thirty-one ironic expressions emerge from the combination of two distinct techniques For a comprehensive list of these irony-creating techniques, please refer to Appendix 3.
4.1 Frequency of use of techniques for creating irony in Poe’s short stories
1 Pretended advice to the victim 2
2 Pretended agreement with the victim 1
Table 4.1: Occurrence and Percentage of techniques for creating irony in Poe’s short stories
Table 4.1 highlights that stylistically signalled irony is the most prevalent technique in the three stories analyzed, with 15 occurrences, representing 44% of the total ten techniques The remaining nine techniques account for 19 occurrences, approximately 56% Notably, techniques such as pretended agreement, pretended advice, innuendo, and ambiguity are absent in both The Tell-Tale Heart and The Black Cat, indicating no ironic expressions classified under these categories in these stories Specifically, The Cask of Amontillado features 17 occurrences of irony-creating techniques, making up 50% of the total for Poe's selected stories, while The Tell-Tale Heart and The Black Cat show similar occurrences of irony techniques.
9 and 8 expressions, equivalent to 26.5 % and 23.5 % respectively
4.2 Techniques for creating irony in Poe’s short stories
4.2.1 Pretended advice or encouragement to the victim
In "The Cask of Amontillado," Montresor feigns concern for Fortunato's health, suggesting they turn back due to the dampness of the catacombs, which he knows exacerbates Fortunato's cough This use of reverse psychology is a tactic to draw Fortunato deeper into danger Additionally, when Fortunato toasts to the dead in the crypts, Montresor insincerely responds with, "And I to your long life," highlighting his true intent to end Fortunato's life rather than celebrate it.
4.2.2 Pretended agreement with the victim
As Fortunato descends into the catacomb, he dismisses his cough, assuring Montresor that it poses no threat to his life Montresor's response, "True—true," reveals his sinister awareness of Fortunato's impending doom, highlighting that his agreement serves only to fulfill his vengeful intentions.
In Edgar Allan Poe's "The Tell-Tale Heart," the narrator poses three rhetorical questions that highlight his perceived sanity: "How, then, am I mad?" "Ha! would a madman have been so wise as this?" and "I smiled, for what had I to fear?" Despite his insistence on his rationality, the more he reveals about himself, the more evident his madness becomes to the readers.
Poe uses several words and phrases from other languages for effect in―The Cask of
Amontillado‖ ―Nemo me impune lacessit‖ (94-96, p.4) is a Latin phrase meaning
Montresor believes that no one can insult him without facing consequences He feels compelled to avenge an insult, which he perceives as directed at Fortunato However, Fortunato remains oblivious to the punishment he is about to receive, demonstrating his foolishness.
(4) ―You do not comprehend?‖ he said
―Then you are not of the brotherhood.‖
―You are not of the masons.‖ (113)
―Yes, yes," I said; ―yes, yes.‖
―It is this,‖ I answered, producing from beneath the folds of my roquelaire a trowel
(109 - 118, p 4-5) The above words mason are quite ambiguous in―The Cask of Amontillado‖ A mason (113, p.4) that Fortunato means differs from a mason (116, p.5) that
Montresor cleverly manipulates the word "mason," as he ultimately reveals his true intentions by using a trowel to entomb Fortunato alive This play on words highlights Fortunato's failure to grasp the sinister nature of Montresor's plan throughout the story.
In "The Cask of Amontillado," the statements made by Fortunato, particularly in lines (1) and (12), are deceptive, as he is not fortuitously encountered by Montresor; rather, Montresor's true intention is to kill him Furthermore, the Amontillado itself is a fabrication, serving solely as bait in Montresor's sinister scheme.
False statement is also discovered in the occurrence of (6) I loved the old man (7-
8, p.1) in The Tell- Tale Heart, the narrator empathizes with the old man, while planning to kill him
In Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado," the character's internal contradiction is highlighted when Fortunato responds with laughter, questioning whether Montresor's words are a joke or a reality This moment reflects Fortunato's shock and confusion, as he remains unaware that Montresor is not jesting but rather seeking revenge for past insults.
The character’s internal contradiction is also shown in (17) and (19) in The Black
In the story, the narrator's initial affection for his wife and pets reveals a stark irony as his feelings devolve into neglect and hatred Despite acquiring a new cat in an attempt to alleviate his guilt over killing Pluto, the new pet serves as a painful reminder of his violent actions, highlighting the complex interplay between love and hate.
In "The Cask of Amontillado," Edgar Allan Poe effectively employs irony by delving into the complex inner worlds of his characters The narrator, driven by a deep-seated desire for revenge, entombs Fortunato alive as retribution for an insult, showcasing the darker aspects of human nature Similarly, in other works, Poe explores the motivations behind violent acts, revealing the psychological intricacies that lead characters to commit such heinous deeds.
―The Tell-Tale Heart‖ is his obsession about his Evil eye, ―the eye of a vulture‖,
In "The Black Cat," the narrator's justification for murdering his beloved wife stems from her interference in his desire to kill the cat, yet these flawed excuses fail to justify such a heinous act Ultimately, it is the narrator's moral decay and mental instability that drive him to commit murder, highlighting the deeper psychological issues at play.
Overstatement is a figure of speech that contains an exaggeration for emphasizing the truth of a statement (Cuddon, 1998) The first occurrence of overstatement is in
―The Cask of Amontillado‖ with ―The thousand injuries of Fortunato I had borne as I best could; but when he ventured upon insult, I vowed revenge‖ (1-2, p.1) The
Montresor's claim of having suffered "a thousand injuries" at the hands of Fortunato establishes a seemingly justifiable motive for revenge, highlighting the theme of vengeance in the narrative Similarly, in "The Tell-Tale Heart," the protagonist asserts, "I heard all things in the heaven and in the earth I heard many things in hell," showcasing hyperbole that underscores the unreliable nature of the narrator Edgar Allan Poe effectively employs overstatement to enhance the irony within his stories, compelling readers to question the credibility of the narrator's perspective.
Edgar Allan Poe masterfully employs various stylistic elements to craft irony in his writing, with symbolism and denouement standing out as particularly impactful His deliberate word choice further enhances the depth of irony in his works, showcasing his unique literary style.
In Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado," the name of the character Fortunato, which translates to "fortunate" in Italian, serves as a poignant symbol of irony, as he ultimately faces a tragic fate This contrast highlights the theme of deception and misfortune within the narrative.
Montresor‟s avenge just due to insulting Montresor
The second symbol comes from the Item- symbol The words cask from the title of